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Curated Conflicts Curated Conflicts: Media witnessing and representation in curated news coverage of the Syria conflict Holly Anne Steel PhD University of York Sociology September 2016 Abstract This research will address the proliferation of witnessing social media and the consequent emergence of curation for online news coverage. World events are increasingly mediated; acts of violence and protest are documented by those within the conflict zone, who transmit scenes and testimonies from streets to screens around the world. These witnessing media offer new opportunities for the ways in which conflict is covered in the news, with the potential to transform representations of the conflict and those within it. News organisations have responded to these developments through the practice of curation: content from across the web is aggregated and curated onto a single page in order to cover events in real-time. This thesis will critically examine curation as a representational practice based upon witnessing social media by focusing upon a case study analysis of the 21st August 2013 chemical attack in Ghouta, Syria. It draws upon interviews with journalists who work with social media at the BBC, The Guardian and Storyful, and qualitative analyses of three curated texts produced by Al-Jazeera English, The Guardian and The New York Times. This research will empirically examine the role of social media in the newsroom, the witnessing affordances of the social media curation, and the resulting representations of the conflict. I conclude that witnessing social media largely operate backstage to provide wider contextual understanding to the journalist curator, and offer limited opportunities for media witnessing for distant audiences. The curated text in this context reveals the ways in which news organisations have asserted their professional norms over the deluge of information emerging from the conflict zone. What results from the strategies developed to reassert these norms is the curated other, who is present and networked, but unacknowledged and framed with uncertainty within the space of appearance. 2 Table of Contents ABSTRACT 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3 LIST OF TABLES 6 LIST OF IMAGES 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 9 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION 11 INTRODUCTION 12 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 14 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND AIMS 20 THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL CONTRIBUTIONS 21 OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS 23 CHAPTER ONE: WITNESSING, SOCIAL MEDIA AND THE EMERGENCE OF CURATION 26 MEDIA WITNESSING IN A DIGITAL AGE 27 DEFINING WITNESSING 27 WITNESSING 2.0 31 THE EMERGENCE OF NEWS CURATION 40 CONFLICT COVERAGE IN CONTEXT 40 THE EMERGENCE OF CURATION 43 THE ROLE OF TWITTER AND YOUTUBE 49 WITNESSING AND THE NEWS 56 CURATED MEDIA WITNESSING 56 REPRESENTATIONS OF THE CONFLICT ZONE 60 CONCLUSION 66 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 68 3 INTERVIEWING JOURNALISTS 68 DATA COLLECTION 69 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR INTERVIEWING 78 ANALYSING THE INTERVIEWS 79 ANALYSING CURATED TEXTS 80 DATA COLLECTION 81 METHODS 83 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 91 CONCLUSION 96 CHAPTER THREE: CURATING THE CURRENT 97 THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN FOLLOWING EVENTS 98 IDENTIFYING EVENTS 99 FOLLOWING EVENTS 102 THE DECLINING NEWSWORTHINESS OF THE SYRIAN CONFLICT 108 VERIFICATION PROCESSES 112 DEFINING VERIFICATION 113 VERIFYING SOCIAL MEDIA 114 CURATING CONFLICT COVERAGE 122 THE GUARDIAN’S MEL 123 THE ROLE OF GRAPHIC CONTENT IN CURATING CONFLICT 128 CONCLUSION 135 CHAPTER FOUR: CURATED WITNESSING 138 CURATED NEWS TEXTS 139 THE GUARDIAN’S MIDDLE EAST LIVE 140 AL JAZEERA ENGLISH’S SYRIA LIVE BLOG 143 THE NEW YORK TIMES’ THE LEDE 144 CURATED TWITTER 146 TWITTER AND THE NEWS 146 TWITTER AND THE CHEMICAL ATTACK 154 CURATED YOUTUBE 171 YOUTUBE AND THE NEWS 171 4 YOUTUBE AND THE CHEMICAL ATTACK 174 CONCLUSION 190 CHAPTER FIVE: THE CURATED OTHER 194 FRAMING SYRIA THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA 195 ‘ACTIVISTS’, ‘REBELS’ AND THE UNACKNOWLEDGED OTHER 195 CURATED VOICES 200 LANGUAGE BARRIERS IN THE NEWSROOM 201 TRANSLATION IN THE CURATED TEXT 207 NETWORKED DEATH AND GRAPHIC VIOLENCE 212 DEFERRING VIOLENCE 213 PROXIMITIES TO PAIN 218 CONCLUSION 225 CONCLUSION 228 ANSWERING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS 228 HOW DO SOCIAL MEDIA SHAPE THE WAYS IN WHICH JOURNALISTS CURATE EVENTS WITHIN THE CONFLICT ZONE? 229 WHAT ARE THE WITNESSING AFFORDANCES OF SOCIAL MEDIA WITHIN THE CURATED COVERAGE? 233 HOW ARE REPRESENTATIONS OF EVENTS AND PEOPLE WITHIN THE ZONE OF CONFLICT SHAPED BY CURATION? 