Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 1 of 33

Crop Protection Compendium

Selected sections for: Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Identity Taxonomic Tree Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature Description Distribution Distribution Table Risk of Introduction Hosts/Species Affected Host Plants and Other Plants Affected Growth Stages Symptoms List of Symptoms/Signs Biology and Ecology Plant Trade Notes on Natural Enemies Natural enemies Impact Detection and Inspection Similarities to Other Species/Conditions Prevention and Control References Images

Datasheet Type(s): Pest

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name Lobesia botrana Denis & Schiffermüller, 1776

Preferred Common Name grape berry moth

Other Scientific Names Coccyx botrana Praun, 1869 Cochylis botrana Herrich-Schaffer, 1843 Cochylis vitisana Audouin, 1842 Eudemis botrana Frey, 1880 Eudemis rosmarinana Millière, 1866 Grapholita botrana Heinemann, 1863 Lobesia rosmariana Noctua romani O. Costa, 1840 Paralobesia botrana Penthina vitivorana Packard, 1860 Polychrosis botrana Ragonot, 1894 Tinea premixtana Hübner, 1796 Tinea reliquana Hübner, 1816 Tortrix botrana Denis & Schiffermüller, 1776 Tortrix reliquana Treitschke, 1835 Tortrix romaniana O. Costa, 1840 Tortrix vitisana Jacquin, 1788

International Common Names

English European grape vine moth, grape fruit moth, grape leaf-roller, grape moth, grape vine moth, vine moth

Spanish arañuelo de la vid, barrenillo de la uva, gusano de las uvas, hilandero de la vid, polilla de las uvas, polilla del racimo

French eudémis de la vigne, insect du midi, tordeuse de la grappe, ver de la grappe, ver du raisin

Portugese trac-da-uva eudemis

Local Common Names

Bulgaria variegated grape moth (translation), variegated vine moth (translation) http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 2 of 33

Croatia grozdanog moljca

Germany Bekreuzten Traubenwickler, Bunter Traubenwickler, Gelbkoepfiger Sauerwurm

Hungary tarka szolomoly

Israel ash haeshkol

Italy baco dell'uva, tignola a bruco verde de la vite, tignola verde de la vite, tignoletta della vite, tignoletta dell'uva, tortrice dei grappoli, verme dell'uva

Romania moliei strugurilor

Serbia grozdanog moljca

Slovakia ovaca mramorovaneho

Spain corc del raïm (Catalonia and Valencia), cuc del raïm (Catalonia and Valencia)

Turkey salkim guvesi

EPPO code POLYBO (Lobesia botrana)

Taxonomic Tree

Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Metazoa Phylum: Arthropoda Subphylum: Uniramia Class: Insecta Order: Lepidoptera Family: Tortricidae Genus: Lobesia Species: Lobesia botrana

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 3 of 33

The systematics of the Tortricidae is controversial. The taxonomy used here follows Zerny and Beier (1936- 1938), Forster and Wohlfart (1954) and Horak and Brown (1991). Lobesia botrana, described from Austria by Denis and Schiffermüller (1776) as Tortrix botrana, has had a complex taxonomic history. At present, the species is included in the genus Lobesia Guenée, 1845, having been discarded from the genus Polychrosis Ragonot, 1894, largely used in the older literature. A laboratory-derived melanic mutant has been described, of which the inheritance is controlled by a single, recessive, no-sex-linked gene (Torres- Vila et al., 1996b).

Description Eggs

The egg of L. botrana is of the so-called flat type, with the long axis horizontal and the micropile at one end. Elliptical, with a mean eccentricity of 0.65, the egg measures about 0.65-0.90 x 0.45-0.75 mm. Freshly laid eggs are pale cream, later becoming light grey and translucent with iridescent glints. The chorion is macroscopically smooth but presents a slight polygonal reticulation in the border and around the micropile. The time elapsed since egg laying may be estimated by observing the eggs: there are five phases of embryonic development - visible embryo, visible eyes, visible mandibles, brown head and black head (Feytaud, 1924). As typically occurs in the subfamily Olethreutinae, eggs are laid singly, and more rarely in small clusters of two or three.

Larvae

There are usually five larval instars. Neonate larvae are about 0.95-1 mm long, with head and prothoracic shield deep brown, nearly black, and body light yellow. Mature larvae reach a length between 10 and 15 mm, with the head and prothoracic shield lighter than neonate larvae and the body colour varying from light green to light brown, depending principally on larval nourishment.

