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Behaviour & Information , Vol. 24, No. 2, March – April 2005, 111 – 129

Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour

L. SRIVASTAVA*

Strategy and Policy Unit, International Union, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland

Today’s is a pervasive tool. It has become such an important aspect of a user’s daily life that it has moved from being a mere ‘technological object’ to a key ‘social object’. This paper explores the societal and human implications of advances in , and notably the increasingly personalized nature of the . It argues that human and identity and social interaction have not been untouched by the mobile phenomenon.

means phone; in China it is referred to as ‘sho ji’ or hand 1. Introduction ; in Arabic it is sometimes called ‘makhmul’, A turning point in the history of was referring to the act of carrying (Plant 2000). Whatever its marked in 2002 in that the number of mobile subscribers name or its nickname, human beings have developed a overtook the number of fixed-line subscribers on a global fascinating relationship with the mobile phone, one that scale: mobiles thus became the dominant technology for certainly bears further study. voice (figure 1). This paper begins with a brief overview of the develop- This quantitative growth was accompanied by a sig- ment of the mobile around the world, before exploring the nificant qualitative evolution. The mobile phone has now societal and human implications of advances in mobile moved beyond being a mere technical device to becoming a technology, and particularly its increasingly personalized key ‘social object’ present in every aspect of a user’s life. nature. The paper focuses on a discussion of matters related The word ‘mobile’ comes from the Latin mobilis, which has primarily to human identity and social interaction. the following meanings: 2. Human identity, belonging and the self . easy to move, movable, loose, not fixed, not firm . pliable, nimble, flexible, agile, swift and rapid What is the impact of mobile phones on human identity? . readily changing its expression. Able to change one’s The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines ‘identity’ as social status follows: . in a negative sense—inconstant, fickle and change- able. 1. The quality or condition of being the same in substance, composition, nature, properties or in Not surprisingly, there is much to be said about the particular qualities under consideration. Oneness. technological, economic and social significance of the 2. The sameness of a person or thing at all times or in mobile phone. Today, the smallest device has more all circumstances; the condition or fact that a person computational power than the largest had a or thing is itself and not something else. Individual- generation ago. And this computational power is only set ity. Personality. to increase. No wonder the mobile has been adopted at a staggering rate across cultures and nations. The Americans It has been remarked by many that the expanded or refer to it as a ‘cell’; the Germans use the term ‘handy’, enhanced social networks afforded by mobile phones have which it certainly is; the Japanese use ‘keitai’, which simply created a new sense of identity for various groups of people,

*Corresponding author. : [email protected]

Behaviour & Information Technology ISSN 0144-929X print/ISSN 1362-3001 online # 2005 Taylor & Francis Ltd http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/01449290512331321910 112 L. Srivastava

Figure 1. Mobile overtakes fixed (ITU 2003, 2004b).

e.g. teenagers (Lorente 2002). At the same time, the highly office, therefore, is no longer the portal to the person—the personalized nature of the mobile phone has meant that its person becomes the portal (Wellman 2001). form and use have become important aspects of the The collective identity of a family or people living at the individuality of a phone user. Banking on this trend, many same place has been diluted through the use of members’ manufacturers are embedding the latest trends into individual mobile phones. In other words, has given their mobile handsets, and providing a wide array of way to a multiplicity of channels. With the decreasing use services for users, personalizing their phones (e.g. mobile of a central fixed-line , parents for instance, speak , ring tones, coloured phone covers etc). Identity less to their children’s friends and classmates than they did management is also fundamental to the development of the in the past, as these communicate directly via their mobiles. future mobile information society: the right balance Their respective friends and family can also contact spouses between the release of a user’s identity and the protection directly and privately on their mobile phone. Thus, the of his or her privacy needs to be struck early in the identity of the family unit becomes less about ‘oneness’ and development of commercial services. more about ‘many-ness’. This has both positive and The search for a sense of belonging has always been an negative implications. It is said that the mobile is important human struggle. There are four classic facets to contributing to the fragmentation of the household, but it the sense of belonging: place, family, country and race. also encourages individual thought and external support Mobile have certainly had an impact on the networks for family members (e.g. abused children or first two. spouses). Furthermore, the collective identity of networks is With the advent of anywhere, anytime mobile technol- becoming more pronounced. Mobile users are not only part ogies, the sense of belonging to place may slowly be giving of a technological network, but also of an important social way to a sense of belonging to a communications network: one. Users can choose other users to include in their ‘those emotional elements that are lost in the relation with network(s), and thereby construct their own mobile space are transferred to a social level, that is loyalty, the identity. This social network is in constant evolution. For sense of identification, familiarity, stability, security, and so instance, one teenage girl in reported that she on’ (Fortunati 2000). Mobile phones allow users to changed her mobile handset and phone number every three construct their own ‘at-home’ environment, regardless of months, because that is how fast her social network (set of where they find themselves in physical space. With the friends) changed. fixed-line phone, an incoming call rings at a place, no Never before has a technical device become such an matter which person is being called. With the mobile, a important aspect of human lives, and a determinant so person is being called regardless of place. The home or the powerful of individual identity. Indeed, users are getting Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 113 closer and closer to their mobile phone and at all times of each other. The use of ‘smiley faces’ or other such the day. A large number of people use their mobile phones ‘emoticons’ to express feelings through text appears to be as their and sleep with their phone under their notably higher in mobile messaging than in email (Ho¨flich pillow or on their bedside table. The Japanese have recently &Ro¨ssler 2002). In the case of SMS, limited by size, the released a mobile phone that enables users to listen to calls benefit of such ‘paralinguistic signs’ is more marked than in inside their heads, by conducting sound through bone. The -mediated interaction. mobile phone has indeed become the most intimate aspect of a user’s personal sphere of objects (e.g. keys, wallet, 2.1 Cultural and political identity money etc.). It gives users the impression that they are constantly connected to the world outside, and therefore The effect of mobile phones on cultural and political less alone. Both physical and emotional attachment to identity, which is subsets of collective identity, cannot be mobile handsets is increasing (see figure 2). Many are afraid overlooked. In his 2002 book Smart Mobs, Howard to leave home without it, and feel uncomfortable when Rheingold describes ‘thumb tribes’ and ‘the power of the others peruse their mobile menus or messages. In a 2003 mobile many’. In this context, he explores the power of UK survey, 46% of mobile phone users described the loss masses engaged in the furtive exchange of SMS messages. of their mobile as a form of ‘bereavement’ (Harkin 2003). He cites a group of mobile phone users in Stockholm, for For many users, the thought of having their mobile phone instance, who exchange SMS messages while on the public privileges revoked can cause indignation and even protest transport system in order to avoid fines for ticket-less (see figure 3). riding. These mobile fare jumpers alert each other to spot The UMTS Forum concluded in its 2003 paper ‘Social checks by transport officials by sending out short messages Shaping of UMTS’, that users have a more ‘emotional’ to a distribution list. The use of SMS has also been cited as relationship with their mobile phones than with any other partly responsible for the overthrow of President Joseph form of information and technology Estrada of the . Mass political protests, such as (UMTS Forum 2003). Not surprisingly, mobile users often those related to WTO meetings, have also been organized use ‘emoticons’ (or diagrammatic representations of emo- quickly and effectively via SMS. In March 2003, trade tional states such as a smiley face) in communications with associations in India decided to protest against value-added

