The role of geology in the fall and rise of local Alex Maltman Abstract. has an ancient heritage and brewing was almost ubiquitous by the Middle Ages in the British Isles. It later became progressively more regional. The East Midlands had good waters, and barley from both the sandy soils on the Sherwood Sandstone and the fertile, clayey soils on the Lower Jurassic of the Vale of Belvoir. were grown in the heavy soils on Mercia Mudstone of the ‘North Clays’ district, and Nottingham’s sandstone caves provided ideal storage conditions for the beer. Subsequently the water, especially at , proved ideal for the newly fashionable pale or bitter. Gypsiferous Triassic aquifers gave the water a perfect ionic balance for this style of beer. Moreover, the calcium sulphate allowed high hopping rates, and hence the development of the Export and India styles, now of international fame. By the 20th century, brewing science had showed how Burton waters could be emulated elsewhere, and the brewing industry became highly commercialised and centralised. The craft beer movement is now heralding a return to local values, including the importance of local ingredients, some of which show a geological influence.

Beer is often seen as the simple quaffing drink of the beer for sale (Unger, 2005). Beer was drunk with every masses, a contrast with the sophistication of wine. In meal: the consumption was something like two pints fact, in many ways beer is the more complex drink of every day, per person. Incidentally, the brewing was the two. One wit has pointed out that simply treading done by the woman of the house (rather like men always on grapes inevitably leads to fermentation and some doing the barbecuing today), although the brewer was kind of wine, whereas treading on cereal grains just usually named as her husband (Bennett, 1996). Some hurts your feet. Another has suggested that when Jesus things change little. performed the miracle of turning water into wine he In addition to domestic beer, any monasteries or avoided doing it to produce beer because that was too large estates were likely to be brewing hubs for the technically demanding. community, as were universities (unlike being major Beer can reflect local conditions just as much as wine, consumers nowadays). The of these times would and this can involve geology, to at least the extent much probably appear to us as rather weird concoctions. trumpeted in the wine world. This can be appreciated by They were based on whatever grains were available tracing the historical ups and downs of local brewing, at the time, together with whatever additives could be especially when related to the East Midlands. foraged locally. That didn’t include hops, which weren’t found in the British Isles. Geology had no role at this Ancient beginnings stage, but never again would beers be so local, and so Beer has an illustrious heritage. In the British Museum representative of local conditions. there is a clay tablet engraved with the oldest known Hops (Fig. 1) probably originating in Egypt, writing. It came from Mesopotamia and is over 5000 were being used by German brewers in 820 AD and years old – and it gives a recipe for beer. The royals their use spread rapidly across the continent. Their of ancient times drank beer, though they sipped it antiseptic properties were much valued, especially as through a straw. Also in the British Museum is the the importance of good sanitation in brewing was little beer straw used by the Queen of Ur around 2600 understood and consequently beers were prone to ‘going BC, made of gold and lapis lazuli, no less. It wasn’t long before waves of settlers from these eastern lands brought their to the British Isles, perhaps first the Beaker people around 2500 BC, then, possibly, the Phoenicians, and certainly Celtic tribes from around 500 BC onwards. After that, there was no looking back. Even the wine-loving Romans, judging by the Vindolanda tablets at Hadrian’s Wall, enjoyed their beer (and bought it from local brewers). And by the time of the Norman Conquest, the state – no surprise here – was attempting to intervene in its production and taxation. The local heyday By the Middle Ages, brewing was everywhere in England and Wales, with many people believing that drinking plain water was actually dangerous. It has been estimated that around one in 25 households produced Figure 1. The hops that are essential to good beer.

