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Al Jazeera's Expansion: News Media Moments and Growth in Australia Al Jazeera’s Expansion: News Media Moments and Growth in Australia PhD thesis by publication, 2017 Scott Bridges Institute of Governance and Policy Analysis University of Canberra ABSTRACT Al Jazeera was launched in 1996 by the government of Qatar as a small terrestrial news channel. In 2016 it is a global media company broadcasting news, sport and entertainment around the world in multiple languages. Devised as an outward- looking news organisation by the small nation’s then new emir, Al Jazeera was, and is, a key part of a larger soft diplomatic and brand-building project — through Al Jazeera, Qatar projects a liberal face to the world and exerts influence in regional and global affairs. Expansion is central to Al Jazeera’s mission as its soft diplomatic goals are only achieved through its audience being put to work on behalf of the state benefactor, much as a commercial broadcaster’s profit is achieved through its audience being put to work on behalf of advertisers. This thesis focuses on Al Jazeera English’s non-conventional expansion into the Australian market, helped along as it was by the channel’s turning point coverage of the 2011 Egyptian protests. This so-called “moment” attracted critical and popular acclaim for the network, especially in markets where there was still widespread suspicion about the Arab network, and it coincided with Al Jazeera’s signing of reciprocal broadcast agreements with the Australian public broadcasters. Through these deals, Al Jazeera has experienced the most success with building a broadcast audience in Australia. After unpacking Al Jazeera English’s Egyptian Revolution “moment”, and problematising the concept, this thesis seeks to formulate a theoretical framework for a news media turning point. It then examines in detail Al Jazeera’s presence in Australia and relationship with the public broadcasters. i CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP OF THESIS Except where clearly acknowledged in footnotes, quotations and the bibliography, I certify that I am the sole author of the thesis submitted today entitled – Al Jazeera’s Expansion: News Media Moments and Growth in Australia I further certify that to the best of my knowledge the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. The material in the thesis has not been the basis of an award of any other degree or diploma except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis. The thesis complies with University requirements for a thesis as set out in the Examination of Higher Degree by Research Theses Policy. Refer to: http://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/current-research-students/hdr- policy-and-procedures iii CONTENTS Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………… i Certificate of authorship of thesis …………………………………………………… iii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………….. xi Preface ………………………………………………………………………………….…………... xiii 1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 • Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………. 1 • Research Questions …………………………………………………………… 3 • Structure of introduction …………………………………………………… 4 • Al Jazeera’s history ……………………………………………………………………….. 5 • Qatar ……………………………………………………………………………….. 5 • Traditional Arab media ……………………………………………………… 7 • Al Jazeera’s launch ……………………………………………………………. 8 • Why Al Jazeera? ……………………………………………………………….. 11 • Editorial control ……………………………………………………………….. 13 • Al Jazeera’s effect ……………………………………………………………… 15 • Al Jazeera’s expansion ………………………………………………………. 16 • Satellite, cable, terrestrial ………………………………………… 17 • Al Jazeera news franchises ………………………………………. 18 • Secondary expansion ………………………………………………. 21 • Online ……………………………………………………………………. 22 • Theoretical context ……………………………………………………………………….. 23 • Eyes and ears …………………………………………………………………… 23 • Contra-flow ……………………………………………………………………… 24 • Agency …………………………………………………………………………….. 26 • Post-broadcast …………………………………………………………………. 28 • Credibility ……………………………………………………………………….. 30 • Structure of thesis ………………………………………………………………………… 31 v 2. Methodology and methods ………………………………………………………... 35 • Methodology and methods …………………………………………………………… 35 • Notes on 18 Days: Al Jazeera English and the Egyptian Revolution ……………………………………………………………………… 36 • Notes on Moments: a Heuristic for Understanding News Media Turning Points ……………………………………………………… 40 • Notes on Al Jazeera in Australia and Al Jazeera and the Australian Public Broadcasters ………………………………………... 41 3. 18 Days: Al Jazeera and the Egyptian Revolution ……………………. 43 • Preface …………………………………………………………………………………..…… 45 • Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….. 47 • Chapter 1: A noisy matchbox ………………………………………………………… 55 • Al Jazeera English …………………………………………………………… 61 • Chapter 2: Where is Al Jazeera? ……………………………………………………. 73 • Deploying ……………………………………………………………………….. 