Figure 2. How I feel about my mobile phone (Harkin 2003).

Figure 3. My mobile phone is my right (BBC 2003b). 114 L. Srivastava tax (VAT) launching an SMS campaign. The campaign was SMS messages to the 2987 deputies of the National launched by around 100 trade association members and the People’s Congress (NPC). The new service lets people test strategy was akin to the age-old ‘chain-letter’ system: each the bounds of a new freedom of expression in China, where trader was asked to send at least ten messages from their politically charged jokes have begun to spread like wildfire mobile phones to other numbers, telling the recipients from the to mobile phones. about VAT and how it would affect both traders and The influence of mobile phones on religious and cultural consumers. Local political campaigns can also benefit from practices is also notable. With the mobile being such an mobile technologies, by using messaging to send out integral part of everyday life, today it has even become a electoral propaganda. medium for prayer. A good example of its use in this sphere The use of mobiles has the potential to facilitate is in India, where devotees can dispatch a prayer via SMS assemblies of unrelated people at a moment’s notice (see (see figure 5). In Morocco, Me´ditel offers a discounted figure 4). In the past, these assemblies would take a mobile phone service in , during significant amount of time to orchestrate, and information ‘Haj’, the pilgrimage to Mecca. During this period, the about them could spread to third parties, including receipt of SMS messages is and incoming calls and authorities before they were to be held. This may increase outgoing texts are offered at discount rates. Even the Pope the rapidity of political change and open up varying paths has turned to texting to get his message across. The of political development, but at the same time raises messages are sent from the press office of the Holy See, concerns relating to social order. the central authority of the Catholic Church within the Mobile phones have flattened traditional hierarchical Vatican. Signed-up users receive SMS ‘thoughts for the day’ structures and enhanced the accessibility to political derived from the Pope’s speeches and homilies. Services are institutions, allowing individuals to vote or to lodge available in Italy, Ireland and the . In the complaints with authorities directly. Some governments, UK, each message costs the user 25 pence, and this is shared such as that of Hungary, have conducted SMS elections, between the network operator, the Vatican and Italian following the lead of popular TV shows, e.g. ‘Pop Idol’. technology provider Acotel (Scotsman 2003). Others are considering both e-voting and m-voting for It is not only in mobile applications that this interplay future campaigns. Since March 2002, mobile users in the between culture and technology is being witnessed, but also world’s largest mobile market, China, can directly send in hardware design: a Korean manufacturer recently

Figure 4. mobs (The Age 2003).

Figure 5. Praying by SMS. Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 115 developed a mobile phone exclusively for the Muslim user turers now offer a wide array of brightly coloured mobile (see figure 6). covers, to change the look of mobile phones depending on the user’s outfit. In Japan, mobile users personalize their mobile phone with stickers and colourful beaded acces- 2.2 Mobile as fashion sories. Fashionable wallpaper can be downloaded to The mobile phone has become somewhat of a status enhance the look of the mobile. If that’s not enough, symbol. Some mobile users engage in ‘stage phoning’ (Plant ‘designer mobiles’ have appeared on the market, with 2000) or speaking loudly on their mobiles in order to be everything from embedded precious stones to leather or fur heard and seen (regardless of whether or not they are on a covers for every occasion and mood. an actual call). Moreover, the extent and nature of the personalization of the telephone is now essential to individual identity, particularly among the youth. Many 3. Mobile identity management young people show off their mobile phones to each other. 3.1 Commercial identity in your pocket The ringing tones they use and the number and quality of messages stored on their mobile phones enhances their Many developments are under way to transform the mobile social status. phone from a pure person-to-person communication device Mobiles are quickly becoming fashion accessories rather to an electronic wallet and identification system. The than simple communications devices (figure 7). Manufac- objective is to open up a number of convenient commercial

Figure 6. Mobile phones helping the faithful find Mecca (E-Tech Korea 2003).

Figure 7. helps you reveal your hidden self.

