UNEP-WCMC Library
Non-timber forest products in Uganda
Spatial tools supporting sustainable developnnent
Olivier Cottray, Lera Miles and Adrian Newton
h MM- ll UNEP WCMC aus^
Digitized by tine Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge
http://www.archive.org/details/nontimberforestp06cott Non-timber forest products in Uganda J3 Contributors UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3 0DL. UK UNEP WCMC Tel; +4/1 101 1223 2773 U
Fax: +W 101 1223 277136 Olivier Cottray Lera Miles Email: mfoOunep-wcmc.org OryxMapping GIS Consultancy UNEP-WCMC Website: www.unep-wcmc org
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The United Nations Environment UNEP-WCMC Programme World Conservation 219 Huntingdon Road Monitoring Centre lUNEP-WCMCl Cambridge CB3 DDL. UK is the biodiversity assessment and ^^fit/Wo policy implementation arm of the Adrian Newton
United Nations Environment School of Conservation Sciences. Bournemouth University
Programme lUNEPI. the worlds Talbot Campus. Poole. Dorset BH12 5BB. UK foremost intergovernmental environmental organization. The With the kind collaboration of Centre has been in operation for over 25 years, combining scientific Simon Bolwig and Jordan ITS Mike Harrison research with practical policy advice. Chamberlin >5> LTS International j^/J^p International Food Policy Pentlands Science UNEP-WCMC provides objective, ^^J^ Research Institute. 2033 K Park. Bush Loan. scientifically rigorous products and IFPRI ^""'^^'' '^™' Washington, DC Penicuik. Nr Edinburgh services to help decision makers 20006-1002, USA EH26 0PH. UK recognize the value of biodiversity and apply this l Sponsor Photographs Cottray and U Allis. except, front cover and title page far left. Heattier Anget/Natural Visions, centre, fwloclar Sacande: far right. Gordon f^ilter/!RF ® DFID 2006 . Spatial tools rORUSTIO" Rr^EAKCH PROGRULME Citation Cottray. Miles. L . Newton. A. 2006. Non-limber forest products in Uganda supporting sustainable development UNEP-WCMC. Cambridge. UK This publication is an output of a URL http://www unep-wcmc org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/18 htm research project funded by the United A Banson production Kingdom Department for International Printed in the UK by Swamgrove Imaging using digital technology on chlonne-free Forest Stewardship Council certified sustainably sources with water-based coatings. Development IDFIDI for the benefit paper produced from managed of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID ZF0177 Forestry Research The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP or contributory organizations The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions of Programme. any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the legal status ol any country, territory, city or area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation ol its frontiers or boundaries. Non-timber forest products in Uganda Preface Human wellbeing relies on our ability to exploit our dual objectives by Informing locational decisions, diverse and often fragile natural environment directing external support to areas with the greatest sustainably and into the far distant future. If there prospect of success. is no such thing as environmentally neutral economic This project demonstrates that powerful spatial grov\/th, there is certainly an increasing number of options analysis tools now allow the combination of relevant for sustainable human and social development. Such new social, economic and environmental data Into a common approaches are essential to the achievement of the United analytical framework. The results offer a strong indication Nations Millennium Development Goals. of the most appropriate sites for the sustainable Non-timber forest products (NTFPsI have been a development of NTFP harvesting and commercialization. particular focus of development interest in recent years. Such 'expert systems' can be made accessible to any The hope Is that forest-dependent people can gain new number of stakeholders, providing a truly participatory income-generating opportunities with minimal environ- and Inclusive tool for the sound management of our mental costs. Fruit, basketry, honey and medicinal plants common natural heritage. are just a few examples of economically and socially valuable products that can be produced from a sus- tainably managed natural resource base. To offer a long-term source of Income, NTFP production will still require careful planning, manage- ment and monitoring. Ideally, NTFP commercialization should raise the standard of living for the poorest Jon Hutton communities whilst protecting vulnerable ecosystems Director and their biodiversity. Spatial analysis can support these UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Contents Preface 3 Introduction and scope 5 Non-timber forest products and sustainable development 7 Spatial tools for sustainable development: the development domain' concept 9 Development domains for NTFPs in Uganda - Metfiodology 11 Distribution of the NTFP resource base 1 Protected areas 11 (Market access 15 Poverty 15 Development domains - Results and discussion 19 Basketry 19 Gum arabic 19 Shea butter 19 Dealing with uncertainty 19 Conclusions 25 Resource base and access rights 25 Income-generating potential and markets 25 Abbreviations 27 References 28 Non-timber forest products in Uganda ntroduction and scope The importance of natural resources in supporting from potential markets, or do not have access to rural livelihoods is increasingly being recognized appropriate forest resources. Tools are therefore needed in national and international policy. For example, that could be used to direct external support to those achievement of all the Millennium Development Goals areas with the highest potential for success. will depend on maintaining the environmental goods This report describes an approach to define where and services that are l Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 1: Forest cover and environmentally vulnerable areas in Uganda I — — 1 I I I 30- 33' 34-E 35- 200 33- 35" E I I _l_ Forest reserve c 0% forest cover Water bodies Game reserve 0-10% forest cover | • l^a|or towns | Important bird area |^^| 10-40% forest cover Source Protected area data 120021. provided by MUIENR. 