MERCIAN GEOLOGIST 2019 19 (4) 265 off’. In England, however, although there is evidence that hops had reached Kent by the year 900 or so, the earliest mention of their use is not until 1412, and at that by a German alewife using imported hops. The cultivation of hops in England didn’t start until around 1520, in Kent. It is as though the English were suspicious of the way things were being done on the continent… Centralisation begins Inevitably, beer gradually evolved to more standardised styles, and ‘street-corner’ brew-houses became less ubiquitous. At the same time, certain parts of the country became noted for their beers, partly through the suitability of the natural waters, though at first this was Figure 3. One of the many kiln caves in Nottingham. little understood, and because the preferred ingredients were more reliable. A case in point is the East Midlands, the well-drained sandy and coarse loamy soils overlying and some of its advantages lay in the geology. the Sherwood Sandstone to the north of Nottingham, for instance around Cuckney, and famously on the clayey The region’s water seemed very suitable for soils overlying the Lower Jurassic bedrock of the Vale brewing. There was plenty of it and it gave good beer, of Belvoir. In fact, the success of barley production in although it would be three centuries and more before the Vale was remarked on by several commentators in the reasons were discovered. And there was a ready the 18th and 19th centuries. supply of barley, which had become the mainstay of most beers. Today in Kent, barley grows well both on By the 17th century the use of hops in beer had the soils overlying Cretaceous Gault Clay and on the become the norm. They were probably rather anaemic sandier soils of the Lower Greensand, although the affairs in comparison with modern varieties, though it former siting is better in drier years (Lark et al., 1998). seems that, unlike some of today’s strains, they would Similarly in the East Midlands, the crop thrived both on grow adequately on clayey soils, even on land where little else could be cultivated. In Nottinghamshire the hop-growing area stretched from Retford to Southwell, and Retford itself developed into England’s most northerly hop fair. Lowe (1794) reported that the hop fields were “in valleys and wet lands not very valuable for other purposes”. The area was known as the ‘North Clays’ district on account of being north of the Trent and of the heavy nature of the soils, developed on the Mercia Mudstone. Another reason for the East Midlands acquiring some note as a brewing area had been around for centuries: the Nottingham caves (Fig. 3). Many of the city centre inns and taverns, some of which brewed beer, made use of the caves that were carved out below them (Waltham, 2018). Cut in the soft but stable Sherwood Sandstone, the caves were used for malting and brewing; one operation even advertised its products as ‘Rock ’. The cool, even temperatures they provided were ideal for storing beer: Tizard (1846) found the ‘old or vatted ales’ from Nottingham to be “truly excellent”. Some of the brewing within the region still centred on traditional sites such as those that had previously been abbeys (e.g. Rufford and Burton upon Trent) and some of the big houses (e.g. Osberton Hall). But by the 19th century a new phenomenon was appearing: purpose-built, mechanised breweries designed to brew on an industrial scale. They supplied the surrounding region, and thus made brewing less locally intimate. In the East Midlands, none of these more centralised Figure 2. Parts of the covers of two early books related breweries operates today (Pearson & Anderson, 2010), to brewing, both with authors that were Fellows of the although remnants of some later buildings can be seen, Geological Society. such as Shipstone’s in Nottingham (Pearson, 2010).