Figure 8. down under (CNET 2003). 116 L. Srivastava services to the mobile user. This requires the establishment future. The ‘mobile phone’ (or its equivalent) of the future of secure transfer of a user’s identity and financial could allow users to convert any public terminal into a information. personal information and communication station, conduct For instance, services enabling customers to buy tickets transactions, pay for groceries without for shows and events have popped up in a number of having to queue, open locked doors or secure gates, ride countries, particularly in the Asia – Pacific region, such as public transport (see figure 9), and receive timely and Australia (see figure 8). In Japan, PIA Corporation has location-specific information. It is therefore essential for developed a system whereby subscribers use a ‘digital operators and manufacturers alike to carefully consider the pocket’ for purchasing and storing tickets on their parameters for establishing commercial identity, phone (Srivastava 2004). The ‘Digi-Pocke’ functions as a and safeguarding it. virtual pocket in cyberspace: it saves the reserved ticket, to be read at the gate, or can facilitate the transfer of tickets 3.2 Protecting identity: concerns over privacy between users in a secure manner. Users are able to pay for tickets through secure e-banking channels between PIA and Identity and privacy are forcibly linked. The human right their banking institution. to privacy has two important aspects: (1) freedom to Mobile ticketing is a first and important step in the control personal identifying information and (2) freedom development of a ‘commercial’ identity for mobile users. from interference or disruption. The application of technologies (such as or biosensors) in mobile phones will further 3.2.1 Safeguarding personal information. The phenomenon widen the scope for . Some technologists of ‘Flash Mobs’ mentioned above, and in general, the mass predict that the personal mobile phone is set to evolve into distribution of targeted information via SMS, has impor- the principal identification and payment method of the tant implications for what might be termed ‘interpersonal

Figure 9. Smart commuting? (BBC News 2003c).

Figure 10. Poor Prince William (Guardian Unlimited 2003a). Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 117 ’. Although the term surveillance has typically to any information on the mobile phone or make been associated with activities of the state, it can be used to calls. look at ‘mobile information gathering and communicative availability’ (Green 2002). Social groups can track the 3.2.2 Mobility and phones. The first whereabouts of particular individuals, and communicate was launched by J-Phone in Japan in October 2000. Since this information instantaneously and directly to members then, the number of camera phones has skyrocketed. of a large network. A good example is the SMS tracking of According to a report by the ARC Group, more than 55 Britain’s Prince William at his university (see figure 10). million customers worldwide owned mobile handsets with The widespread use of mobile phones, combined with digital by the end of 2003, compared to the 25 their intrinsically personalized nature, has also meant that million camera handsets sold in 2002 (.co.uk 2003). an increasing amount of information is now being stored Many predict that the will be become a on handsets: messages, phone numbers, notes, calendars standard feature of mobile phones. The quality of digital and so on. In the case of loss or theft, users stand to lose a images captured by camera phones has also been substan- mine of private information. Manufacturers are now tially enhanced, from the original 110k cameras to the attempting to introduce systems to back up data contained recent release of 2 mega-pixel mobile camera phones in in mobile phones; for instance, by introducing combination Japan and Korea. mobile and PDA handsets. However, the availability or With camera phones, users can snap pictures of famous release of that personal information to third parties sites and celebrities but also of things or people they find remains a concern, e.g. the case of theft or unauthorized beautiful or funny, strange occurrences, or everyday events. access. Operators, for instance, retain information on the The portability and discreet nature of camera phones calls, messages and location of their users, for years. This means that pictures can be taken quickly and unbeknownst information can be made available to enforcement to the photographed. For this reason, camera phones are agencies in the case of legal action. Yet in most countries, being banned by various companies around the world, clear and transparent guidelines on storage and release of because they are seen as a threat to either corporate security this information have not yet been defined. It remains or the privacy of clients. Governments such as Saudi unspecified which third parties may have access to the Arabia have outlawed camera phones throughout the information, and the duration service providers may retain country. Even Korean handset manufacturer it. Unless clear limits are placed on the storage and use of has banned camera phones from their factory. Figure 12 personal information, particularly by the state, there may sets out some of the actions taken against camera phone use be resistance in the take-up of new technologies, such as 3G in selected countries. and location-based systems. This holds particularly true in Similarly concerned, mobile manufacturers are taking the current climate of terrorism, in which governments are steps to ensure that mobile users respect the privacy of reluctant to dilute any power they may have to monitor others. In one of the most advanced mobile markets, Japan, individuals and groups (Harkin 2003). all camera phones emit an sound when a picture is In the case of theft or loss, personal information stored taken – a self-regulatory effort on the part of manufacturers on the handsets of users can also be subject to misuse. In and operators. Following suit, the South Korean govern- this regard, recent developments for protecting handsets ment has ordered manufacturers to ensure that all new have included physical authentication methods. In Japan, handsets emit a beep (of at least 65 decibels) whenever a in the summer of 2003, NTT DoCoMo launched its F505i picture is taken (Reuters 2003). The Government was handset, which comes equipped with a fingerprint sensor pushed into action after a number of incidents, including (see figure 11). This function prevents unauthorized users one case in which a woman used her camera phone to snap

Figure 11. Let your fingers do the locking. 118 L. Srivastava

Figure 12. Early restrictions on the use of camera phones.