2003 Forest cover data are based on remote-sensing data distributed Important plant area HH 40-60% forest cover by Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center. University ol 60-100% forest National park ^H cover Ivlaryland. USA (Hansen d al 2003'l Non-timber forest products in Uganda Non-timber forest products and sustainable development Uganda has an exceptionally rich and varied NTFPs explains their reputation as environmentally sound, natural resource base and a number of important people-friendly products'. protected areas hosting extremely high levels of If NTFPs sometimes fail to make a positive biodiversity (Figure 11. Agricultural productivity is low, contribution to sustainable development then there is a and Uganda has one of the highest population growth need to analyse the ecological, socio-economic and rates in Africa. In recent decades, political instability, cultural factors that determine the success of NTFP unregulated agricultural expansion and limited ins- commercialization'. NTFPs can undoubtedly provide many titutional capacity have contributed to a depletion of potential benefits to people and the environment, if natural resources across the country^. Sustainable managed carefully. Programmes such as SAFIRE solutions to Uganda's economic development are urgen- (Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources] and tly required if its natural resource base and biodiversity CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Programme are to be conserved in the future. for Indigenous Resources Project! operating in southern NTFPs. broadly defined as any forest-derived Africa have shown that conservation through use can be a tradable products other tfian commercial timber, have been realistic and successful option^ widely regarded as a potential meeting point between The purpose of this report is to demonstrate how conservation and rural development pnontiea''. Common development zones for non-timber forest products may be examples of NTFPs in Uganda include medicinal plants, delineated through spatial analysis, with an explicit focus on handicrafts, musical instruments, honey and light environmentally sustainable income-generating oppor- construction material. Their production is usually less tunities for the poorest sections of Ugandan society. These destructive than timber harvesting, and offers good people, by definition, lack access to financial capital, land opportunities for improving livelihoods as NTFPs are and labour, and have limited geographical mobility. generally easily accessible to the rural poor and little capital We therefore suggest that the specific NTFPs under investment is needed for collection, processing and consideration should fulfil the following requirements: marketing' ^ Several studies have demonstrated the T Be readily accessible to poor rural communities. The success of NTFPs in providing this so-called 'win-win' resources should be available in forests with communal solution to development and conservation'. Despite diffi- access rights (therefore usually natural or semi-natural culties in assessing the total economic value of this sector, as opposed to plantation forests!, and collecti'^n points the Forestry Department of Uganda estimates that as well as market points should be within manageable NTFP commercialization contributes UShs66 billion distance. While beyond the scope of this project, issues (approximately US$33 million) per year to national income, surrounding land tenure and its effect on resource worth 1 7 per cent of the forest sector's contribution to gross exploitation should be taken into consideration. domestic product (GDP]'. It is therefore suggested that 2. Harvesting should cause minimal environmental policies geared towards increasing the economic return of disruption. NTFPs will lead to an internalization of forest resource 3. Production should remain non-exclusive once com- values and an increased incentive for conservation through mercial value has been demonstrated, and populations local resource management. local to the resource base should retain the benefits of However, this assumption is controversial. Not all commercialization. NTFPs remain 'environmentally benign' when extracted on a large scale, and not all resources remain accessible to A discussion of the possible policy options to ensure poor, landless producers once their value becomes implementation of requirement 3 is beyond the scope of apparent to more powerful stakeholders'. The conser- this project (for further information, see studies such as vation value of NTFP promotion may be just as scale- Marshall etal. 2006 I. However, requirements 1 and 2 lend dependent as any other form of forest exploitation such as themselves well to spatial analysis. The methods by which timber harvesting or palm oil production. It may simply be this can be achieved constitute the main focus of this that the relatively low demand for, and low investment in. report. Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 2. Rural development domains in Uganda based on spatial variations in market access, agrocUmate and population density Population Market Rainfed agricultural density access potential Low Low Bimodal-low, Unimodal-low Low Low Bimodal-nned Low Low Unimodal-low Low High Bimodat-med Low High Unimodal-med, Unimodal-high Low Low Unimodal*high Low Low Bimodal-high Low High Bimodal-high Low Low Unimodal-very low High High Bimodal-med. Bimodal-high. Highland High Low Bimodal-low. med. high, Unimodal-very low. low. med. high. Highland High High Unimodal-high High High Unimodal-med Low High Unimodal-low. Bimodal-low High High Unimodal-low. Bimodal-low /Sj Regional boundaries No data District boundaries Lakes and waterways Source: Bolwig et al 120021^ Non-timber forest products in Uganda Spatial tools for sustainable development: the 'developnnent donnain' concept approach developed previous work by the Poverty is one of the main concerns of Ugandan IFPRIs policy initiatives today. Development and mainten- Center for Development Research (ZEF, Germany! which concept of ance of human welfare and capital is a fundamental has been instrumental in implementing the component of the country's long-term development development pathways. Development pathways are in farmers' strategy. The Ugandan Poverty Eradication Action Plan defined as common patterns of change and 2000 (PEAP) has set out four main pillars of action': livelihood strategies, associated with their causal conditioning factors . Pillar 1 : Economic grow^th and transformation factors may Pillar 2: Governance and security Many natural and socio-economic depend Pillar 3: Ability of the poor to raise incomes determine development pathways and these location of a particular study This a Pillar i: Quality of life. heavily on the specific view is replacing the blanket' approach of implementing policies at a national level irrespective