Pupae

Female pupae are larger (5-9 mm) than males (4-7 mm). Freshly formed pupae are usually cream or light brown but also light green or blue, and a few hours later become brown or deep brown. Pupal age may be estimated as a function of tegument transparency and colouring. For this purpose, Lalanne-Cassou (1977) differentiated 10 phases of pupal development, with the lengths of time indicated at 20°C and 75% RH: transparent eyes (>150 h), brown eyes (40 h), black eyes (24 h), complete appendix (24 h), silver wings (40 h), brown antennae (20 h), wing pigmentation beginning (5 h), incomplete wing pigmentation (8 h), complete wing pigmentation (22 h) and visible scales (6 h). The sexes may be distinguished by the position of genital sketches that are placed in the IX and VIII abdominal sternites in males and females, respectively. Moreover, the male genital orifice is placed between two small lateral prominences. When adult emergence is imminent, pupae perforate the cocoon, resting the exuvia fixed outwardly in a characteristic position by cremaster spines.

Adult

Adults are 6-8 mm long with a wingspan of about 10-13 mm. Adult size is greatly affected by larval food quality (Torres-Vila, 1995). The head and abdomen are cream coloured; the thorax is also cream with black markings and a brown ferruginous dorsal crest. The legs have alternate pale cream and brown bands. Forewings have a mosaic-shaped pattern with black, brown, cream, red and blue ornamentation. The ground colour is bluish grey and fasciae brown, shaped by a pale cream border; scales lining the costa, termen and dorsum are darker than the wing ground colour. Cilia are brown with a paler apical tip and a cream basal line along the termen. The underside is brownish grey, gradually darker towards the costa and apex. Hindwings are light brownish grey, darker towards the apex. Cilia and cubital tuft are greyish brown with a paler basal line. The underside is a uniform light grey. There is no clear sexual dimorphism, but the sexes may be easily separated by their general morphology and behaviour: as in the pupal stage, males are smaller than females, they have a narrower abdomen with an anal fine comb of modified scales (hair pencils), and when disturbed they exhibit movements more quick and nervous than those of females.

Distribution http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 4 of 33

The original geographic distribution of L. botrana follows a clear Palaearctic pattern. The presence of the moth in central Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea and Kenya) and eastern Asia (Japan) is surely accidental, and probably due to introductions by man. Records from northern Europe (Finland and Sweden) must be considered as incidental.

With regard to Mediterranean areas, note that the presence of the moth in Sardinia (Italy) has been clearly documented in recent years. However, the moth is no longer present in the Balearic Islands (Spain), the only record being from 50 years ago (Ruíz-Castro, 1943). The lack of available records from Tunisia suggests an unexpected circum-Mediterranean discontinuity, however it is not unlikely that L. botrana also occurs in this magrebian country.

Distribution Table

The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further information may be available for individual references and this is displayed in the Distribution Table Details report which can be selected in the Report tab of the datasheet.

Last First Country Distribution Origin Invasive References Notes Reported Reported

ASIA Armenia Present, no Vasilyan et al., 1978; Azaryan et further details al., 1980; Manukyan, 1980; EPPO, 2009 Azerbaijan Present, no Khalilov, 1972; Davydov, 1976; further details Abdullaev et al., 1986; Agaeva & Nuraddinov, 1988; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009; Parkhomenko & Kurvanova, 1986; Parkhomenko & Kurvanova, 1988 Georgia Present, no Dzhivladze, 1979; Abashidze, (Republic of) further details 1991; Kipiani et al., 1990; Chkhubianishvili & Malaniya, 1990; EPPO, 2009 Iran Present, no Rezwani, 1981; Nassirzadeh & further details Bassiri, 1994; Eghtedar, 1996; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Iraq Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Israel Present, no Ishaaya et al., 1983; further details Anshelevich et al., 1994; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Japan Present, no EPPO, 2009 further details -Hokkaido Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details -Honshu Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details -Kyushu Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details -Shikoku Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Jordan Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Kazakhstan Present, no Mazina et al., 1987; Nurmuratov further details et al., 1994 Lebanon Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 5 of 33 Syria Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Tajikistan Present, no Grichanov et al., 1995; further details Makhmudov et al., 1977 Turkey Present, no Kisakurek, 1972; Kacar, 1982; further details Atac et al., 1987; Zeki, 1996; CIE, 1974; Gunyadin, 1972; Iren, 1972; Otaci, 1972; Erkilic & Yigit, 1992; Atac et al., 1992; EPPO, 2009 Turkmenistan Present, no Tokgaev & Bergmann, 1985; further details CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Uzbekistan Present, no Nabiev, 1977; Atadzhanov & further details Dubrovina, 1977; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009; Atanov & Gummel', 1991 AFRICA Algeria Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Egypt Present, no Ali et al., 1978; Abdel-Lateef et further details al., 1978; Nasr et al., 1995; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Eritrea Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Kenya Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Libya Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details Morocco Present, no CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 further details NORTH AMERICA USA -California Present, few NAPPO, 2009; IPPC, 2009 transient, occurrences actionable, and under surveillance in the USA SOUTH AMERICA Chile Present IPPC, 2010 EUROPE Austria Widespread **** Glaeser, 1979; Fischer-Colbrie, 1980; Hobnaus, 1988; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Bulgaria Widespread **** Kara'-ozova, 1971; Kharizanov, 1974; Stoeva, 1979; Stoeva, 1982; Zapryanov & Stoeva, 1982; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Croatia Present, no ?ubic, 2007 further details Cyprus Widespread Cyprus Department of Agriculture, 1988; CIE, 1974; EPPO, 2009 Czech Republic Present, no Gabel & Roehrich, 1995 further details

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Risk of Introduction L. botrana should be regarded as a potentially serious pest on a worldwide scale for all the vine-growing areas that are presently unaffected. In particular, in the western USA L. botrana could occupy exactly the same ecological niche as Endopiza viteana [Polychrosis viteana]. L. botrana could be introduced as larvae or pupae on infested propagation material from the Old World, and especially on imported table grapes for consumption. Thus L. botrana must have a strict quarantine status in all countries still unaffected.