a naked woman in a popular sauna bath, and then sold the issued a set of guidelines for the use of camera phones in picture to a website. public places, invoking European governing human A combination of the camera phone, rights. Under the guidelines, the dissemination of pictures messaging (MMS or messaging with still pictures or ) taken with a camera phone without the consent of the and the Internet is the ‘moblog’, which is steadily gaining in person(s) in the photo is forbidden. Anyone who has taken popularity. The world ‘moblog’ has been coined from a photo with a camera phone is deemed to be effectively ‘mobile’ and ‘’. Moblogs are websites on which anyone processing the personal data of those in the , can post pictures taken with mobile phones, instantly, with and are thereby responsible for ensuring their privacy. or without descriptive text or comment. A large number of Operators have the responsibility to delete personal moblogs already exist on the Internet, typically that are sent via MMS to legacy handsets. This is an posting pictures of people’s children, dogs, houses or travel attempt to manage the continual increase of person- logs. But many are using it as an outlet for amateur generated content available on public networks. The , particularly after major events. For guidelines do not carry the force of law, and authorities instance, moblogs were swamped with pictures from mobile admit that it will be difficult to enforce and to police. users during the historic blackout in August 2003, when 60 It is possible that technology can provide a solution— million people were left without power in the Midwest, the technology such as Iceberg’s ‘Safe Haven’, which can northeastern parts of the United States and some parts of control the use of camera phones in selected areas. Safe Canada. Even though many people could not use their Haven works by sending a signal to a camera phone telling mobile to make calls, they were able to send it that it is in a designated privacy phone, and switching off data. Some captured images of the blackout and posted the phone’s imaging system (The Register 2003). The phone them to the web, available for those around the world to can still be used to make calls. This is a nascent technology view (Batista and Dean 2003). This has positive implica- and therefore will only work for future generations of tions for sharing information over a worldwide network phones, but its existence, and the existence of mobile phone and for encouraging human creativity. But the increasing jamming technologies, shows the growing concern among use of camera phones and the moblog phenomenon also public and private actors alike over the use of mobile mean that photos of people can be posted without their phones in public places (figure 20). consent, and worse, to their detriment. In , the first governmental authority to act with 3.2.3 The problem with spam. The second aspect of the right respect to camera phones was the Italian Data Protection to privacy is the right to freedom from interference. In the Authority (GPDP). In the first half of 2003, the GPDP mobile context, this relates primarily to the growing Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 119

Figure 13. RFID tags and shopping in Tokyo’s trendy Roppongi Hills (Srivastava 2004).

problem of spam, or unsolicited commercial communica- introduced programmes encouraging users to tions. forward unsolicited messages to them free of charge. In Spam is already a significant nuisance in email commu- the case of Vodafone, it will collate a consolidated report nications. Many Internet users find their inboxes cluttered of all the unsolicited text messages forwarded. This with advertisements ranging from debt management and consolidated report will be forward to mobile messaging medication to sexual enhancers and dating services. regulators, such as ICSTIS (Independent Committee for Governments are attempting to thwart the facility with the Supervision of Standards of Telephone Information which marketers can currently send spam mail: the United Services). From 25 December 2003, DoCoMo introduced States, for instance, has recently enacted the ‘Can-Spam a new anti-spam measure that will enable its mobile Act’ of 2003. But no less than , governments are subscribers to block all from user-selected domains faced with the challenge of striking the right balance of other mobile or PHS companies. DoCoMo has taken between fostering valuable commercial and aggressive countermeasures against spam mail sent from protecting the rights of users. With the use of location-based its i-mode network, such as limiting the amount of emails technologies, and technologies such as frequency sent daily from a single i-mode account and suspending or identification tags (see figure 13), targeted advertising and rescinding the contracts of DoCoMo handsets registered promotions can reach users at the right time and at the right to known spammers. place. This might prove to be a very useful service for users; but it could also lead to an increase in the number of 4. Mobile, gender and youth unsolicited messages appearing on mobiles. Clear opt-in and opt-out systems need to be put into place. As mentioned above, mobile phones can result in the Spam over mobile networks (through SMS for instance) flattening of traditional hierarchical structures. In this may pose an even more serious problem than Internet context, they have the potential to equalize the capacity of spam, given the personalized nature of the mobile phone, social integration of men and women (Geser 2002). In its growing use among young children, and in some cases many cultures, women are now more avid users of mobile the cost incurred for incoming messages. People appear to phones than men, both for voice and text (Unstrung 2003). trust the mobile phone more than any other form of The introduction of the mobile phone has also facilitated information and communication technology. The receipt of the balancing of professional and domestic life, a boon for unwanted commercial messages may threaten this increas- the working mother. This will be further enhanced by ingly private and trusting relationship. And as mobile videoconferencing and location technologies, helping users communications become more and more widespread (or keep in touch with family members. ‘ubiquitous’), the potential for abuse is correspondingly Mobility is highly individualized. Typically, men carry greater. mobiles in pockets, whereas women carry them in purses or Vodafone UK and Japan’s NTT DoCoMo are some of bags. Women, particularly, see mobiles as a ‘shield’ against the operators trying to combat spam. In August 2003, unwanted attentions (Plant 2000). 120 L. Srivastava

Figure 14. Mobile the morning after (BBC News 2003d).

Figure 15. Mobiles with a feminine touch.

Figure 16. The young and the mobile in Italy (Guardian Unlimited 2003b).