266 MERCIAN GEOLOGIST 2019 19 (4) The Industrial Revolution, and boom for Burton upon Trent This trend to regional centres of brewing was greatly accelerated by the advent of the industrial revolution, partly because of greater mechanisation but especially because of the improved transport links. Ingredients no longer had to be produced in the local area: grains and hops could now be brought in. The local agricultural production therefore had to compete with the rest of the country. Barley on the fertile soils of the Vale of Belvoir could compete, and at first the relatively isolated position of the East Midlands allowed the survival of hop growing. But when the decline did come it was Figure 4. Early beer transport in Burton upon Trent. precipitous: in the twelve years following 1837 the hop A major advantage of beers brewed in Burton was acreage halved, and by 1866 it was down to a mere 76 that they could accept high levels of hop additions. acres (Pocock, 1965). This not only led to a taste that balanced well with the New strains of hops were being developed, especially slightly sulphurous taste still known to beer lovers as in Kent, and the railways allowed them to be imported the ‘Burton snatch’, but, very importantly in these days into the East Midlands. The new hops had a high before pasteurisation, it made the beers more stable than bitterness and were suited to a newly fashionable lighter those from elsewhere – less prone to ‘going off’. But type of beer. However, they were prone to damp-induced what was it about Burton that enabled all this? There diseases such as mildew, and so preferred relatively dry was a strong suspicion that it was something to do with air, together with deep, free-draining soils. For reasons the groundwater, but at first no one really knew. And, like these (and socio-economic factors), hop growing of course, if the secret was discovered and it could be in the British Isles largely withdrew to just two regions, emulated elsewhere, it would be bad news for Burton. Kent and the Herefordshire-Worcestershire area, as is Brewers had long argued about which kind of still the case today. water is best for their purposes, for example whether In the latter region, lying in the rain shadow of the it should be from a pond, a spring, or a river. One Welsh Hills, the sandy soils derived from the underlying author specifically argued that well water should not Devonian and Triassic sandstones provided ideal depth be used ‒ apparently brewers in Burton hadn’t read his and drainage. In Kent, although hops had traditionally book. But by the mid-18th century, Burton brewers had been grown on the moisture-retaining soils of the Low become aware that their well waters had a high calcium Weald, by 1893 Whitehead (Fig. 2) was reporting that sulphate content, which presumably had something to in the “Bastard East Kent district…hops of inferior do with their suitability for producing pale ale, and that quality are produced on the heavy soils of the Gault this was due to the geology. For example, Tizard (1846) and Weald Clays”. In contrast, he claimed, “the finest wrote that “Burton ales principally owe their superior hop land in England, or, as some would say, in the qualities and uniform permanency to the nature of the world” is situated “on loams on the Thanet, Woolwich water there used, and which, according to the best and Oldhaven beds”. Nottinghamshire’s North Clays evidence, is strongly impregnated with this hardener district couldn’t compete with this; by 1885 the once- of water, gypsum or sulphate of lime; the principle famous Retford hop fair had ceased. geological feature of the place and environs being Although the new transport system, coupled with the described as a tolerably perfect gypsum, occasionally unsuitability of the area’s geology, virtually destroyed interspersed with carbonates”. Similarly, Muspratt hop production in the East Midlands it was, literally, (1853; Fig. 2) remarked that “as nearly every one at a two-way street. Beer was still produced there so if it all acquainted with brewing knows, that water which was any good it was now easy to ship it out to external contains a large quantity of gypsum – sulphate of lime markets (Fig. 4). And the beer was good. It seemed – earthy carbonates… is best adopted for his purposes” nowhere could produce a more agreeable version of the and he continued that at Burton “the geological new style of beer, paler and lighter than its predecessors, formation from which this water appears to emanate than Burton upon Trent. The style became known as is New Red Sandstone; in the immediate vicinity of ‘bitter’ or pale ale, or even, before long, ‘Burton Pale Burton there are large strata of new red marl, with a Ale’. Burton set the benchmark. The town’s brewing considerable amount of gypsum”. industry trebled in size every ten years between 1850 An obvious implication of this is that brewers and 1880. At its height, this town with a population of elsewhere wishing to produce Burton-type pale ales just 30,000 had 31 commercial breweries (Owen, 1987); presumably could simply add gypsum to their brewing a quarter of all the beer sold in Britain was produced water. Indeed, Tizard remarked he “would suggest that there. The was the largest in the world, its when brewers are compelled to use soft water, for want Pale Ale the single best-selling beer in Britain. of a better, they should impregnate them at second

MERCIAN GEOLOGIST 2019 19 (4) 267 Ion Effect on brewing Effect on taste Figure 5. Significant Ca Determines hardness, increases pH, Extracts fine bittering ions that occur in essential to many enzyme and protein compounds from hops brewing water, and some of their roles. reactions, stabilises sugars, reduces colour Mg As calcium but lesser effect; Accentuates flavour nutrient Na Does not participate Rounds out and accents flavour (in low amounts)