Hosts/Species Affected The host plants listed for L. botrana have been compiled principally from Silvestri (1912); Voukassovitch (1924) and references therein; Ruíz-Castro (1943); Bovey (1966); Galet (1982); Stoeva (1982); Vasil'eva and Sekerskaya (1986); Moleas (1988); Savopoulou-Soultani et al. (1990); and Gabel (1992).

Despite the wide host range recorded, grapevine is the major host crop in which damage is really important. With regard to wild hosts, Daphne gnidium is the major food plant. This species was thought to be the original wild host before the invasion of vineyards by L. botrana in the 19th century (Marchal, 1912), although this hypothesis has often been questioned (Bovey, 1966) and is still controversial.

Other hosts not selected naturally by females for egg laying have been tested satisfactorily under both laboratory and field conditions, constituting an adequate larval food; see for example Voukassovitch (1924) and references therein, including particularly studies by Dewitz, Wismann, Bannhiol and Lüstner; Bovey (1966); Stavridis and Savopoulou-Soultani (1998).

However, some crops traditionally assumed in the older literature to be natural hosts of L. botrana, for example, Medicago sativa (lucerne) and Solanum tuberosum (potato), are not in fact naturally selected hosts.

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Plant name Context Actinidia chinensis (Chinese gooseberry) Other Arbutus unedo (arbutus) Wild host Berberis vulgaris (European barberry) Wild host Clematis vitalba (old man's beard) Wild host Cornus mas (cornelian cherry) Wild host Cornus sanguinea (dogwood) Wild host Daphne gnidium Wild host Daphne laureola Wild host Dianthus (carnation) Other Diospyros kaki (persimmon) Other Hedera helix (ivy) Wild host Ligustrum vulgare (privet) Wild host Lonicera tatarica (Tatarian honeysuckle) Wild host Menispermum canadense (common moonseed) Wild host Olea europaea subsp. europaea (olive) Other Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper) Wild host Prunus amygdalus Other Prunus avium (sweet cherry) Other Prunus domestica (plum) Other Prunus salicina (Japanese plum) Other Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) Other Punica granatum (pomegranate) Other Ribes (currants) Other http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 9 of 33

Ribes nigrum (blackcurrant) Other Ribes rubrum (red currant) Other Ribes uva-crispa (gooseberry) Other Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary) Wild host Rubus caesius (dewberry) Wild host Rubus fruticosus (blackberry) Wild host Syringa vulgaris (lilac) Wild host Tanacetum vulgare (tansy) Habitat/association Viburnum lantana (Wayfaring tree) Wild host Vitis vinifera (grapevine) Main Ziziphus jujuba (common jujube) Wild host

Growth Stages

Flowering stage, Fruiting stage

Symptoms The following description refers to grapevine, on which symptoms largely depend on the phenological stage of the reproductive organs.

On inflorescences (first generation), neonate larvae firstly penetrate single flower buds. Symptoms are not evident initially, because larvae remain protected by the top bud. Later, when larval size increases, each larva agglomerates several flower buds with silk threads forming glomerules visible to the naked eye, and the larvae continue feeding while protected inside. Larvae usually make one to three glomerules during their development. Despite hygienic behaviour of larvae, frass may remain adhering to the glomerules.

On grapes (summer generations), larvae feed externally and when berries are a little desiccated, they penetrate them, bore into the pulp and remain protected by the berry peel. Larvae secure the pierced berries to surrounding ones by silk threads in order to avoid falling. Frass may also be visible. Each larva directly damages several berries (one to six), but if the conditions are suitable for fungal or acid rot development, a large number of berries placed around may be also affected. Damage is variety-dependent: generally it is more severe on grapevine varieties with dense grapes, because this increases both larval installation and rot development.

On both inflorescences and grapes, several larvae may co-exist in a single reproductive organ. Larval damage on growing points, shoots or leaves is unusual.