As early as 2001, NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the i- are getting younger every day: a recent survey found that Lady service, which enabled women to use their mobile 56% of Italian children aged nine or ten own a mobile phones as ovulation monitors, in order to help them phone (see figure 16). And in the UK, there were 400,000 conceive children. In the UK, mobile phones are being used children under the age of ten owning a mobile phone as of as tools to help teenagers have access to services such as the August 2003, up from 80,000 in 2000 (Cellular News 2003). morning-after-pill (see figure 14). As mentioned above, the proportion of Japanese girls Manufacturers are also starting to capitalize on the owning mobile phones under the age 18 has reached almost female market, aiming to sell phones that look more like 100%. jewellery and less like toys, and are even including standard Indeed, mobile phones have now become determinant of functions that might appeal to the female market, such as whether a young person is in the ‘in’ crowd or not. Many thermometers or calorie counters. Samsung’s T500 is a teenagers don’t recognize the difference between speaking good example (see figure 15). on their mobile phone and meeting face to face. In many Regardless of gender, young people certainly seem to be industrialized countries, and in some developing ones too, the most enthusiastic users of mobile phones. Mobile users the mobile has become the principal mode of socializing for Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 121 teenagers. Young people use the mobile primarily to sustain Teenagers tend to save mobile messages they cherish on and enhance their social networks. It allows them to their mobile phones. Text messages are a form of gift, in maintain their status, in terms of age, gender, class, peer that they have value, which ‘is connected with the giver, the group and so on. Moreover, the ownership of a mobile is an recipient, and the context in which the exchange takes important step in a child’s process of becoming indepen- place, and is embodied and retained in material form’ dent from its parents and teachers: it is a medium for the (Taylor and Harper 2003). Young users are proud of the assertion of its own identity and autonomy. Young users SMS they have stored in their phones. They often reread are, not surprisingly, more likely to personalize their mobile positive messages from loved ones and peers, and keep phone, through ringing tones, wallpaper and covers than those messages in reserve that might come in handy in a their adult counterparts. future argument with a partner or friend. This trend is also An important recent trend recently observed among showing signs of developing in the adult world (see figure young people is a distinct preference for SMS over voice 2). calls. According to a survey by CPP (a mobile Mobiles in schools are now widespread, so much so that company), more than eight out of ten people under the age schoolteachers and administrators are concerned about of 25 in the UK are more likely to send someone a text their effect on discipline in the classroom. Students have message than to call. There are a number of reasons why been observed in classrooms texting under their desk or young people may prefer text to voice. For instance, in even defiantly during a lecture. A number of schools have many cases it is less expensive. The text message is secret banned mobile phones altogether. At the same time, text and secure – it cannot be intercepted by anyone else. messaging is also being used by adults to reach youth. Texting is also seen as an easier method of communication Parents find texting very useful to communicate with their for people who may be shy or who find themselves in children, particularly in terms of ensuring their safety and awkward situations. The text can serve as a warning to a establishing times and location for pick-up. In schools, it voice call: most young people in Japan invariably text can be used to discourage behaviour such as truancy (see before initiating a voice call, in order to confirm that their figure 17). In countries like Australia and Malta, even interlocutor is able and willing to speak with them (BBC school examination results are being delivered to students News 2003a). Teenagers can also use short messages at all via SMS (Di-ve 2003). In South Africa, one university hours of the day and night, without the knowledge (or professor, Professor Neil Bothma of UNISA, is even using interference) of their parents and guardians. Before mobile SMS to administer pop quizzes. phones, teenagers were prevented from being in commu- The nature of SMS and its overwhelming popularity has nication with their peers after bedtime. This has since led to the formation of a new language for texting, changed: ‘good night’ text messages are very common particularly among the young. Due to the limited number among children and adolescents, providing a virtual of characters each SMS allows (160), mobile users have network of peers late into the night. been forced to become rather creative in using fewer letters While the majority of adults may tend to use texting or symbols to convey meaning (Lobet-Maris and Henin primarily for practical arrangements (appointments etc.), 2002). In fact, young peer groups often differentiate teenagers use texting as a medium to express a wide themselves by the type of abbreviations they use while spectrum of emotion and feeling. Young couples text each texting, forming a type of texting ‘subculture’. This other romantic poems or even argue through lengthy popularity of texting among the young is having an impact exchanges of short messages. In this context, some analysts on their ability to spell and conjugate verbs (Haddon 2002, have highlighted the ‘gift nature’ of mobile texting. BBC News 2004), but the trend shows no sign of waning.

Figure 17. Dial SMS for Truancy (Ananova 2003a). 122 L. Srivastava

Figure 18. The language of text (ITU 2004a).

Figure 19. Korean students: avid users of the Internet (ITU 2003).