CO3 Precipitates out with calcium Promotes rounded malt flavour

HCO3 Strong buffer against pH fluctuations Allows greater hop use SO4 Sulphur is essential in yeast Promotes a dry taste and fermentation characteristic eggy smell. Cl Increases stability and clarity Promotes fullness and to an extent sweetness hand with gypsum, or with such limestones more easily The rise of brewing science, procurable.” And Muspratt claimed that he had added and doom for Burton upon Trent gypsum to some water and “the ale obtained from such artificial water has nearly equalled the renowned Brewers have always been ready to absorb scientific product of Burton”. and technological advances (Sumner, 2015), such as utilizing early thermometers and hydrometers, Consequently, for a time, a small industry developed and adopting the pH scale (which was devised in to extract gypsum from the Burton area, presumably the Carlsberg brewery in Copenhagen). And in the from the numerous mines and quarries around Fauld late 1800s there were two advances that hastened and Hanbury, and sell it to breweries elsewhere in the the end of the supremacy of Burton brewing. First, country. Brewing journals carried advertisements for ‘gypsum specially prepared for brewers’ use’ (Cornell, Hooper (1882) pointed out that simply throwing 2011). By 1866 was adding gypsum to its lumps of gypsum into water won’t do much because brewing water in London, and by the early 1890s Fox’s of their low solubility, which would be even less brewery in Farnborough, Kent, had a tank filled with in hot water. So he devised a mixture that included ‘gypsum quarried from the Trent side’. He reports that finely ground calcium sulphate and various salts that in 1904 more than 150 tons of gypsum a year were improved its solubility and effectiveness. He called being quarried from around Burton for use in breweries. it ‘burtonising’ the water, a term which is still used In Burton itself, the Bass brewery company had the today. Then Vincent (1878) introduced an improved balustrades to its offices made of Tutbury Gypsum method for adjusting the water composition. and in (Stevenson & Mitchell, 1955). 1891 obtained a patent along these lines. Second, it The question therefore arises as to why brewers became realised that it wasn’t calcium sulphate in kept building breweries in Burton, rather than use their isolation that was important, but its balance with a existing facilities elsewhere and simply add gypsum. number of other ions that gave a water that was hard The reasons may involve the prestige of a Burton yet of suitable alkalinity. cachet, the additional taxation incurred if additives Today there is a vast literature on brewing chemistry, were used, and the possibility of falling foul of another and the role of water seems well understood. (And law that restricted tampering with water. There must brewing beer uses an awful lot of water; according to have also been the problem that simply adding gypsum the World Water Organization (2008), from growing the to the brewing water can’t have worked very well. For barley through to getting the finished beer in your hand one thing, chunks of gypsum are not very soluble. takes no less than 300 litres of water – per glass.) It is

Figure 6. Typical ionic composition of waters from some major brewing centres, each producing a different style of beer. Home brewers can buy sachets of ‘brewing salts’ to emulate these waters as desired. Pilsener lagers (originating in Plzeň, Czech Republic) use waters with low ionic content (though balanced), hence additions are not appropriate.