List of Symptoms/Signs

Fruit extensive mould internal feeding external feeding obvious exit hole frass visible Inflorescence external feeding frass visible http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 10 of 33

Biology and Ecology Extensive information on the biology and ecology of L. botrana has been compiled by Bovey (1966), Roehrich and Boller (1991) and Coscollá (1997). The European grape berry moth is a polyvoltine species. The number of generations in a given area is fixed by photoperiod together with temperature, acting on diapause induction and development rate, respectively. Short-day photophases (between 8 and 12 h) during the larval stage induce diapause in larvae that will be later expressed in pupae (Komarova, 1949; Roehrich, 1969). The moth achieves two generations in northern cold areas, and more usually three in southern temperate ones, although this general latitudinal pattern is often modified by the altitude-derived gradient and/or microclimatic conditions in a given area. Thus the number of generations has a broader range, reported as one generation in Romania (Filip, 1986) to four generations (often partial) in Spain, Greece, Crete, Italy, Turkmenistan and former Yugoslavia (Coscollá, 1997 and references therein), and even, unusually, five generations in Turkmenistan (Rodionov, 1945). As previously indicated, L. botrana is very polyphagous and the host plant could have a major effect on both larval survival and adult reproductive output (Stoeva, 1982; Savopoulou-Soultani and Tzanakakis, 1987; Savopoulou-Soultani et al., 1990; Torres-Vila et al., 1992).

Moth activity, i.e. flight, feeding, calling, mating and egg-laying, is principally displayed at dusk, although some activity can also occur at daybreak or at any time on cloudy days. Water availability is necessary for adults to reach their potential reproductive output (Torres-Vila et al., 1996c). Females are usually monandrous, but several physiological factors may enhance multiple mating (Torres-Vila et al., 1997b). On the other hand, males are largely polygynic (Torres-Vila et al., 1995). One to three days after mating, females initiate oviposition on grapevine reproductive organs. When L. botrana is strictly associated with vine and there are three generations, egg-laying occurs at phenological stages 17, 31-33 and 35-37 (stages after Eichhorn and Lorenz, 1977). Egg hatching occurs 7-10 days later as a function of temperature, about 65-75 degree-days with a 10ºC development threshold (Touzeau, 1981). Neonate larvae show a high level of locomotor activity before installation, called by Marchal (1912) the 'erratic stage'. Larvae have a considerable dispersal capacity and are able to reach reproductive organs placed around those selected for egg-laying by females (Torres-Vila et al., 1997c). Larvae develop the 1st, 2nd and 3rd generations on inflorescences, unripe berries and ripe (ripening) berries, respectively. Thus available food for larvae changes throughout the season according to the phenology of the host reproductive organs, and this may also affect to a great extent both survival (Torres-Vila et al., 1992; Gabel and Roehrich, 1995) and reproductive output (Torres-Vila, 1995). It has also been shown that the nutritional alteration of berries caused by Botrytis cinerea may enhance female fecundity (Savopoulou- Soultani and Tzanakakis, 1988). After larval development, pupation occurs principally on leaves in non- diapausing individuals (1st and 2nd generations). Larval development averages 20-28 days (about 170 and 255 degree-days in 1st and 2nd generations, respectively) whereas pupal development averages 12-14 days in non-diapaused individuals (about 130 degree-days; temperature summations with a 10ºC development threshold, after Touzeau, 1981). Individuals from the last generation overwinter as diapausing pupae from autumn to the next spring, located under vine bark or stake crevices, and protected inside a cocoon more rigid than that of non-diapausing pupae (R. Roehrich, INRA, France, personal communication). The cocoon reduces dehydration and weight loss in overwintering pupae, maintaining female potential fecundity (Torres-Vila et al., 1996a). The diapause inhibition process, still not well documented, is decisively regulated by mean temperatures of late winter and early spring (Gabel and Roehrich, 1990). Abiotic factors may have a major effect on population dynamics of L. botrana at all insect stages. In particular, temperature acting on adult and larval stages regulates female fecundity (Bergougnoux, 1988; Torres-Vila, 1996); adult activity and longevity (Bovey, 1966 and references therein); egg mortality (Coscollá et al., 1986); and pupal mortality (Torres-Vila et al., 1993). Temperature- induced dormancy has been reported in egg and larval stages (Tzanakakis et al., 1988).

Plant Trade

Plant parts liable to carry the pest Pest Borne Borne Visibility of pest or in trade/transport stages internally externally symptoms Pest or symptoms usually Flowers, Inflorescences, Cones, Calyx larvae No Yes visible to the naked eye

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Pest or symptoms usually Fruits (inc. pods) larvae No Yes visible to the naked eye

Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport Bark Bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Rhizomes Growing medium accompanying plants Leaves Roots Seedlings, Micropropagated plants Stems (above ground), Shoots, Trunks, Branches True seeds (inc. grain) Wood

Notes on Natural Enemies Predators and parasites are listed by Thompson (1943-1964), EPPO (1996) and Coscollá (1997) and references therein. Records have been also obtained from particular studies and/or local faunas: Silvestri (1912); Feytaud (1913, 1924); Voukassovitch (1924); Ruíz-Castro (1943); Geoffrion (1959); Kisakurek (1972); Kaitazov and Kharizanov (1977); Coscollá (1980a, b, 1981); Nuzzaci and Triggiani (1982); Zapryanov and Stoeva (1982); Causse et al. (1984); Dugast and Voegele (1984); Barbieri (1987); Sengonca and Leisse (1987, 1989); Belcari and Raspi (1989); Martínez and Reymonet (1991); and Marchesini and Dalla-Monta (1994).

