Palestine in the Nineteenth Century During the sixteenth century, describes the topography and lists the Bethlehem had prospered like all other agricultural products, also mentioning towns in Palestine at the time. In the the dilapidated tower of Saint Paula Bethlehem * seventeenth century, however, and of which no traces exist today and until Napoleon’s invasion of the town disclosing that the Armenian Church at the end of the eighteenth century, had custody over the Church of the in the Last Century the kasaba of Bethlehem (an Ottoman Nativity. When Chateaubriand left the term for a medina [town] that is town, he was escorted by six guards larger than a village and smaller armed with daggers and rifles. He than a city) and its population were lauded the courage of Bethlehem’s of Ottoman Rule adversely affected by a sequence of men and denigrated the Bedouins dramatic events and circumstances who stopped him on his way to Mar that included the tyranny of Ottoman Saba Monastery and forced him to rulers, the forceful imposition of high pay entry tax to the monastery. taxes, gruesome treatment by the Ali Bey visited Bethlehem in 1807 authorities, bribery and corruption of and in his travelogue relates his authority officials and feudal lords, meeting with shepherds who were banditry, and Bedouin invasions. on their way to Jerusalem to lodge These practices had a deleterious a complaint at the court against effect on the population, and many shepherds from Hebron who had people were compelled to leave attacked their cattle and stolen two hroughout the ages, the Canaanite Bethlehem. dwelling of Bethlehem has held camels. William Turner in 1819 talks a prominent place in the politics, In 1806, François de Chateaubriand about highwaymen who threatened religion, and archaeology of the wrote in his travelogue that Bethlehem to attack the monasteries for refusing By Khalil Shokeh Levant region. Best known for being was an isolated town with houses to pay taxes. Had it not been for the the cradle of the birth of love and that were in miserable condition. He intervention of Jerusalem’s ruler, the peace, incarnated in Jesus Christ, Bethlehem is holy for Christians, Muslims, and Jews, the followers Tof the three monotheistic religions. Thousands of pilgrims have visited Bethlehem since the fourth century. Historical Christian chronicles cite Bethlehem as one of the oldest religious sites, in existence since View of Bethlehem from the mountains above David’s Well. Photograph by Félix Bonfils. the second century. The history of the city’s churches – particularly the Church of the Nativity, one of the oldest in Palestine and the entire Christian world – as well as its monasteries and religious literature have attracted the interest of countless studious researchers. Bethlehem also has a rich cultural history. Its houses have been destroyed time and again as a result of invasions, wars, and natural disasters. But they have been reconstructed, and today’s city has maintained its natural landscape with deep valleys and ravines in the north, east, and south, and has preserved its sacred twinning with the Holy of Holies, Jerusalem. But detailed information on Bethlehem’s economic and social life – the relations between the various population segments and their diverse religious, professional, and family affiliations – is generally lacking. This article aims to present an overview of the major events that took place in Bethlehem in the nineteenth century, under Ottoman rule, based on the accounts and diaries of visiting travelers who were eyewitnesses of critical events as well as on the information contained in Ottoman Shari’a documents. Back then, Bethlehem was a small town located on a hill, looking like a fortress surrounded by olive groves and vineyards, by almond, fig, and pomegranate trees, and by fields of grain, corn, and other crops. Travelers were enthralled by the beautiful natural landscape. 52 THIS WEEK IN PALESTINE 53 Palestine in the Nineteenth Century In 1853, the Crimean War broke out between Russia on one side and an alliance of European countries and the Ottoman Empire on the other. One of the direct causes of the war was the theft of the Nativity Star from the Church of the Nativity. When in 1856, the alliance forces won the war, a new star was made to replace the one that had been stolen. Bethlehem in the nineteenth century. monasteries of Bethlehem would have the people of Bethlehem rebelled their disobedience and occupied taxes. In the ensuing discontent of been pillaged and destroyed. Turner against the Ottoman authorities Jerusalem’s citadel, as Bethlehem’s the population, village leaders and also speaks about crosses made of – which made it more difficult for community leaders again refused to sheikhs held a meeting and decided beads and mother-of-pearl by local the mutasallem to collect taxes. pay the tithes. This time, the Ottoman to revolt against Ibrahim Pasha craftsmen. Peasants and