268 MERCIAN GEOLOGIST 2019 19 (4) Late in the Quaternary, the River Trent built a ‘Second Terrace’ (Stevenson & Mitchell, 1955), then, after a period of erosion involving the gypsum-bearing bedrock, a lower ‘First Terrace’. Much of Burton’s water comes from the gravels of this First Terrace (Fig. 8). However, the breweries supplemented their water supply by drilling wells deep into the Triassic bedrock, which at Burton is the Mercia Mudstone overlying the Sherwood Sandstone. The latter is an aquifer of regional importance (and, intriguingly, in places hosts fresh water that is probably of Pleistocene age, at depths of about 500 metres among the deepest known fresh water Figure 7. Labels from around the world of two classic styles in Britain (Smedley et al., 2018)). Whereas the aquifer of beer, Export Ale and or IPA, both of which is largely of fluviatile origin, the overlying mudstones largely originated in Burton upon Trent. accumulated in a land-locked desert and are in places evaporitic, leading to them being somewhat saline and now known that the key ions are calcium, magnesium, highly gypsiferous. This is the key to Burton water. carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate and a few others, each The gypsum occurs as thin beds and nodules (with playing a particular part (Fig. 5) but also interacting anhydrite) throughout the Mercia Mudstone Group, with each other. but about 50 metres from the top the massive Tutbury For example, the water at Burton upon Trent Gypsum Formation locally reaches a thickness of 3 contains significant magnesium and a remarkably high metres and more (Stevenson & Mitchell, 1955). In sulphate content (Fig. 6). Magnesium sulphate, Epsom a well sunk for Burton’s Worthington brewery, just salts, was once celebrated for its purgative properties the uppermost 100 metres encountered 22 meters of (Harte, 2009), at one stage with people drinking up gypsum-bearing beds, some of which approached to sixteen pints a day of Epsom water – with ‘various 4 meters in thickness. And a borehole at the Peter funny results’. At Burton, however, the magnesium Walker brewery in Clarence Street (demolished in the is balanced out by the high calcium (though some 1970s) met a 6 metre thickness of almost pure gypsum capacious drinkers may not entirely agree). In turn just 12 meters below the surface. In other words, the the calcium allows higher hop contents, and while this vital calcium, sulphate, and related ions in the Burton could lead to the water being excessively hard, the high brewing waters essentially come about because of the bicarbonate content provides an appropriate buffer. evaporitic origin of some of the local bedrock. In short, Burton water has a perfect ionic balance for Returning to history, the growth of this new brewing pale ale or bitter, leading to a product with hydrogeological knowledge, together with an Act of unrivalled flavour. Parliament in 1880 (Gladstone’s so-called ‘Free Mash Furthermore, the extra hops allowed by these Tun Act’) that removed the tax on water additives, ions gave a finished beer with sufficient stability to meant that the Burton heyday was over. Moreover, withstand being transported long distances. Indeed, if it had gradually been discovered that broadly similar the grain and hop content were increased, the resulting water chemistries existed at some other brewery towns. strong beer would be stable enough to be exported Yorkshire’s Tadcaster also became noted for its pale ales. away from Britain – the origin of Export Ale. And if In 1890 Tadcaster had a population of less than 3000 the ale was brewed to be yet stronger it could even but had four commercial breweries, three of which are survive the long sea journey to the colonies in India still flourishing. The Old Brewery of 1758 was bought – the birth of today’s almost ubiquitous India Pale by a John Smith in 1847, who in 1886 started a new Ale or IPA (Fig. 7). Nowadays all this knowledge is brewery under his own name and left the old one to his standard in brewing text books around the world, but nephew, Samuel. And right from the start, the Smith there is usually little acknowledgement of the more regime at both breweries replaced the old-fashioned fundamental influence, that the ionic profiles come sweet porters with bitter. ‘Samuel Smith’s Old Brewery about because of the aquifer geology. Bitter’ is brewed to this day.

Figure 8. Simplified cross-section through Burton upon Trent. Breweries obtain water from both bedrock and surficial deposits, but both are gypsiferous and rich in Ca, Mg and SO4 and other ions.

MERCIAN GEOLOGIST 2019 19 (4) 269 Figure 9. Tadcaster, Yorkshire, made its name with pale ales affectionately called ‘Taddy’ beers; its hard, sulphate-rich waters came from the easterly-dipping aquifers (the Magnesian Limestones as they were once known, which are pale blue and dark blue on this map) intercalated and overlain by anhydrite and gypsum-bearing formations (contains map data from BGS).