of Whilst all four goals are linked, it is towrards pillar 3 that development Previous research on research into NTFP development might most directly con- regional and local heterogeneity indicated that certain tribute. More than 80 per cent of Ugandans are employed in agricultural development has factors are of agricultural activities and earn less than 50 per cent of the natural resource and socio-economic importance. In Africa, the most significant gross national income'. There is grovs/ing recognition ooth particular to markets and agri- nationally and within the international donor community of include population density, access these factors by the linkages between economic development and the cultural potential". IFPRI integrated 'development domains' spatial pattern and quality of the natural resource base. spatial analysis using GIS to map (Figure 2]. Sustainable land use is essential to economic for the whole area of Uganda domain is a stratified model of growth and poverty eradication in rural Uganda, where the A development identify which development vast majority of people depend on natural resources tor spatial parameters used to the highest chance of success in a specific their livelihoods. In light of this. USAID/Uganda asked the pathway has be used to Jelineate International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRII to area. Development domains can a given pathway or, in the case of this prepare a planning framework for rural land-use develop- areas within which of a given NTFP, may most ment, entitled Strategic Criteria for Rural Investment in project, the development successfully result in poverty reduction. The range of Productivity (SCRIP). It adopts land use as the unifying definitions in the literature^ the high number of factor to integrate agricultural growth and rural livelihood NTFP in Uganda and their wide-ranging needs with responsible environmental management, potential NTFPs found that a generic NTFP development including biodiversity conservation^ Land-use analysis resource base mean almost all of Uganda, making it of produces location-specific outcomes from environmental domain would cover policy-targeting fool. Our approach therefore variables (soils, landscape, climate, natural plants and little use as a product-specific modelling process, rather than animalsl, their distribution over space and their inter- adopts a set of generic parameter combinations to fit action with socio-economic factors (population density, computing a income distribution and Infrastructure!. multiple products. Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 3: Vegetation types and areas under cultivation 32°E 33'E r 1 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Development domains for NTFPs in Uganda - Methodology Development domains are derived from tine inter- maining natural and semi-natural ecosystems of Uganda . section of spatially distributed parameters within a It identified those which are most threatened, and where GIS. In its SCRIP analysis of agricultural develop- they are located, and considered how people might receive ment domains for Uganda, IFPRI used parameters identi- greater benefits from the remaining natural resources. fied as critically important to agricultural development in MUlENR's analysis is based on the 22-class East Africa^' ^'. These were agricultural potential, access to Langdale-Brown IL-BI vegetation map of Uganda produced marl^ets and population density. Together these represent in 196;+". There is no evidence of any major change in the a mix of absolute and comparative advantages in produc- classification of these eccsystems since the 1960s, besides tion found in different geographic areas. In the context of those identified as land currently under cultivation by the NTFPs, agricultural potential is replaced by the potential National Biomass Study of 1996 INBSI". So the L-B occurrence of species used in NTFP production. Market classification can be seen as a map of potential vegetation access is used as a comparative advantage indicator in a over much of the country'^ In order to highlight only those similar approach to that of the SCRIP model. However, data natural and semi-natural areas that may be accessible to regarding the effect of population density on the compara- the landless poor. NBS agricultural areas were subtracted tive advantage of producing specific NTFPs, rather than from the L-B cover (Figure 3|. alternative products, are not yet available. Two additional MUIENR researchers related the results of their factors were included here in estimating appropriate areas analysis to the 55 sample species by tabulating the likely for NTFP production. These were poverty distribution and occurrence of these within each L-B ecosystem class. A areas of importance for biodiversity. The following sections broad overview of which natural resources are to be expec- review these various datasets and their integration to ted where, and whether they are likely to be sufficiently derive development domains for NTFPs. common or extensive to justify any recommendations for further use, is provided. DISTRIBUTION OF THE NTFP RESOURCE BASE On the basis of these data, it was then possible to The base layer of an NTFP development donnain is the generate a database relating NTFPs to L-B classes via their spatial distribution of tiabitat classes associated with the shared species. This database was in turn linked to the GIS occurrence of species required for the NTFP's production. model described here, effectively providing an interactive This can be understood as the maximum potential mapping facility for the maximum potential resource base distribution of its resource base: locations where the nec- of selected NTFPs (Figure il. essary species may be found in the wild, or where ecological factors would favour their cultivation. Products were related PROTECTED AREAS to a spatial distribution of their resource base by integrating If NTFPs are to promote sustainable management and con- the results of two contributory studies to the development of servation of natural resources, their development should be IFPRI's SCRIP framework. appropriate to the protection level and conservation value of As part of SCRIP, an analysis was undertaken of a affected ecosystems. Debate continues about the relative representative selection of commercially valuable NTFPs merits of exclusionary conservation practices and the more along with their associated species, and the environmental inclusive and participatory conservation through manage- areas impact of harvesting was estimated^. Fifty-five