The language of text has become so common, in fact, that 5. Public vs. private in a more mobile world SMS abbreviations have recently made their appearance in the OED. Figure 18 sets out some common examples of The ‘technological intimacy’ users have with mobile texting abbreviations and symbols. phones means that they carry and use the device Not only is texting a craze among the young, but the use wherever they , in a wide variety of social and of mobile Internet applications is also more popular with professional settings. Indeed, the mobile has equalized them relative to adults, especially in industrialized Asian the opportunities for communication between the moving countries. In Korea, for instance, students in general use and the non-moving person: in the past, those in physical the wireless Internet more than the general public, but the proximity of a fixed-line telephone had an added younger junior high-school students seem to be the most advantage. The use of mobiles has also made it easier avid users (see figure 19). As these young users grow, it will for shy or reserved people to communicate, and SMS has be interesting to observe whether their habits change or been a big hit with the deaf community. The mobile remain the same. Certainly, their use of the technology phone has furthermore decentralized our networks of provides telling clues as to the shape and form the mobile communication. Communication no longer occurs only information society will take in the future. from a fixed point to another fixed point: a multitude of Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 123 different points can now communicate with a multitude Strangers present typically look at the mobile user briefly of moving or still targets. and then return to what they were doing. If in a social This pervasiveness of mobile communications in every- group, others present often display body language to day life has meant that the distinction between the public indicate that they are not listening in on the mobile phone and the private spheres of human existence is less conversation, i.e. they would speak among themselves, turn pronounced. Public places are commonly ‘colonized’ by their upper body away from mobile phone user, or simply the private lives of mobile individuals (Geser 2002). As move away. Sadie Plant (Plant 2000) has noted, mobiles have created Many people now choose to text rather than talk with ‘simultaneity of place’: a physical space and a virtual space their mobile phone, depending on the social situation they of conversational interaction. It can also be said that there find themselves in. Students sitting in classrooms, or in their has been an extension of physical space, through the room at bedtime, prefer to text. In meetings, many prefer to creation and juxtaposition of a mobile ‘social space’. This text in order not to disturb the proceedings. With texting, has led to a constant ‘permeability’ (Geser 2002) between of course, users can continue to engage in conversation the separate contexts of social life. For instance, individuals with those present while communicating with a distant have often been observed talking on the phone at a third party. In Europe and North America, loud ringing restaurant table, while their dining partner either looks tones and mobile conversations are commonplace. On the elsewhere or is similarly engaged talking or texting on their other hand, in Japanese restaurants and trains, people send own mobile device. The intrusion (or potential intrusion) of mobile email and rarely engage in telephone conversations; remote others, in any given social context, has become in public, many cover their mouths while speaking on their commonplace, and even anticipated. mobile. Restaurants and public transport authorities have Although in some countries (e.g. Japan) there have been erected signs urging mobile users to put their handset in efforts to regulate mobile phone usage in public, e.g. ‘manner mode’, or . through restrictions on use in restaurants and public It is clear that we have not had sufficient time, as a transport, in general, the tension between remote and co- society, to adapt to this new technology, with its over- present social interaction has not yet led to the establish- whelmingly pervasive nature. However, patterns of ment of any social norms. For this reason, there is general behaviour are already becoming evident. The initiatives concern that the use of the mobile phone may be affecting mentioned above represent a means to manage the social behaviour. Two areas of complaint stand out: potential embarrassment surrounding the public audibility of private conversations (Murtagh 2002), or in other words 1. Mobile loudness: many mobile users tend to speak on ‘forced eavesdropping’. It is an attempt to respect privacy their mobiles about very private issues, and more (of oneself and others) in a public setting, or to create a loudly at that, resulting in forced eavesdropping. private environment within a public one. An unanswered Research has also shown that mobile phone con- mobile phone is frowned upon, as are long intimate mobile versations are more noticeable and annoying than conversations in public settings. Many who answer phone face-to-face conversations at the same volume calls in meetings or quiet areas are subject to glances of (Monk 2004) admonition by others. The use of mobile phones is 2. Synchronous space: the complexity of having to discouraged in most cinemas and theatres. New York City manage two sets of geographic locations and social passed a law in 2003, fining people whose mobile phones environments, simultaneously. ring in ‘places of public performance’. A number of theatres and cinemas have taken the matter into their own hands, While admitting to an overall increase in spontaneous and and set up mobile jammers. In November 2003, security widespread social interaction, some argue that mobile officials in London were considering using jammers to phones may be reducing the quality of face-to-face social block mobile phone signals around President Bush during interaction. And the ambiguity regarding the social norms his visit to London, in case terrorists might use a mobile to that mobile users are to follow in public or group settings detonate a bomb (The Times Online 2003). Jammers, seems to further dilute this quality. though, are not only available to commercial enterprises or Much of the use made of the mobile phone in public is the police. Even individual mobile users can purchase cell coupled with a wide set of non-verbal actions and phone jammers today, for as little as 300 USD (figure 20). interactions (Murtagh 2002). If a mobile phone rings in The legal situation pertaining to these jammers varies public and is answered, a couple of responses have been greatly. In France, jammers in cinemas are common and observed. First, the called party typically moves their gaze not actively prohibited. In countries like China, Russia, and away from the direction of those present, to a neutral place. Israel, use is either permitted or enforcement is limited. In In some cases, the called party moves their head downward, the United States, however, actively jamming a mobile turns their upper body, or steps away from others present. phone signal is illegal, as it is seen to interfere with the right 124 L. Srivastava