The water at Tadcaster has a lot in common with undistinguished lagers, and mergers and take-overs Burton, though in detail the geology differs (Fig. 9). greatly reduced the number of breweries. It follows At Tadcaster, the river terrace deposits are insignificant that not only did the localisation of beer decrease still hydrogeologically, and the relevant bedrock is of Permian further but even regional identities became blurred or age, though formed in an inter-montane arid setting lost. Geology became largely irrelevant. Arguably the like the Triassic at Burton (Cooper & Lawley, 2007). later decades of the century were a nadir for brewing It comprises the aquifers of the Cadeby and Brotherton (other than in terms of financial profit) ‒ all a far cry formations (previously Lower and Upper Magnesian from where the story began. Limestones), separated by series of carbonates and Few British breweries now had much regional massive evaporites of formations such as the Hayton identity, and the number of inns, taverns and Anhydrite (or Gypsum) Formation and overlain by brewing their own beers – once numbered in thousands the Billingham Anhydrite. However, widespread – by the 1970s was down to just four. Brewing as extensional faults, together with disturbance due to any kind of local endeavour was all but extinct. The gypsum dissolution and collapse (solution subsidence complete loss of a great national tradition was looking of the ground surface is a major problem in this region) inevitable. The (CAMRA) have put the various formations in hydrogeological fought valiantly to stem the rate of brewery closures continuity. So these also are hard waters with a high and to some extent was successful. It certainly raised sulphate content; as Cooper and Lawley (2007) put it, consciousness about the threat facing this deeply the Tadcaster waters are “naturally burtonised”. historic heritage and heightened the public’s awareness When Samuel Smith’s recently considered selling of beer. And the Campaign’s aims did chime with a their brewery’s well-water in bottles, they had to abort growing revolution in taste that was breaking out all the plan because the high level of calcium sulphate over Britain, including a new notion of matching beer was outside the parameters allowed in ‘spring water’ with food, and a general heightening of expectations. A (Christian Horton, 2019, pers. comm.). These Burton- mood was growing for a change. type, hard, high-sulphate waters (Fig. 5), ideal for brewing pale ales, differ from the natural waters Craft beers and a return to local brewing of some other brewing towns, where very different Some British commentators of the time sought comfort styles of beer are produced. in the brewery situation being even worse in the U.S.A. However, while geology was clearly important There, in 1983 there were a mere 80 breweries in the in places like Burton and Tadcaster, beer as a local entire country, and 92% of the beer was produced product was continuing to disappear from most places. by only six of them. Moreover, many would say that Many breweries still had a regional identity, even if American beers of this time were indistinguishable their beers were sometimes being consumed far away in their lack of flavour, though perhaps Coors was from their source. Even if they weren’t strictly ‘local’ the blandest of all. But although it might have been beers, their provenance was usually pretty clear and tempting in England to be smug about this even more recognised. But even this was to change. dire situation, things were deceptive. You could still buy Bass ale in America, but it was brewed there and All change, and local brewing fades not in Burton. The Bass brewery in Burton was still in The 20th century saw great changes in the brewing operation – but now producing Coors. scene, which many would see as for the worse. There was no CAMRA or its equivalent in America, Among other things, beer became progressively but these were rebellious times among America’s weaker but vastly more expensive, mild took over youth, and increasing numbers were travelling abroad from bitter in popularity, eventually to be replaced by and experiencing first-hand Europe’s brewing heritage.