species were ment' approach. We assume here that some do selected that displayed high potential for commercial NTFP require absolute protection, but that in many areas properly development as well as minimal environmental impact in managed NTFP harvesting might be appropriate. protected area (PA| sites exploitation. The term NTFP was defined in a broad sense In its study, MUIENR ranked vulnerability and includes products derived from trees which may occur in according to their conservation importance and fragmented woodlands as opposed to forests perse. This value was derived by combining several parameters lUCN-listed Data A second report produced as part of SCRIP by the such as areal extent, occurrence of Red protection and management by Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural species, and current level of or the Wildlife Authority Resources IMUIENRI aimed to characterize the major re- either the Forest Authority Uganda 11 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure U: Relational database structure for determining the resource base of selected NTFPs in Uganda Basketry Basketry Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 5: Protected area vulnerability and forest integrity index ~~r~ ~~r~ ~~r~ ~~r~ 30"E 3rE 32*E 33*E 35-E 33'E 34 E ?5 E 30-E 3rE 32'E I _J _1_ I I Protected area vulnerability Forest integrity index Forest cover Medium Water bodies I I Medium ^B ' Low I I Low I I Source: Protected area vulnerability derived Irom MUIENR 120021 Forest integrity derived fronn Kapos et at. 120001 13 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 6: Market towns and road network 1 [ 1 30-E 3rE 32-E Non-timber forest products in Uganda The highest-ranked PAs are least suitable for extractive use. class of road as the means of transport may vary widely They are small, already being exploited, or unprotected, from one NTFP trader to the next. The text on page 19 despite having high conservation importance'^. We used this reviews a way of coping with this sort of uncertainty ranking to exclude unsuitable areas from NTFP development Additionally, no distinction Is made here between domains. PAs v^^ith a high IHI ranking were excluded from products that are processed on site and products sent to consideration. It is assumed that in the remaining PAs processing facilities. We are making the broad assumption appropriate multiple-use zones can be implemented. In that from the point of view of the NTFP resource collector some instances these may already be In place. there is no difference between constraints faced when sell- In addition to MUlENR's ranking of protected areas, ing to the end-user (market) and those faced when selling we used a backdrop layer of forest Integrity These data to secondary processors. What Is more, a number of were derived from MODIS satellite imagery to give an NTFPs, such as honey and charcoal, are sold at the nearest indication of forest fragmentation In areas selected for roadside as opposed to town markets'". For these prod- NTFP production'^ (Figure 5|. ucts, a more accurate description of travel times would therefore be based on distance to busy roads. These finer MARKET ACCESS points require data or the processing and marketing The Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment" states that methods of specific NTFPs, information that could be distance to markets is seen as one of the most important acquired in future surveys. causes of rural poverty after poor health and disease: The resulting travel-time surface is illustrated in "...people living in rural areas, especially those Figure 7. Although the results should be seen as estimates communities distant from a major town, complained of lack at this stage, preliminary checks against actual travel time of proximal, frequent markets ... Local people cited long between various towns show that they are within the correct distances, impassable roads, and lack of affordable order of magnitude. They suggest that the average travel transport, especially In the rainy season, as barriers to time from any point In the country to the nearest market accessing markets. Women complained of time wasted town Is around six and a half hours. walking long distances, while men mentioned the transport This surface can be Integrated Into the development problems associated with reaching general markets In the domain Identification procedure to exclude areas too far town. While In other sites, local people said distance and from possible markets for NTFP production to be econ- lack of road access restricted the frequency of market omically worthwhile or feasible. The exclusion mask can be attendance, led to goods being damaged In motorized varied according to travel-time threshold values appropriate transit, and theft of profits on return from markets..." for the product In question. A thorough survey of appropriate This concern Is echoed In Uganda's Plan for Mod- threshold values was beyond the scope of this project, and so ernization of Agriculture IPMAI", which defines rural they were arbitrarily allocated according to the estimated infrastructure and market access as two of its seven priority market potential of the products under study Products sold action areas. in local markets were given a five-hour travel time threshold As an Input to NTFP development domain identif- whereas products sold on international markets (via ication, a map was generated to estimate travel times from Kampala! were given a higher threshold of ten hours. any point in Uganda to its nearest marketplace. The surface was generated using road and urban settlement data POVERTY (Figure 61. Roads were differentiated into five classes and an Most Ugandans are self-employed, mainly in agriculture, approximate average travel speed allocated to each class as where over 80 per cent of the population earns less than shown In the legend to Figure 6. half the national income. If NTFP development Is to benefit For the computation, points not associated with the poorest sections of society then attention should be roads were assumed to be accessible only on foot and the focused In those areas with the highest rates of poverty At associated speed of travel was set at an average of 1 kilo- the time of the present analysis, several poverty mapping metre per hour to account for difficult terrain and product projects were underway at global and national scales. load. These figures are based on best available estimates Further details can be found on http://povertymap.net. and travel experience in Uganda, but should be subjected to Here we use IFPRIs district-level