236 ORIGINALITY OF THE THESIS 238 CURATION AS A REPRESENTATIONAL PRACTICE 239 SOCIAL MEDIA AND SYRIA 241 LIMITS OF THE RESEARCH AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 242 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS 244 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 249 ABBREVIATIONS 250 BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 5 List of Tables Table 1: Uses of social media for those interviewed at the BBC, The Guardian and Storyful ......................................................................... 98 Table 2: Users featured more than twice in The Guardian's MEL embedded Twitter content ................................................................................. 150 Table 3: Themes from the The Guardian's MEL embedded Twitter content .......................................................................................................... 151 Table 4: Users featured more than once in AJE's SLB embedded Twitter content .............................................................................................. 152 Table 5: Themes from AJE's SLB embedded Twitter content ................... 152 Table 6: Total themes from the YouTube videos embedded across the three organisations .................................................................................... 173 Table 7: Sample themes from the YouTube videos embedded across the three organisations ........................................................................... 174 Table 8: Categories of social media framing in the curated texts ............. 197 Table 9: Summary of the appearance of graphic content ........................ 219 6 List of Images Image 1: From NYT’s The Lede, 21st August 2013; the message displayed when embedded YouTube content is no longer available as the user has changed the settings for the content to private .......................... 83 Image 2: Headline from The Guardian's MEL, 21st August 2013, at the time of sampling ....................................................................................... 142 Image 3: Headline from The Guardian's MEL, 21st August 2013, in its current format .................................................................................. 142 Image 4: Homepage for AJE's SLB, August 2013 ....................................... 144 Image 5: Headline from NYT’s The Lede, 21st August 2013 ..................... 145 Image 6: Embedded Twitter content and framing from NYT's The Lede, 21st August 2013 ...................................................................................... 153 Image 7: Embedded Twitter content and frame from AJE’s SLB, September 2013 .................................................................................................. 155 Image 8: Embedded Twitter content and framing on The Guardian’s MEL, 29th August 2013 .............................................................................. 156 Image 9: Embedded Twitter content and framing on AJE’s SLB, September 2013 .................................................................................................. 157 Image 10: Embedded Twitter content and framing on The Guardian’s MEL, 21st August 2013 .............................................................................. 159 Image 11: Embedded Twitter content, framing and follow-up timeline entry from The Guardian’s MEL, 28th August 2013 ................................... 161 Image 12: Embedded Twitter content and framing on The Guardian’s MEL, 29th August 2013 .............................................................................. 164 Image 13: Embedded Twitter content and framing on The Guardian's MEL, 27th August 2013 .............................................................................. 165 Image 14: Embedded Twitter content and framing on The Guardian's MEL, 26th August 2013 .............................................................................. 166 7 Image 15: Embedded Twitter content and framing on The Guardian’s MEL, 3rd September 2013 ......................................................................... 168 Image 16: [Translated] 'Aviation bombed the town of Zabadani 18/8/2013' posted by user AlZabadani Mediaoffice on 18th August 2013; embedded on AJE’s SLB, August 2013 ............................................. 176 Image 17: [Translated] "A chemical examination of the missiles before the UN Commission on Medmah Sham 26 8 2013" posted by user mrkzmoadamia alsham on 26th August 2013; embedded on NYT’s The Lede, 26th August 2013 ................................................................... 181 Image 18: Logo for media-produced by group Erbin City, embedded on NYT’s The Lede, 21st August 2013 .................................................... 188 8 Acknowledgements I would firstly like to thank Brian Loader, who has not only supervised this PhD, but will have supervised three of my theses over the course of the last decade. During this time, he has followed me on my tangents and guided me back to the task in hand, and along the way he has helped me to become the writer and researcher I am today. I am eternally grateful for his generous spirit and guidance throughout this journey. I would also like to extend my warmest thanks to Sharon Macdonald, who has been a
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