Figure 20. We’re jamming – I want to jam it with you. . . of service providers to exploit the spectrum they have could always be worked out later by SMS. The habit of purchased. ‘keeping options open’ or the ‘multi-meeting’ has also been As the UMTS report ‘Social Shaping’ concluded, ‘the enhanced by the use of mobile phones, i.e. users often make intersection of the public and the private will reach a peak, several approximate and tentative appointments, deciding after which there will be a resistance or backlash’ (UMTS only at the last minute the meeting they would attend Forum 2003). We have already begun to witness its early (depending on the value they ascribe to it). On the other signs. hand, it can be postulated that mobile phones have given users more responsibility and have facilitated accountabil- ity, e.g. between children and parents or employees and 6. Individual responsibility and the illusion of communication employers. Not only has the use of mobiles in public settings been a Although the quantity of communication has increased common object of discussion and observation by sociolo- through the anywhere and anytime functionality of the gists and users alike, the possible adverse effect of mobiles mobile, the qualitative aspect of communication may not on the quality of communication and on individual have been correspondingly improved. Furtive text messa- responsibility has also been noted. ging, for instance, can often give an illusion of strong Let us consider for instance the recent survey conducted communication, whereas it is a medium that clearly lacks in September 2003 by mobile phone giant Nokia. This some of the principal elements of human interaction, e.g. survey found that a staggering 89% of mobile users believe tone of voice, body language, facial expression and touch. that people need to adopt better ‘mobile etiquette’, for Some sociologists argue that texting teenagers run the risk example the use of such ringing and messaging tones as of affecting their capacity to interact with each other on a don’t disturb others around them, and by not shouting and voice or face-to-face basis: many choose to text rather than pacing while on the phone. In the United States, a similar to talk, particularly in awkward or emotionally-charged survey by Harris Interactive in July 2003 found that 50% of situations. Americans believe that people are generally discourteous in It seems that despite the overwhelming availability of their use of mobile phones. communications (email, fixed-line voice, mobile According to the results of the Nokia survey: messaging, mobile voice etc.), people are becoming harder to reach. Users are aware of the fact that the mobile phone . 71% of users are now consistently late for social automatically records a , and typically offers events because of the option to rearrange through a convenient services. Therefore, users are not mobile voice call or text; concerned about missing calls accidentally, whether this be . almost 70% admitted that they often cancel at the last occasioned by the low volume of the or by minute by sending a text message; difficulty of physical access (e.g. at the bottom of a purse). . 78% admitted to ducking out of uncomfortable or A deliberate form of missing calls, the ‘call screen’, is also awkward social situations by sending a text message becoming commonplace, given that mobiles can often rather than calling. display the number of the calling party. And, as mentioned above, many now prefer to use the written language to Indeed, many argue that mobile phones have served to communicate rather than the richer medium of voice. It change social etiquette. For example, people seem to be less should be no surprise that the mobile phone, universally committal. Setting an approximate time to meet is now recognized as a great facilitator of human communication, standard practice: mobile phone users rarely set an exact is now showing that it is equally great in the obstruction of time and place for a meeting, the excuse being that details it. For the mobile is intimately related to language, which is Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 125 known to reveal and at the same time to hide meaning and groups) while at the same time strengthening networks, i.e. intent. decentralized and constantly evolving social groupings In another context, owning a mobile might seem to constructed by each individual (Geser 2002, Wellman assuage an increasingly lonely urban existence. But is a 1999). virtual connection to anyone at anytime a real panacea to human isolation? The rise of spontaneous communication, 7. Mobile dates, mobile love for instance through trends such as multi-player location- based gaming and ‘bluejacking’ (see figure 21) may provide On Valentine’s Day in 2003 the major mobile networks an outlet for passing the time, but does not necessarily were flooded with short text messages and virtual cards. strengthen existing relationships. Moreover, the quality of But all year around teenagers and adults alike are face-to-face communications may be threatened by the using SMS to flirt, make propositions to each other, or always-on nature of mobile phones. Interaction with those put an end to relationships. Many couples have that are present can be interrupted at any moment by reported that SMS plays a very important part of interaction with a remote other—leading to a scenario of courtship, and in some cases, of the wedding (see figure being ‘always-on, always there’ but ‘never here’. 22). Operators are taking advantage of the texting craze It can, and has been, said that mobile phones tend to by introducing a host of new and flirting weaken communities (e.g. families or predetermined static services.

Figure 21. Blue me up, Jack! (BBC News 2003e, Schenker 2003).

Figure 22. Will you mobile me? (Ananova 2003b). 126 L. Srivastava

Australia’s Virgin Mobile offers a good example: in . For a heterosexual male, 27, named John: the user February 2003 the company published a 53-page guide types DATEGIRL JOHN 27 in an SMS and sends it (aptly named ‘The Joy of Text’) for those users who to number 82055. were looking to increase their dose of ‘textual inter- . The phone recognizes where it is, e.g. in North course’. For Valentine’s Day, Virgin organized its first London – and will then search its database for all the dating event or ‘SMS flirtfest’, marrying the offline and registered heterosexual women in the area, by age online worlds. Flirtfest attendees were given an ID range, and display their details and photos on John’s number to wear that could be used by strangers who phone. would like to get to know them. When a user would . John can then scroll through a list of up to seven see someone they were interested in, they could send potential matches and send them a message, straight them an SMS using their ID number. The are to their mobile phone. He can also pick up his own then displayed on large public screens for everyone’s messages on his phone, or alternatively, by checking enjoyment (Plaskitt 2002). Some bars and pubs have the website Dateclub.com. While browsing the taken to the idea, such as Dublin’s ‘The Vaults’, which website, the user can send additional messages to ran a ‘text and flirt’ game in 2003, allowing customers any other people. Both the website and the mobile to register their mobile number with a central keep track of dates and messages, so that John can and then exchange messages on big screens located receive replies on either. around the bar. Not to be outdone, AT&T Wireless launched their matchmaking service, Match Mobile Some services however, such as Bharat Matrimony in (http://mobile.match.com/) in February 2003. The ser- India, promise more than frivolous flirting, and offer their vice matches individuals based on postal codes, but users the possibility to find a mate for life in just five also based on approximate geographical location at any minutes over their mobile phones (see figure 23). given time. Mobile profiles allow realtime interaction Mobile phones have certainly made it easier to engage in and access to photographs of potential dates. Another spontaneous communications, perhaps facilitating that first example is UK’s Mobiledateclub service, which provides step in finding a mate. They also help maintain a loving the following instructions: relationship, allowing couples to keep in touch when they

Figure 23. A Short Marriage Service helps couples find their mate.