data, where poverty more rigorous survey In future work. Additionally, the incidence Is defined as the share of households that fall Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAPl recommends the under a given expenditure-based poverty line". The data are promotion of affordable, alternative means of transport Illustrated In Figure 8 and show wide variations in poverty such as ox carts and bicycles for the rural poor. This levels throughout the country, with the highest Incidences suggests substantial variation in speeds on a particular occurring mainly In the north and east. 15 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 7: Travel time to markets within Uganda —I— ~T~ —I— —r- —I— SI'E 32'E 33'E 34-E 35'E 30*E 31'E 33'E 34'E 35"E I _L- _l_ -J— Travel time to nearest market town Within 10 hours Market town IH Within 5 hours Water bodies Within 1 hour 5-hour contours 16 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 8: Poverty incidence 1 1 1 1 1 1 30 E 31-E 32 E 33E 34 E 35 E Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 9: Intersection of ten-hour access layer with resource base layer to compute development domains for gum arabic Ten-hour market access layer Resource base for gum arabic Areas within ten hours of nearest market Gum arabic resource base Water bodies Water bodies Resulting development domain for gum arabic ^^^1 Development domains ,v.. .'I Water bodies 18 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Development domains - Results and discussion Three NTFPs were selected for this demonstration: might benefit from afforestation while offering income basketry products, gum arabic shea and butter opportunities for the local population (Figure 1 1 1. Figure 9 illustrates the intersection procedure used to define their development domains. The following SHEA BUTTER sections review the results for each product along Shea butter is derived from the nuts of the shea tree with summary information regarding related species, [Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.l, found in the savannah of distribution, market potential and environmental impact. eastern and northern Uganda. This information is derived from Baldascini's report to It Is used in Europe, Japan and Russia primarily In IFPRI (2002)°. cosmetics as a basis for soaps, creams, moisturizers, hair conditioners and shampoos, and also as an ingredient In BASKETRY chocolate products. Due to its extensive international Basketry products are one of the main handicrafts produced market a ten-hour travel-time threshold was used to in Uganda. The main forest or woodtand species used identify its development domains (Figure 121. Include raffia [Raphia farinifera (Gaertn.l Hylander], sisal [Agave sisalana Pern] and bamboo [Arundinaria alpina K. DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY Schum.l. Products include baskets (UShs2 500-6 0001. mats Research Into NTFP development and commercialization 000-20 lUShslO 0001, table mat sets (UShsi 000-20 000], is still In its early stages. However, it Is already apparent hats (UShs4 000-7 0001, chairs (UShs35 0001, tables that strict rules as to NTFP land suitability are difficult to lUShsiOOOO) and lampshades IUShs5 000-10 0001 (there define because of the large number of potential NTFPs, are approximately UShs2 000 to one US dollar). The the many methods of processing and commercialization, products are sold locally as well as more widely to tourists. and the number of stakeholders involved In, and affected A five-hour travel time threshold value was allocated for by, forestry decisions. What attributes should be taken Into development domain computation (Figure 101. consideration? Whose interests should be represented, and by what parameter values? As different segments of GUM ARABIC society (small-scale producers, owners of large farms, The main source of gum arabic is three-thorned acacia national authorities, non-governmental organizationsi [Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd.l although gum arabic can also often differ on what is acceptable, it seems desirable to be extracted from white-galled acacia [Acacia seyal Del.], identify and account for several sets of acceptable woman's tongue tree lAlbizia iebbeck (L.I Benth.l and conditions, representing the views of these different saman tree [Albizia saman F. Muell.l. It is obtained by groups. We suggest that explicitly accounting for this tapping or exudation, a process with minimal environ- uncertainty offers a realistic, if not a deterministic, mental Impact If properly managed. Gum arabic is used in approach to spatial analysis. Geographic error and confectionery, soft and alcoholic drinks, pharmaceuticals, uncertainty should be seen as an Integral part of human and in the printing, ceramics and textile Industries, it Is knowledge and understanding concerning reality Ideally, also used locally as an adhesive or as an Ingredient of information should include well-informed assessments of traditional medicines. It has an established international uncertainty™ rather than being presented at face value. A market, fetching up to US$5 000 per tonne. A travel-time potential method of achieving this goal, based on concepts threshold of ten hours was used for development domain such as fuzzy logic and Bayesian inference. Is briefly computation. introduced here. It Is suggested that further work be In addition. Acacia Is an excellent plant for carried out to evaluate empirically the usefulness of such afforestation of arid tracts and soil reclamation, and so an approach In Identifying NTFP development domains. planting gum arabic trees could serve the dual purposes of Fuzzy logic can be applied to the development of environmental restoration and Income generation. By environmental Indices to resolve many of the problems superimposing development domains for gum arabic on a addressed above, such as incompatible observations and surface of forest Integrity, It Is possible to Identify areas that implicit value judgements''. It can bridge the gap between 19 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 10: Development domains for basketry products within five hours of closest marl Development domains Poverty incidence |H| High forest integrity 70-90% I I Environmentally vulnerable areas Medium forest integrity 50-70% ^^1 I I forest integrity 30-50% Low I I Water bodies I i 15-30% 0-15% No data 20 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 11: Development domains for gum arable within ten hours of closest marl Development domains Poverty incidence ^^H High forest integrity 70-90% I I ^^1 Environmentally