Pathogens have been recorded after Feytaud (1924); Ruíz-Castro (1943); Bovey (1966); Deseo et al. (1981); Martignoni and Iwai (1986); Marchesini and Dalla-Monta (1994); EPPO (1996); Coscollá (1997) and references therein.

Most species listed (>95%) are parasitic hymenoptera. Despite the high number of natural enemies recorded, their antagonistic effects do not generally reach a satisfactory level in commercial vineyards. One exception is Bacillus thuringiensis when artificially applied as commercial insecticide. With regard to parasites, the use of Trichogramma species is presently being improved (see Control).

Natural enemies

Biological Biological Natural Enemy Type Life Stages Specificity References Control in control on Agrothereutes pumilus Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Ascogaster Parasite Larvae quadridentatus Bacillus thuringiensis Pathogen Larvae Italy; Republic of Georgia; Spain Bacillus thuringiensis Pathogen Larvae galleriae Bacillus thuringiensis Pathogen Larvae France kurstaki Bacillus thuringiensis Pathogen Larvae subsp. dendrolimus Bacillus thuringiensis Pathogen Larvae thuringiensis Baculovirus orana Pathogen Bathythrix argentatus Parasite Bathythrix decipiens Parasite Italy grapes http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 12 of 33

Beauveria bassiana Pathogen Larvae/Pupae Bracon hebetor Parasite Larvae Campoplex alkae Parasite Campoplex borealis Parasite Campoplex capitator Parasite Campoplex difformis Parasite Larvae Chrysoperla carnea Predator Eggs/Larvae Colpoclypeus florus Parasite Italy grapes Dibrachys affinis Parasite Larvae/Pupae Dibrachys cavus Parasite Larvae/Pupae Dicaelotus inflexus Parasite Dicaelotus resplendens Parasite Larvae Italy; Italy; grapes Sardinia Elachertus affinis Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Elasmus steffani Parasite Elodia morio Parasite Larvae Forficula auricularia Predator Italy; Sardinia grapes Gelis areator Parasite Larvae/Pupae Gelis cinctus Parasite Italy grapes Granulosis virus Pathogen Larvae Republic of Georgia Ischnus alternator Parasite Italy grapes Itoplectis alternans Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Itoplectis tunetana Parasite Italy grapes Malachius sardous Predator Italy; Sardinia grapes Malachius spinipennis Predator Italy; Sardinia grapes Microdus linguarius Parasite Larvae Phytomyptera nigrina Parasite Larvae Pimpla apricaria Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Pimpla contemplator Parasite Larvae/Pupae Italy; Sardinia Pimpla spuria Parasite Pleistophora legeri Pathogen Pristomerus vulnerator Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Scambus elegans Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Stethorus punctillum Predator Theroscopus Parasite Italy; Italy; grapes hemipterus Sardinia Tranosemella Parasite praerogator Trichogramma Parasite Eggs France grapes agrotidis Trichogramma Parasite Eggs brasiliense Trichogramma Parasite Eggs Portugal cacoeciae Trichogramma Parasite Eggs France grapes daumalae Trichogramma Parasite dendrolimi Trichogramma Parasite Eggs evanescens http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 13 of 33

Trichogramma maidis Parasite Eggs France grapes Trichogramma Parasite Eggs France grapes principium Trichogramma Parasite Eggs France grapes rhenanum Trichogramma Parasite Eggs Germany grapes semblidis Trichogramma telengai Parasite Eggs France; Portugal Triclistus lativentris Parasite Italy; Sardinia grapes Xanthandrus comtus Predator

Impact Yield loss quantification when larvae damage inflorescences (1st generation) has been carried out using several approaches: comparing naturally damaged and undamaged grapes (as inflorescences) by weighing or counting formed berries; artificial infestations with larvae; and damage simulation by direct ablation of flowers and berries (Roehrich, 1978; Coscollá, 1980b; Gabel, 1989). Most studies show a high compensation capacity of grapevine, variable between vine varieties, supporting the presence of one to four glomerules, or the ablation of 30 flowers per inflorescence, without significant yield losses (Roehrich and Schmid, 1979). In vineyards of eastern Spain, vines can even compensate for the ablation of 50% of flowers (Coscollá, 1980b). Thus it is generally assumed that grapevine is very tolerant to inflorescence damage, and it is usually recommended not to apply treatment in the 1st generation. Exceptions to this general approach are found in varieties having small inflorescences (Basler and Boller, 1976), and in northern vineyards where climatic conditions promote early rot attacks (ACTA-ITV, 1980). Damage thresholds oscillate in a wide range between 10 and 100 larvae per 100 inflorescences.