Figure 24. That’s amore – a mobile affair. . . (The Economist 2003). Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 127 are apart. However, the mobile has also contributed to that entertainment is not limited to the device itself. Mobile heightened individualism, and some argue, to a reduced is becoming an important part of interactive , degree of intimacy between couples. When each partner has making its presence felt on TV and radio programs such as their own personal mobile phone, there is less potential for ‘Pop Idol’ and more recently on ‘Who wants to be a sharing communication experiences, or accidentally an- millionaire’. TV games for SMS only are also growing in swering a call from a partner’s friend, colleague or family popularity around the world. Such games allow viewers to member. In this respect, the mobile can also strengthen and use mobile messaging to participate in games they can even initiate romantic relationships outside a couple (see simultaneously on their sets. Games can figure 24). vary from trivia games, quizzes and crossword puzzles to multiplayer games such as virtual bump cars. Other types of interactive media will become popular. Text-based soap 8. The entertaining mobile operas, for instance, can be enhanced by multimedia Thus far, the most successful purely mobile entertainment handsets. Users will be able to watch live sports events on service across the globe has been the ringing tone or their handsets while placing gambling bets. ‘’. Since the introduction of polyphonic tones, Having entertainment at one’s fingertips means that analysts predict that the sale of will outstrip the managing content will become more and more necessary. sale of singles. In March 2004, the Mobile Entertainment Efficient content classification and parental controls need to Forum (together with KPMG) even launched the United be established, and preferably at an international level. Kingdom’s first ‘ringtone chart’ (http://www.mobileenter- Technical specifications and user awareness are pivotal to tainmentforum.org/news012504.html). protect the rights of content providers. Social rules for services are on the rise, particularly as more and more mobile gaming, particularly location-based services, need mobile devices come equipped with integrated MP3 players. to be developed. Opt-in and opt-out mechanisms and A service in the UK by the name of ‘Shazam’ (http:// systems for safeguarding anonymity are important in this www.shazam.com) enables users to get the details of a song regard. (for instance, the name of the artist, the title of the song, the Some argue that the availability of mobile games anytime title of the album) and 30 seconds of the music. As the speed and anywhere may lead to a certain of transmission increases with future generations of net- among the young. The same argument has been raised with works, live audio and video streaming will become more the Internet. Are we as a society more likely to read or view commonplace, enabling a variety of entertainment and images of nature on our screens rather than by direct educational services. Many predict that adult entertainment observation? Such a possibility is of course a boon to services will be a lucrative business for content providers. physically challenged individuals or as an educational tool. Both single-player and multi-player gaming services are But how much is too much? set to increase. With the added sophistication of location- In countries such as Korea and Japan, the problem of based technology, users can engage other strangers around game addiction is of concern, with some children playing them in a game of Botfighters, for instance (see figure 25). games for 24 hours without a break. Entertainment at the Botfighters is an SMS game, but its principle is easily touch of button may also lead to a certain passivity and loss extended to multimedia platforms. Essentially, the applica- of imagination. Some argue that the constant influx of data tion of mobility to entertainment services means that in this manner affects the human faculties of knowledge individuals can better manage their time, by choosing when absorption and reflection, and eventually communication. and how to be entertained. Mobile users can pass their time Early signs are already visible in the case of Internet and when standing in long queues or on long journeys. computer addiction. One of the most important aspects regarding the growth Multi-player games with strangers may give rise to an of entertainment services over mobile phones, however, is illusion among users that they are not alone and part of a

Figure 25. Virtual SMS assassins (Guardian Unlimited 2002). 128 L. Srivastava

Figure 26. Virtual domestic animals. community, whereas the reality might be that they are of their customers to an accuracy of 100 metres. Unique increasingly avoiding most forms of regular social contact. radio identifiers, such as RFID, embedded in clothing and Games that involve taking care of virtual pets or friends other items for purchase, can determine the whereabouts may only serve to further isolate people, and particularly and habits of consumers. Mobile phones equipped with those users that have antisocial tendencies (see figure 26). camouflaged digital cameras can instantly upload private With online virtual personalities and role-playing games images onto the public Internet. And the amount of such gaining in popularity, one wonders just how far is too far – ‘person-generated’ content available on public networks and whether this virtual path will lead human beings to will only increase with time, as evidenced by the popularity increasingly disconnect from their real selves. of peer-to-peer networking. At their end, developers are considering ways in which to facilitate machine-to-machine communications and foster convergence across networks, 9. Conclusion platforms and services. The extent to which humans and No technological development can exist in vaccum. No will be connected to each other, constantly advances in technology are possible without effect upon transmitting vitals, data and private information, can at society. Witness the changes brought about by gunpowder, this time, be only imagined. electricity, the radio and the fixed telephone in their turns. Some 50 years ago, the great Indian leader, Mahatma Today, it is nuclear power, rockets, the Internet and the Gandhi was assassinated. His last and only possessions are mobile phone that are in the forefront. Of tomorrow, we on permanent display in an Indian museum. They consist know not. of his loincloth, pocket watch, sandals and walking stick. In Among teenage girls in Tokyo, the penetration of mobile today’s world, one doubts not that a mobile phone would phones has reached nearly 100%. In a growing number of have replaced that pocket watch: so indispensable to daily instances, wireless networks have succeeded in connecting life has it become. But the inconveniences arising from the isolated and less developed regions of the world. In 2002, presence and use of mobile phones are gradually becoming the number of mobile phones worldwide outnumbered the apparent. The growth in their volume and use are number of fixed-line phones. Moreover, electronic messa- accompanied by multiplying instances of their unwanted ging (i.e. email and SMS) has become the medium of choice effects. In this respect, the mobile follows the pattern of any for business and personal communications. And through technology when it is first introduced. The motorcar offers rapid in wireless connectivity and portable a clear example: it took some 50 years after its introduction , technology is becoming increasingly to make its inconveniences abundantly clear. By contrast, personalized. Indeed, its ubiquity is no less a social the mobile phone has taken less than a decade. So useful phenomenon than it is a technical one. has the mobile phone proved to be, that many of its The increased and extended information annoyances are taken in the stride and little rational access afforded by mobile phones, however, is also regulation has thus far occurred. For early users of the accompanied by the potential for technology to enter the motorcar, there was little need to introduce pollution and private sphere of human lives. It is clear that always-on traffic controls, or create conventions such as shoulder connectivity and mobility will define not only the future checking, but these became vital as numbers grew. technological landscape, but equally the sociopolitical one. Similarly, growing experience with the use of mobile Already, most mobile operators can pinpoint the location phones will iron out many of the glitches now current. Mobile phones and the evolution of social behaviour 129

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