vulnerable areas forest integrity 50-70% 1^1 Medium I I 30-50% Water bodies I I t I Low forest integrity P 15-30% 0-15% No data 21 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 1 2: Development domains for shea butter within ten hours of closest market 30'E Non-timber forest products in Uganda scientific measurement and ttie fulfitment of social objec- BBNs offer a means of analysing probabilistic tives and provide a way to translate a wide variety of infor- data, through the use of Bayes' theorem. In particular, mation - objective data, qualitative information, subjective they provide a tool for inferring the probability of the state opinions and social needs - into a common language for of a given variable, given evidence about other variables. characterizing environmental effects. In addition, the In this way, they provide a valuable tool for exploring process of acquiring the necessary information to set up uncertain data. With respect to development domains, such a system is participatory by nature and contributes to many of the issues discussed above in relation to fuzzy a much more transparent decision-making process. logic could similarly be addressed using BBNs. Different Fuzzy logic is based on the premise that a forms of information, such as quantitative data, statement, instead of necessarily being either true or qualitative information and subjective opinions, can false, may have a degree of truth. Computationally, this readily be integrated and analysed using BBNs, by ex- translates into setting the level of truth of a value at a pressing them as probabilities associated with different number between and 1. Traditional 'crisp' logic only states of categorical variables. One of the main in allows for values to be either Ifalsel or 1 (true). In the applications of BBNs to date has been the develop- case of NTFP development domain parameters, for ment of 'expert systen;s', or decision-support tools example, stating that a certain species occurs within a incorporating expert knowledge, much of which may be given L-B vegetation type requires some sort of subjective subjective in nature. judgement as to the statement's truth. Typically, if there With respect to NTFP development domain para- are insufficient empirical data to compute probabilities, meters, the occurrence of a certain species within a given this will be resolved by expert opinion with a '0 or 1' type L-B vegetation type could be accorded a probability, with answer and any uncertainty involved in attaining this an associated degree of error or uncertainty, based on solution is lost in subsequent stages of analysis. available quantitative or qualitative data, or even expert Similarly, the threshold distance for feasible market opinion. Similarly, contrasting assessments of the access may be assessed completely differently by an threshold distance for feasible market access from economist using a financial cost-benefit analysis and by a different stakeholders could be explicitly analysed, tor producer balancing other priorities such as alternative example by representing the probability distribution of income-generating activities and family obligations. Both stakeholder opinion. As with fuzzy logic approaches, opinions have merit and deserve to be reflected interfaces can readily be developed that provide non- appropriately in the final analysis. One way of achieving experts with user-friendly access to the tool. factors this is to use the distribution of stakeholder opinion. BBNs have been applied to assess the Databases can readily be developed that provide non- influencing success of NTFP commercialization, and the experts with an interface allowing them to input impact of such commercialization on rural livelihoods, in their opinions. a research project funded by the DFID Forestry Research When this approach is applied to the various Programme. The project has developed a decision- layers of a development domain GIS model, each support tool to enable those NTFPs with high potential for representing one parameter, the result can be visualized successful commercialization to be identified. Further as a density gradient representing the level of truth or details of the project, entitled CEPFOR, are available belief in the suitability of a location to the development from the following website: http://wv™/.unep-wcmc.org/ of a given NTFP. There exist a number of fuzzy and forest/NTFP/. One of the key advantages of an approach that Bayesian algorithms for combining these parameters , trade-offs is that it seeks long- the simplest of which is a straightforward multiplicative focuses on addressing explicitly reflect (rather than minimize method as illustrated in Figure 13. Such a tool would help term solutions that land management authorities to appreciate and take or ignore! the diversity of views among the various account of the variety of opinions and standpoints that community, agency and technical participants . The domains resulted in the planning map. relatively recent concept of NTFP development affected An alternative method of exploring uncertain data and the wide variety of stakeholders potentially opportunity to develop is provided by Bayesian belief networks (BBNsl. A BBN is by NTFP issues provide a welcome truly grounded in a network of linked nodes, each of which is associated with decision-support tools that are in the a probability function. The nodes represent either stakeholder values and maintain transparency project might variables with a defined number of states, or variables analysis process. It is hoped that this pilot with a continuous distribution. The relationships between serve to demonstrate this need and generate new the nodes are represented by the links. research initiatives in this direction. 