On grapes (summer generations), indirect damage is usually more important than direct, at least in the event of less severe attacks. Thus global damage may appear of little importance if it is evaluated exclusively as weight loss (direct damage), because greater damage is due to rot-derived reduction in quality (indirect damage). Larval boring in grapes may promote a number of fungal rots including Aspergillus, Alternaria, Rhizopus, Cladosporium, Penicillium and especially the grey rot caused by Botrytis cinerea (Fermaud and Le Menn, 1989; Fermaud, 1990). Grey rot development is greatly affected by both climatic conditions and grape phenological stage, the incidence of rotting being higher on ripening and ripe grapes than on unripe ones due to several morphophysiological and biochemical factors (Bessis, 1972; McClellan and Hewitt, 1973; Hill et al., 1981; Langcake, 1981; Pezet and Pont, 1986, 1988). In wine grapes, rot development causes bad flavours and bouquet, reducing the quality of wine. In table grapes, both larval boring and rotting cause high grape depreciation. Consequently, damage thresholds on grapes are more restricted, oscillating between two and 20 larvae per 100 grapes (ACTA-ITV, 1980) as a function of several variables including wine variety, yield use, risk of grey rot incidence, and control strategy performed.

Detection and Inspection Inspection of Grapevine Reproductive Organs

Inspect inflorescences and look for eggs on flower buds or glomerules. Inspect grapes and look for eggs or damaged berries. It is preferable to look for larval damage rather than for eggs, because detection of eggs is very tedious and time-consuming, especially under field conditions.

Corrugated Paper Bands

This technique has sometimes been employed to trap and quantify overwintering pupae. Bands are placed around grapevine trunks or primary branches, and diapausing larvae pupate inside. However, this method is only useful in the last generation, and its reliability is uncertain.

Light Traps

Their lack of specificity makes their use inadvisable when the adult trapping methods described below are http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 14 of 33 available.

Feeding Traps

These traps were largely used in the past before sexual traps were developed, but may still be useful in particular situations. An earthen or glass pot is baited with a fermenting liquid (fruit juice, molasses, etc.) and the scents produced attract adults which are then drowned; the population may be estimated by counting. Practical problems include irregularity in trapping because fermentation strongly depends on seasonal temperature, trap maintenance (lure replenishment and foam elimination), and low selectivity.

Sexual Traps

Sexual traps were first suggested by Götz (1939). Chaboussou and Carles (1962) designed traps baited with living L. botrana females, which became increasingly important for monitoring. To obtain a large number of females to bait traps, laboratory rearing methods were improved both on natural substrates (Maison and Pargade, 1967; Roehrich, 1967a; Touzeau and Vonderheyden, 1968), and on synthetic or semi-synthetic media (Moreau, 1965; Guennelon et al., 1970, 1975; Tzanakakis and Savopoulou, 1973). However, sexual trapping became more efficient when the major compound of the L. botrana sex pheromone, (7E, 9Z)-7, 9-dodecadienyl acetate, was described (Roelofs et al., 1973), identified from the female sex gland (Buser et al., 1974), and synthesized (Descoins et al., 1974). In traps, females were promptly replaced by dispensers impregnated with synthetic pheromone, which had essential practical advantages for monitoring. It has now been shown that the L. botrana sex pheromone is a blend of 15 compounds (Arn et al., 1988), but for economic reasons commercial traps incorporate only the major pheromone compound, which has a satisfactory trapping specificity for L. botrana.

A major limitation of L. botrana sexual trapping (as often occurs in other insect pests) is the lack of a clear relationship between the number of males trapped and the damage done by their offspring, given the high number of other uncontrolled ecological factors involved. The correlation between these variables has been partially improved by diminishing the pheromone dose in traps (Roehrich et al., 1983, 1986). However, at present only a negative prediction can be made (Roehrich and Schmid, 1979): only when male catches in traps are sporadic (or nil) can one expect minimal (or even no) damage to be caused by offspring on the crop; but if catches are moderate or high, the damage caused by offspring is unpredictable.

Modelling

Predictive mathematical models have been developed and tested to forecast the life cycle of L. botrana, integrating both biological and climatic information. Temperature-based models, both linear (degree-days accumulated above a lower threshold) and non-linear (deterministic) have been generated in Switzerland (Schmid, 1978), France (Touzeau, 1981), Slovakia (Gabel and Mocko, 1984b, 1986) and Italy (Caffarelli and Vita, 1988; Baumgartner and Baronio, 1989; Cravedi and Mazzoni, 1990). Major problems affecting the correct inference of tortricid populations using modelling are summarized by Knight and Croft (1991) - it should be noted that prognosis is usually only qualitative. However, modelling can be a useful implement in L. botrana management programmes.

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions In the Palaearctic vine-growing areas, other lepidopteran species have an ecological niche similar to that of L. botrana, including Eupoecilia ambiguella, Argyrotaenia pulchellana [Argyrotaenia ljungiana], Clepsis spectrana, Cryptoblabes gnidiella, Euzophera bigella and Ephestia parasitella. Even the primarily phytophagous Sparganothis pilleriana may sometimes damage grapes.