270 MERCIAN GEOLOGIST 2019 19 (4) Then in 1979, around half a century after Prohibition, on the soils in which they grew (Cornell, 2014), which home brewing again became legal. So it was America suggests that even if nowadays the nature of the local that saw the explosion of the craft beer movement. brewing water is usually artificially adjusted, geology A pent-up energy and creativity was unleashed. The is once again having some role. American craft brewers certainly had respect for Where the currently frenetic, no-holds-barred craft the classic styles of beer; IPA was rescued from near beer movement is heading only time will tell, but right extinction to become a mainstay. But in other ways, now it seems that in many ways, after a century and unfettered innovation and originality became a hallmark more of decline, local brewing has come full circle. of the movement. All sorts of ingredients were tried, including those available locally, so in a way this was References harkening back to the early days of brewing, when Bennett, J., 1996. Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women’s whatever happened to be at hand was used. Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600. Oxford University Press, 259pp. Motivated by this upheaval in America, and by Cooper, A.H. & Lawley, R.S., 2007. Tadcaster Magnesian Limestone Gordon Brown’s 2002 budget tax-breaks for small 3-D borehole interpretation and cross-sections study. Brit. Geol. brewers, a British equivalent erupted, and took Surv. Report, CR/06/256. 59pp. inspiration from the new, hop-driven American Cornell, M., 2011. A short history of water. www.zythophile. co.uk/2011/12/0 styles of beer. Thus, ironically, brews such as New Cornell, M., 2014. Place-based beer, a world-wide local movement. England IPA and California IPA are today on the lists www.zythophile.co.uk/2014/11/20 of many British craft brewers. But in parallel with Floy, S., 2014. Competition and oligopoly in the UK beer market: this, as in America, experimentation was limitless how do small brewers survive? Brewery History, 158, 35-71. and the movement, so far, has flourished. The number Harte, J., 2009. Epsom Spa. www.epsomandewellhistoryexplorer Hooper, E.G., 1882. The Manual of Brewing, Scientific and of British breweries has grown from 403 in 2002 to Technical. Sheppard & St John: London, 253pp. 2274 in 2019; the East Midlands now have nearly Lark, R.M., Catt, J.A. & Stafford, J V., 1998. Towards the explanation 300, including the re-born Nottingham Brewery of yield of winter barley. J. Agricultural Sci., 131, 409-416. with its ‘Rock’ beers, and have seen the revival of Lowe, R., 1794. General View of the Agriculture of the County of monastic brewing at Mount St Bernard Abbey, near Nottingham: With Observations on the Means of Its Improvement, Volume 4. Board of Agriculture: London, 128pp. Coalville. Beer lovers have always regarded the finest Maltman, A., 2018. Vineyards, Rocks, and Soils: the Wine Lover’s bottled beers as those that are ‘bottle-conditioned’ Guide to Geology. Oxford University Press, 256pp. (unpasteurised). In the 1970s only four such beers Muspratt, S., 1853. Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical and Analytical, remained in Britain; today there are more than 2000. Volume 1. William Mackenzie: Glasgow, 836pp. (This should, however, be kept in volume context; the Owen, C.C., 1987. The history of brewing in Burton upon Trent. J. Inst. Brewing, 93, 37-41. recent $100-billion-merger between brewing colossi Pearson, L., 2010. The Brewing Industry. www.historicengland.org.uk. Anheuser-Busch InBev and SABMiller means that Pearson, L. & Anderson, R. 2010. Gazetteer of operating pre-1940 this single company will be producing almost a third breweries in England. www.historicengland.org.uk. of all the beer drunk in the world.) Pocock, D.C.D., 1965. Some former hop-growing centres. Agricultural History Review, 13, 17-21. Nevertheless, those who are interested can now Smedley, P.J., Shand, P. & Butcher, A.S., 2018. Age and quality buy craft beers that reflect their local environment. stratification of groundwater in the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Many craft brewers attempt to source ingredients aquifer of South Yorkshire and the East Midlands, UK. Applied locally and try to operate with a local ethos. Craft Geochemistry, 97, 109-122. beer is notoriously tricky to define, but Floy’s (2014) Stevenson, I.P. & Mitchell, G.H., 1955. Geology of the country between Burton upon Trent, Rugeley and Uttoxeter. Mem. Geol. attempt in this direction mentioned that “craft brewers Surv. GB., Sheet 140, 195pp. engage in locality not only on the supply side, but also Sumner, J., 2015. Brewing Science, Technology and Print. on demand through involving themselves with the Routledge: Abingdon, 320pp. local community”. Tizard, W.L., 1846. Theory and practice of brewing. London. (www.archive.org/details) The notion of ‘terroir’ is an old one, but in recent Unger, R.W., 2005. In: Glick, T., Livesey, S.J. & Wallis, F. (eds), decades has gained much exposure with wine (Maltman, Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine, an Encyclopedia, 2018). Craft brewers are now making concerted efforts Routledge: New York, 102-103. to create beers that reflect their locality. Hence, there Vincent, C.W., 1878. Burton brewing water; a process invented by C. W. V.. Holmes: Leeds, 32pp. is much talk of beer terroir. At a 2019 trade show in Waltham, T., 2018. Sandstone Caves of Nottingham. East Midlands London, Susan and Judith Boyle explained how their Geological Society: Nottingham, 56pp. brews involve wild , honey from local bees, Whitehead, C.W., 1893. Hop Cultivation. John Murray: London, 46pp. barley grown and malted locally, and vary according World Water Organisation, 2008. Water content of things. www. to the season. Some breweries are now using hops worldwater.org, Table 19. grown locally, together with local ingredients such as Alex Maltman, [email protected] sea buckthorn, bog myrtle, heather, yarrow, and sorrel. Department of Geography and Earth Sciences Some believe the flavours of these ingredients depend Aberystwyth University, SY23 3DB

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