23 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Figure 13: Comparison of 'fuzzy' and 'crisp' development domains Accessibility 'belief level' Hypothetical probability of species occurrence [Hypothetical proportion of respondents agreeing that location 'X' Is within reasonable access of markets] Hypothetical proportion Hypothetical probability High: 100 KHigh: 100 Water Water Low: bodies I Low: bodies Fuzzy combination Fuzzy development domains for gum arable Crisp development domains for gum arabic Belief index High: 100 Development domains Water Water bodies ^^1 Low: bodies 2i Non-timber forest products in Uganda ConcLusions Geographic information systems IGISI provide a tool construct the development domain model, if one allowed for by which seemingly disparate data can be possible domestication of NTFP species in plantation integrated to show their spatial relationship and forests or on agricultural land. However, this highlights the reveal new information to support land management issue of resource access rights - the poorest sections of decision-making. This report has outlined a theoretical society are dependent on communally accessed land with GIS-based method to derive development domains for very little guarantee of tenure. Long-term investment in non-timber forest products. Development domains are tree plantations or forest restoration as a method of NTFP intended to guide development efforts by mapping areas domestication may be seen as too risky in comparison with of comparative advantage in the commercialization of a alternative means of income such as agricultural labour given product based on four major parameters: occur- Hence, as a prerequisite for understanding the potential rence of necessary species (the resource base), access to contribution to poverty alleviation, we need to answer the marl NTFPs. It eliminates highly vulnerable protected areas The assumption that people will be in a position to and signposts domains that coincide with high poverty take advantage of NTFP-related opportunities touches on incidence. It is argued that the successful commercial- issues beyond the scope of GIS models, such as gender ization of such NTFPs may help provide income- relations and the role of local elites and hierarchical social generation opportunities to the poorest sections of structures. However, combining the answer to the above Ugandan society while providing incentives for the long- question with spatial data on land tenure would allow the term management and preservation of environmental GIS model to highlight those areas within the currently resources. Although only three representative products selected development domains that also provide sufficient were selected for this demonstration, the method should security of access for investment in NTFP domestication. be applicable to any NTFP under study. A related point concerns how best to safeguard However, only a broad and prellnninary methodology natural resources from unregulated access leading to is presented tiere. The accuracy of the development do- overexploitation. Excessive harvesting of NTFP primary mains is dependent mainly on the accuracy or reliability of products may be just as damaging to the environment as the available data. Meanwhile, their precision is a function other forms of harvesting such as timber Sustainable yields of how many aspects of the problem we can represent have yet to be estimated for many NTFPs, but resource spatially - the more aspects we can integrate into the GIS management usually requires regulations or other agree- model, the more focused are the resulting development ments on access. A development domain GIS model might domains. To refine the picture requires several additional contribute to the planning of these regulations by com- datasets that are not available in this phase of the project paring the environmental impact of NTFP production with but are suggested in the following sub-sections as the focus ecosystem vulnerability The question that follows from this, of future lines of research. Additionally, it is argued that an and that requires further research, is: 'What environmental integrated GIS tool could be developed for use by land impacts result from the production of specific NTFPs?' managers and decision-makers that readily accounts for differing value judgements by various stakeholder groups. INCOME-GENERATING POTENTIAL AND MARKETS Such a tool would allow for participatory and transparent The available quantitative data on the income-generating decision-making by explicitly recognizing the uncertainty potential of specific NTFPs are limited. The theoretical and subjectivity inherent in land management choices. framework for research on this issue is largely in development and is complicated by the wide variety of RESOURCE BASE AND ACCESS RIGHTS products and services which could be defined as NTFPs, The model in this project uses data on the potential as well as by the various levels of processing that they resource base of NTFP species rather than recorded require. This makes cost-benefit analyses difficult to apply distributions. The data were derived from a MUIENR at this stage. analysis of the potential occurrence of species within L-B In this project, we based our market access vegetation classes. This would be a valid basis on which to analysis on a set of hypothetical travel-time thresholds as 25 Non-timber forest products in Uganda wett as estimated travet time by road category. Actual data woutd allow us to account for stakeholder opinions and could be readily available througli surveys and observation. However, ttie analysis would also benefit from a more quantitative computation of travel costs versus income potential. This should include factors such as quantity-to-weight and quantity-to-bulk ratios as well as market selling price. Such travel-cost data can be integrated into the GIS model in much the same way as travel time, and could additionally account for the nature of the target market. A product attracting an international market and high prices can be derived from a resource base further afield than products attracting national or local demand. GIS is ideally suited to represent such logical rules and can be used to adapt the development domain of a product to its market potential. This analysis requires information such as NTFP market prices, and the quantity-lo-weight and quantity-to-bulk ratios of an NTFP during transport. To conclude, this report briefly reviewed the merit in accounting for subjectivity and uncertainty in spatial analysis. NTFP market analysis is in its early stages and offers an opportunity to incorporate this novel approach. Interactive tools which allow for the input of various stakeholder opinions on all the questions addressed above and retain an indication of the resulting uncertainty throughout the analytical process can now readily be built. areas with greatest development potential taking all Such tools could use only that information which is relevant selected NTFPs into consideration. More importantly, they to a given stakeholders decision process or combine can bring the functionality of expert systems within the various stakeholder opinions; their output can display a reach and influence of non-experts thereby providing development domain for a single NTFP or can show those participatory and transparent decision-support tools. 