However, only the first of these, E. ambiguella, may cause comparable damage to L. botrana, at least in northern European vineyards. Adults of these species may be easily differentiated macroscopically using a photographic key (E. ambiguella forewings are cream with a median fascia bluish dark brown). In field conditions, larvae may be distinguished because (i) the head of E. ambiguella is darker than that of L. botrana; (ii) L. botrana larvae do not carry any protective silk cover; and (iii) the behaviour of L. botrana when disturbed is quicker and even violent. Moreover, L. botrana pupation occurs inside a greyish white cocoon that usually does not incorporate vegetal residues and frass, as occurs in E. ambiguella.

Another tortricid species, the American grape berry moth Endopiza viteana [Polychrosis viteana], occurs in the eastern USA, and presents similar bionomics to L. botrana (Roehrich and Boller, 1991). http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 15 of 33

Prevention and Control Phytosanitary Measures

The abnormal distribution patterns of L. botrana (see Geographical Distribution) emphasize the inherent risk of new, undesired introductions when infested grapes and/or plant material are transported around the world. Phytosanitary control in commercialization channels should be enforced to limit further pest spread, especially in importer countries with favourable climatic conditions for pest development.

Cultural Control

Several cultural methods may reduce pest incidence to a highly variable degree. Voukassovitch (1924) listed some direct (pest-killing) and indirect (microclimate-modifying) practices to reduce L. botrana infestation levels, including pruning the vine canopy, leaf stripping, irrigation, earthing-up, weeding and especially harvesting date. However, cultural methods have a limited efficiency by themselves, and are often inapplicable in major vineyards where possibilities of changing cultural schedules are restricted. For example, a systematic advance of harvesting date to reduce larval damage in the 3rd generation is often incompatible with high quality wine production.

Host-Plant Resistance

Some vine varietal characters may regulate larval damage. For example, it is often observed that compact grapes are more damaged than lax ones because larval thigmotropic behaviour, installation and grape- derived protection are enhanced.

Chemical Control

Chemical control of eggs and larvae is the most widely used control method, due to high efficiency and low cost. Chemical control, by itself or included in IPM programmes (see Integrated Pest Management), is at present necessary to keep L. botrana populations below the economic damage threshold. Several broad- spectrum insecticides (organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates and pyrethroids) are nowadays used to control L. botrana, but insect growth regulators and biological insecticides are also used (see Biological Control).

See Coscollá (1997) for a recent review of chemical control of L. botrana.

Sterile Male Method

Insect pests may be suppressed by introducing sexually sterile, mass-produced males into natural populations. This method was first proposed by Knipling (1955, 1959) and it is also known as autocide control. With regard to L. botrana, there are a number of experimental studies, performed many years ago, mainly in the former USSR, using both chemicals (thiotepa) and gamma radiation as sterilants (Beratlief, 1968; Harizanov, 1975; Vasilyan et al., 1978; Bradovskii, 1980; Bradovskii and Sokalov, 1982; Kipiani et al., 1990). This method has not reached general commercial application.

Biological Control

Pathogens

The application of bacterial insecticides prepared from some Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies is the only biological control method commercially available at present. First investigations under laboratory and field conditions have already shown the potential of B. thuringiensis (spores and endotoxin crystals) against L. botrana (Roehrich, 1964, 1967b, 1968, 1970). Control efficiency averages 75-90% (sometimes even higher), under favourable meteorological conditions being almost as effective as conventional insecticides (cf. Roehrich and Boller, 1991). Biological control of L. botrana using other pathogens has not been the aim of systematic research, and their commercial interest remains obscure. Only some studies carried out in Georgia (Russia) suggest the potential of entomopathogenic viruses for use against L. botrana, reporting an efficiency in field tests of Baculovirus orana of about 60-100% (Chkhubianishili and Malaniya, 1986, 1990).

Parasites http://www.cabi.org/cpc/DatasheetDetailsReports.aspx?&iSectionId=110*0/141*0/122*0/103*0/135*0/1... 9/30/2011 Crop Protection Compendium report - Lobesia botrana (grape berry moth) Page 16 of 33

Studies on the use of Trichogramma species as egg parasites to control L. botrana have been increasingly important in recent years and in several countries (Sengonca and Leisse, 1987, 1989; Tavares et al., 1988; Sengonca et al., 1990; Castañeda-Samayoa et al., 1993), but regrettably the method still has not attained commercial status. There are also studies on the use of the pupal parasite Dibrachys (Coscollá, 1981; Dergachev, 1995), although practical application is still under development.

Biotechnical Control

Mass trapping

Studies have been carried out on mass trapping against L. botrana in Azerbaijan, but the level of control obtained was unsatisfactory in relation to conventional insecticide control (Parkhomenko and Kurbanova, 1986). Some physiological factors, including high male multiple mating potential, could explain the lack of practical efficiency (Torres-Vila et al., 1995).