farmers, headed by authorities subdued the rebels, hitting and his army and to refuse, again, The refusal of Bethlehem’s residents sheikhs from the Bani Malik tribe, the Jerusalem with artillery from the to pay taxes. The revolution broke to pay the unbearable impositions of Abu Gosh family, and the sheikhs Mount of Olives. out on April 28, 1834. The rebels taxes led to years of disobedience of Bethlehem, eventually managed Taxes also played a major role surrounded Jerusalem and asked and conflict with the Ottoman Empire. to overthrow both the mutasallem in conflicts during Egyptian rule. the Egyptian guards of the citadel From 1802 to 1803, the mutasallem and his successor, which prompted In 1831, the Egyptian forces of to leave; but the guards refused, (Ottoman-appointed administrator) the governor of al-Sham (Greater Mohammad Ali, led by Ibrahim and a battle ensued that went on of the Jerusalem sanjak (district) Syria) to order his army to head to Pasha, took control of Palestine and for several days. The rebels were was Mohammad Al-Maraq, a Bethlehem and levy the taxes. Fearful Syria. Ibrahim Pasha introduced victorious, entered Jerusalem, and despot who oppressed not only of the governor’s vengeance and reforms in the administrative system, looted the barracks of the Egyptian Bethlehem’s population but also wrath, the population, leaders, and cancelled some taxes, and engaged army after fierce street fights. When Christian pilgrims. He imposed heavy farmers of Bethlehem took refuge the population in the government Ibrahim Pasha returned to Jerusalem, taxes that burdened the population, in the monasteries and refused to by appointing local leaders as the revolution had already spread and thus the people of Bethlehem surrender, whereupon the governor administrative rulers. On April 25, throughout Palestine. He hit the rebels revolted and brought their complaints of al-Sham threatened to blow up 1834, he issued orders to recruit one in the north with artillery and defeated to the governor of the Levant. The the monasteries. The monks acted out of five young men for the Ottoman them in the area of Mikhmas; then imposition of taxes that amounted as mediators – and the population army and sent out instructions to he moved on to Beit Jala, where the to ten times what the population was forced to pay taxes as usual. collect all weapons in order to limit rebels were barricaded among olive could afford also caused the Al-Quds However, no sooner had the governor the authority of sheikhs and local trees. But the Egyptian army broke Revolution, when from 1825 to 1826, left the area than the rebels resumed leaders. Lastly, he imposed new through the barricades. Next, the 54 THIS WEEK IN PALESTINE 55 Palestine in the Nineteenth Century But Bethlehem suffered not only from man-made destruction. On the It had been foretold morning of May 13, 1834, during the revolution against Ibrahim Pasha, an that Bethlehem would earthquake hit Palestine and caused be great among the severe damage to buildings, houses, nations, and it has churches, and monasteries. The proven so, if not in belfry (al-rasas) of Bethlehem was size then in the wealth entirely destroyed, and houses were of its history and made unfit for residence. Hundreds were killed. Aftershocks lasted for culture. ten days. Carl Ritter relates that the people of Bethlehem suffered much from earthquakes that devastated the town, and Tobler writes that many people died as a result of the Al-Qawawse, Al-Tarajme, Al-Hreizat, earthquake. Al-Deir, Al-Anatra, and Al-Fawaghreh, whereas most sources cite seven But the Bethlehemites managed to quarters, based on the various recover their town from hardship. Christian denominations, combining In 1839, according to Robinson, Al-Anatra with Al-Deir, and noting that Bethlehem’s economy was thriving, Al-Fawagreh was inhabited by the the town had several narrow entry town’s Muslim residents. A girl from Bethlehem. points, and its houses were strong. Photograph by Félix Bonfils. He added that Bethlehem’s population When in 1840, after the Egyptian worked mainly in agriculture but also withdrawal, the Ottomans returned, made beads, crosses, and other they were so impressed by the artifacts from olive wood and mother- reforms Egypt had implemented that of-pearl. “The people of Bethlehem they introduced their own reforms rebels pulled the army of Ibrahim Edward Robinson reports that the are restless,” Robinson concluded. that historically became known as Pasha to the area of Artas, where number of weapons that Ibrahim In 1850, Reverend Jesse Ames the Ottoman Charitable Organization, rebels were hiding around Solomon’s Pasha had asked Bethlehem’s Spencer expresses astonishment or Islahat (Reforms). Furthermore, Pools, camouflaged. The Egyptian population to submit far exceeded about the quality, solidity, and size of the Ottoman authorities issued law soldiers were resting near the lower the number of weapons the people Bethlehem’s houses.