80 • Chapter 3: The Day of Rage ………………………………………………………….. 89 • The first hour ………………………………………………………………….. 96 • Urban warfare ………………………………………………………………… 107 • Raided …………………………………………………………………………… 118 • Egypt burns …………………………………………………………………… 126 • Mubarak speaks ……………………………………………………………… 136 • Chapter 4: Owning the story ………………………………………………………… 143 • Sunday 30 January …………………………………………………………. 160 • Monday 31 January ………………………………………………………… 178 • Chapter 5: The million man march ………………………………………………. 189 • Darkness falls ………………………………………………………………… 202 • Chapter 6: Day of the camels ……………………………………………………….. 219 • Charge …………………………………………………………………………… 228 • The long night ……………………………………………………………….. 237 • Chapter 7: Day of departure ………………………………………………………… 247 • Evacuated ……………………………………………………………………... 252 vi • Chapter 8: Reporting the revolution …………………………………………….. 261 • Doha …………………………………………………………………………….. 269 • Bias ………………………………………………………………………………. 278 • Chapter 9: Endgame …………………………………………………………………… 289 • The final Friday ……………………………………………………………... 305 • Waiving the office ………………………………………………………….. 311 • Chapter 10: Egypt’s legacy ………………………………………………………….. 333 • 18 days …………………………………………………………………………. 345 4. Moments: A Heuristic for Analysing News Media Turning Points ………………………………………………………………………….. 349 • Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………. 350 • Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………… 351 • Methodology …………………………………………………………………………….. 354 • Defining a news media moment ………………………………………………….. 355 • A heuristic for analysing news media moments ……………………………. 356 • Character ……………………………………………………………………… 357 • Cause …………………………………………………………………………… 357 • Consequence ………………………………………………………………… 358 • Al Jazeera English’s moment ……………………………………………………… 359 • Character ……………………………………………………………………... 359 • Cause …………………………………………………………………………… 360 • Consequence ………………………………………………………………… 363 • CNN’s moment vs. Al Jazeera English’s moment …………………………. 364 • Character …………………………………………………………………….. 364 • Cause …………………………………………………………………………... 365 • Consequence ………………………………………………………………… 366 • Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………….. 367 • Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………….. 368 • References ……………………………………………………………………………….. 370 5. Al Jazeera in Australia …………………………………………………………….. 375 • Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………… 376 vii • Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….. 376 • Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………. 377 • Al Jazeera’s history …………………………………………………………………… 377 • AJE …………………………………………………………………………….. 379 • Al Jazeera’s expansion ………………………………………………….. 379 • Al Jazeera on Australian televisions …………………………………………… 381 • The Australian public broadcasters ……………………………….. 383 • Television viewership …………………………………………………… 384 • Al Jazeera English online ………………………………………………………….. 385 • Al Jazeera English’s strategy in Australia …………………………………… 386 • Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………. 387 • Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. 389 • References ………………………………………………………………………………. 390 6. Al Jazeera and the Australian Public Broadcasters …………….. 393 • Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….. 394 • Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………. 395 • The Australian public broadcasters …………………………………………… 396 • Methodology …………………………………………………………………………... 397 • Results ……………………………………………………………………………………. 398 • The ABC’s agreement with AJE …………………………………….. 398 • SBS’s agreement with AJE ……………………………………………. 399 • Content analysis: how the ABC and SBS use AJE content… 400 • ABC News24’s use of AJE content ………………………………… 403 • ABC NewsRadio’s use of AJE content ……………………………. 404 • SBS World News’s use of AJE content …………………………… 405 • Al Jazeera’s reception in Australia ………………………………… 406 • Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………. 408 • Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………… 409 • References ……………………………………………………………………………… 410 7. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………. 415 • Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………… 416 viii • Al Jazeera English’s moment …………………………….. 417 • News media moments ………………………………………. 418 • Al Jazeera’s expansion in Australia ……………………. 419 • Al Jazeera as a tool of the state of Qatar ………………………. 422 • Further research ……………………………………………………………………. 423 • Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………. 424 Consolidated references ………………………………………………………….. 427 Appendices A: Letter from Charlotte Harper, Publisher of 18 Days, Editia …… 459 B: How Al Jazeera took on the (English speaking) world …………… 461 C: America could be Al Jazeera’s final frontier …………………………. 473 D: Al Jazeera’s troubled history in Egypt …………………………………. 477 E: Al Jazeera to close in America: the future will not be broadcast …………………………………………………………………….. 481 ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I’d like to thank
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