Mating disruption

This approach for insect pest control was initiated in the late 1960s by Gaston et al. (1967). With regard to L. botrana, the first tests were carried out in France, under both laboratory (Roehrich and Carles, 1977) and field conditions (Roehrich et al., 1977, 1979; Roehrich and Carles, 1982). Despite sometimes heterogeneous results, they established basic points and procedures to improve the efficiency of this method, including adult dispersal, plot shape, minimum area treated, edge area, number and dosage of pheromone dispensers, initial population density, habitat details, global pest species spectrum, and other compatible control measures. Improved knowledge of the insect species and technical improvements are now optimizing the use of mating disruption against L. botrana (see for example, Stockel et al., 1992, 1994; Charmillot et al., 1995a; Schmitz et al., 1995a, b, 1996, 1997a, b; Karg and Sauer, 1997; Torres- Vila et al., 1997a). However, major limitations for generalized application are both economic (use is only cost-effective in vineyards with a high mark-up yield) and operative (collective coordination and qualification of vine growers are required for successful control). At present, mating disruption is being applied in several countries (see Arn et al., 1997) and is proving almost as effective as conventional insecticides.

Integrated Pest Management

In most situations IPM procedures are recommended against L. botrana, integrating all the available control methods in varying proportions, but with chemical control being, as far as possible, a minor component. Improvement of detection and inspection methods and accurate damage threshold establishment are used to enhance IPM programmes, which are being developed in most vine-growing countries including Armenia (Vasilyan et al., 1978; Azaryan et al., 1980; Manukyan, 1980), Azerbaijan (Abdullaev et al., 1986; Agaeva and Nuraddinov, 1988), Georgia (Abashidze, 1991), Iran (Nassirzadeh and Bassiri, 1994), Israel (Anshelevich et al., 1994). Kazakhstan (Mazina et al., 1987), Tajikistan (Makhmudov et al., 1977), Turkey (Atac et al., 1987; Zeki, 1996), Turkmenistan (Tokgaev and Bergmann, 1985), Uzbekistan (Atadzhanov and Dubrovina, 1977), Egypt (Abdel-Lateef et al., 1978), Austria (Fischer-Colbrie, 1980), Bulgaria (Kharizanov, 1979; Zapryanov and Stoeva, 1982; Mitkov and Raicheva, 1983), France (Guennelon and d'Arcier, 1972; Roehrich et al., 1977, 1986; Touzeau, 1979; Roehrich and Carles, 1987; Stockel et al., 1992, 1994; Bals, 1995), Germany (Schruft and Steiner, 1975; Englert, 1983; Louis and Schirra, 1992; Feldhege et al., 1993), Greece (Tsitsipis et al., 1993), Hungary (Schieder, 1984), Italy (Viggiani and Tranfaglia, 1975; Tranfaglia and Malatesta, 1977; Laccone, 1978; Tranfaglia and Viggiani, 1981; Dalla- Monta, 1987; Dalla-Monta and Giannone, 1991; Lozzia and Rigamonti, 1991; Silvestri, 1992; Varner and Ioratti, 1992; Bagnoli et al., 1993; Mattedi et al., 1995; Moleas, 1995; Nucifora et al., 1996), Macedonia (Velimirovic, 1975), Moldova (Gontarenko et al., 1981; Teshler, 1992; Zavelishko and Vojnyak, 1996), Portugal (Tavares et al., 1988), Romania (Filip and Alexandrini, 1977; Filip, 1985; Rosian, 1989), Russia (Akhmedov, 1974; Makhmudov et al., 1977; Velieva, 1983; Talesh and Vorob'eva, 1987; Aslanov, 1992; Dergachev, 1995), Slovakia (Gabel and Renczes, 1985), Slovenia (Vrabl et al., 1983), Spain (Coscollá, 1997 and references therein), Switzerland (Schmid and Antonin, 1977; Boller and Remund, 1981; Baillod et al., 1988; Baillod et al., 1990; Charmillot et al., 1995a, b; Remund et al., 1996) and Ukraine (Khmelevskaya and Gorelik, 1979; Razdolina and Gubanova, 1979; Beskrovnaya and Storozhuk, 1987; Burov and Sazanov, 1992).

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Images

Picture Title Caption Copyright Larval Damage on a vine inflorescence (arrow indicates area of P. del damage larval spinning). Estal

Egg Egg on an unripe berry. J.P. Carles

Larval Damage on grapes with grey rot (Botrytis cinerea). P. del damage Estal

Larva Larva inside a grape. P. del Estal

Adult Adult in resting position. J.P. Carles

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Larval Damage on grapes. P. del damage Estal

Egg Egg with embryo visible. G.T. Attard

Larva Larva on a vine inflorescence. P. del Estal

Pupa P. del Estal

Date of report: 30/09/2011

© CAB International 2011

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