26 Non-timber forest products m Uganda Abbreviations BBN Bayesian belief network CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources Project DFID FRP Department for International Development Forestry Researcfi Programme (UK) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of tfie United Nations GDP Gross domestic product GIS Geograptiic information systems IFPRI International Food Policy Researcfi Institute lUCN lUCN-Ttie World Conservation Union L-B Langdale-Brown vegetation classification IvIODIS Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer MUIENR Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources NBS National Biomass Study NTFP Non-timber forest product PA Protected area PEAP Poverty Eradication Action Plan SAFIRE Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources SCRIP Strategic Criteria for Rural Investment in Productivity UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNEP-WCMC UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre USAID United States Agency for International Development USfis Ugandan sfiillings US$ United States dollar 27 . Non-timber forest products in Uganda References 1. Hansen, M., DeFries, R., Townshend, J. R. G,, Carroll, M., African Highlands. International Food Policy Research Dimiceli, C. and Sohlberg, R. 120031, MODiiB: Institute, Washington DC, USA. Vegetation Continuous Fields. Collection 3, 12. Makerere University Institute of Environmental and Natural Version 3.0.0. User Guide. Available from: Resources [20021. Uganda Ecosystem and Protected http://modis.umiacs.umd.edu/documents/ Area Characterisation. International Food Policy MODUB_U5er_Guide_v3.0.0.pdf Research Institute, Washington DC, USA. 2. Bolwig, S., Hazell, P. and Wood, S. 120021. Strategic Assessment 13. Langdale-Brown, I., Osmaston, H. A. and Wilson, J. G. I196il. of Land Use Options for Uganda - Strategic Criteria for The Vegetation of Uganda and Its Bearing on Land-use. Rural Investment in Productivity ISCRIPI Pfiase /. Government of Uganda, Entebbe, Uganda. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA. U. National Biomass Study 119961. Uganda: Land Cover Stratification IVegelalionl. Uganda Forest Department, 3. Belcher, B. 120031. What isn't an NTFP? International Forestry Kampala, Uganda. Review^nV. 161-167. 15. Kapos, v., Lysenko, I. and Lesslie, R. 120001. Assessing Forest U. Neumann, R. P. and Hirsch, E. 12000). Commercialisation of Integrity and Naturalness in Relation to Biodiversity. Non-Timber Forest Products: Review and Analysis of FAG/UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Research. Center for International Forestry Research, Cambridge, UK. Bogor, Indonesia. 16. Uganda Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic 5. Marshall, E., Schreckenberg, K., Newton, A.C. ledsl 2006 Development 120001. Uganda Participatory Poverty Commercialization of Non-timber Forest Products: Assessment Report. Kampala, Uganda. Factors Influencing Success Lessons Learned from /Mexico and Bolivia and Policy Implications for 17. Uganda Ministry o' Agriculture. Animal Industry and Fisheries Decision-makers. UNEP World Conservation and Uganda Ministry of Finance, Planning and Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Economic Development 120001. Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture: Eradicating Poverty in Uganda. 6. Southgate, D., Coles-Ritchie, M. and Salazar-Canelos, P. 119961. Kampala, Uganda. Can Tropical Forests be Saved by Harvesting Non- timber Products? Centre for Social and Economic 18. Pomeroy, D. 120031. Pers. comm.. 2 October Research on the Global Environment ICSERGEl Working Paper GEC 96-2, UK. 19. Bolwig, S., Wood, S. and Chamberlin, J. 120031. A Spatially- based Planning Framework for Sustainable Rural The 7. Uganda Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment 120021. Livelihoods and Land Uses in Uganda - SCRIP Phase II. National Forest Plan. Kampala, Uganda. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA. 8. Baldascini, A. 120021. Income Generating Opportunities Arising International from Natural Ecosystems in Uganda. 20. Zhang, J. and Goodchild, M. 120021. Uncertainty in Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA. Geographical Information. Research Monographs In Geographic Information Systems leds: Fisher, P. and 9. Uganda Ministry of Finance. Planning and Economic Raper, J.l. Taylor & Francis, London. UK, pp 1-14. Development 120011. Poverty Eradication Action Plan. Kampala, Uganda. 21 Silvert, W. 120001. Fuzzy indices of environmental conditions. Ecological Modelling 130: 111-119 10. Ruecker, G. R., Park, S. J., Ssali, H. and Pender, J. 120031. Community Resource Mapping for Regional Land 22. MathWorks 119981. Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. The MathWorks Inc., Quality Assessment in Uganda. Center for Development Natick MA, USA. Research IZEFI, Bonn, Germany 23. Gregory, R. S. 120021. Incorporating value trade-offs into 11. Pender, J„ Place, F. and Ehui, S. 119991. Strategies for community-based environmental risk decisions. Sustainable Agricultural Development in the East Environmental Values 11IA1: 461-488. 28 Non-timber forest products in Uganda Spatial tools supporting sustainable development One path to sustainable development for forest-dependent populations is tfie commercialization of non-timber forest products INTFPsl. Fruit, baskets, honey and medicinal plants are just a few examples of everyday products that can be harvested from a sustainably managed natural resource base. This report describes a new map-based approach to defining areas best suited for NTFP commercialization. Uganda is used as a case study. As one of the most rapidly growing economies in Africa, its rich natural heritage highlights the conflict between national development efforts and the need for a globally responsible approach to biodiversity conservation. The report addresses the following questions: -I How can NTFP commercialization contribute both to rural poverty eradication and forest conservation in Uganda? J How do spatial factors affect these two goals? J Where do specific NTFPs have the highest chances of being successfully developed and commercialized? Q How can this analysis be refined in the future to give a more complete picture? This project demonstrates that powerful spatial analysis tools now facilitate the integration of social, economic and environmental data, in support of better decision-making. Such expert system' tools could be made accessible to any number of stakeholders, providing a truly participatory and inclusive model for the sound management of our common natural heritage. UNEP World Conservation