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Download Date 01/10/2021 18:23:36 Rationalizing Ethically Questionable Intentions: An Investigation of Marketing Practices in the USA. Item Type Thesis Authors Overall, Jeffrey Scott Rights <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by- nc-nd/3.0/88x31.png" /></a><br />The University of Bradford theses are licenced under a <a rel="license" href="http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">Creative Commons Licence</a>. Download date 01/10/2021 18:23:36 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10454/6337 University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. Rationalizing Ethically Questionable Intentions: An Investigation of Marketing Practices in the USA By Jeffrey Scott OVERALL A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Bradford School of Management 2012 I Abstract In this research, a model for ethically questionable decision-making is developed by amalgamating several decision-making theories. The variables of interest are the techniques of neutralization, perceived moral intensity, Machiavellianism, unethical intentions, and ethical judgment. Using a sample of 276 U.S. marketing professionals, partial least squares structural equation modelling was used to validate the model. Findings reveal that U.S. marketing professionals rationalize their ethically questionable intentions through their: (1) perception of moral intensity (i.e., minimizing the harms on others, perceiving their self- interest as most salient, and indifference to social consensus), (2) reliance on various neutralization techniques, and; (3) judgment of their ethically questionable intentions as ethical. After controlling for the Machiavellian personality trait, Machiavellianism did not have a profound effect on the decision-making process, which implies that marketers, in general, are capable of the cognitive distortions found in this study. The main contribution to knowledge is the synthesis of the techniques of neutralization and the perceived moral intensity construct. Through this amalgamation, knowledge of the intermediary steps in the decision-making process has emerged. A contribution to knowledge involves testing the relationship between Machiavellianism and unethical intentions through the mediating variable of the techniques of neutralization. Through this investigation, it was found that the Machiavellian personality is inconsequential to the decision-making process. As a contribution to managerial knowledge, it was found that through cognitive distortions, marketers are capable of various illicit behaviours, which have been shown to be costly to not only stakeholders, but also to the profitability and reputations of organisations. KEYWORDS: Techniques of neutralization, perceived moral intensity, ethical judgment, ethically questionable intentions II Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Professor Jon Reast and Dr. James Wallace for their dedication, guidance, advice, encouragement, and mentoring. On numerous occasions, Dr. James Wallace went beyond the call of duty, and I thank him very much for his additional effort and dedication. I am also extremely grateful for his friendship through some of the most difficult times of my thesis. I would also like to thank Professor Nelarine Cornelius for her assistance and support. My deepest gratitude goes to my parents Marlene and Scott Overall for their endless love, support, guidance, and patience. Without them, I would have been incapable of accomplishing this task. My sister Meagan, brother-in-law Sammy, my nephew Sammy II, and grandmothers, Joy Hanrahan and Ivy Windsor, have been extremely supportive and encouraging. I especially thank my wife Robyn Anne Overall for her love, dedication, support, and motivation during the process. I also thank my Nepalese brother Basanta Poudyal for his inspiration. Finally, I thank Professor Charles McMillan and Dr. Philip Walsh for their guidance and advice. As a passing comment, conducting doctoral research is not all that difficult or challenging. However, the bureaucracy, administrative tasks, over-abundance of needless rules, forms, policies, and procedures make doctoral research, challenging, difficult, inefficient, and frustrating. In general, these factors remove everything that is supposed to be enjoyable out of conducting research. III Table of Contents Abstract ………………………………………………………………………...II Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………III Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………..IV List of Figures ……………………………………………………………….VIII List of Tables …………………………………………………………………..IX List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………..X 1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………..1 1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………..1 1.2 Ethically Questionable Behaviour in Marketing and Research Questions ……...3 1.3 American Context ……………………………………………………………...11 1.4 Objectives and Contributions ………………………………………………….15 1.5 Outline of the Thesis …………………………………………………………...17 2 Development of Research in Business Ethics ………………………...19 2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………19 2.2 Philosophical Perspectives in Ethics Research ………………………………...20 2.3 Normative Theories ……………………………………………………………23 2.3.1 Altruism ………………………………………………………………..25 2.3.2 Rational Egoism ……………………………………………………….29 2.3.2.1 Contextualization of Ethically Questionable Behaviour ………31 2.3.3 Irrational Egoism and Machiavellianism ………………………………34 2.3.4 Critique of Normative Theory ………...……………………………….36 2.4 Descriptive Theories …………………………………………………………...37 2.4.1 Rationalist Approach …………………………………………………..38 2.4.2 Intuitionist Approach …………………………………………………..40 2.5 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..41 3 Theoretical frameworks in Irrational Decision-making …………….43 3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………43 3.2 Decision-making Theories ……………………………………………………..44 3.2.1 Economic Rationality ………………………………………………….44 3.2.2 Bounded Rationality …………………………………………………...47 3.2.3 Irrationality and the Techniques of Neutralization …………………….48 IV 3.3 Decision-making Frameworks in Business Ethics …………………………….51 3.3.1 The Four-component Model …………………………………………...52 3.3.2 Issue-contingent Model ………………………………………………..55 3.3.3 Influential Factors ……………………………………………………...61 3.3.4 Intuitionist Models ……………………………………………………..64 3.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..66 4 A Model for Ethically Questionable Decision-making ………………68 4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………68 4.2 A Model for Ethically Questionable Decision-making ………………………..69 4.3 Study Variables ………………………………………………………………...75 4.3.1 Perceived Moral Intensity ……………………………………………...75 4.3.2 Techniques of Neutralization …………………………………………..82 4.3.3 Reflexive Decision-making ……………………………………………88 4.3.4 Machiavellianism ………………………………………………………90 4.4 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………..93 5 Methodology ……………………………………………………………95 5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………95 5.2 Current Issues in Ethics Research ……………………………………………..97 5.2.1 Socially Desirable Response Bias ……………………………………..97 5.2.2 Vignette-based Questionnaires ………………………………………..99 5.2.3 Intentions as Approximates of Behaviour ……………………………100 5.3 Choice of Methods ……………………………………………………………101 5.3.1 Vignettes ……………………………………………………………...102 5.3.1.1 Package Downsizing ………………………………………….104 5.3.1.2 Environmental Pollution ……………………………………...105 5.3.1.3 Subprime Lending ……………………………………………106 5.3.2 Techniques of Neutralization …………………………………………107 5.3.3 Perceived Moral Intensity …………………………………………….109 5.3.4 Ethical Judgment ……………………………………………………..113 5.3.5 Unethical Intentions …………………………………………………..115 5.3.6 Machiavellianism ……………………………………………………..117 5.3.7 Demographic Factors …………………………………………………121 5.3.8 Summary ……………………………………………………………...122 5.4 Measurement Development …………………………………………………..124 5.4.1 Pre-testing and Pilot Study …………………………………………...124 5.4.2 Ethical Clearance ……………………………………………………..125 5.5 Data Collection ……………………………………………………………….126 5.5.1 Sampling Method …………………………………………………….126 5.5.2 Sample ………………………………………………………………..129 5.6 Methods of Analysis ………………………………………………………….132 5.7 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………133 V 6 Results …………………………………………………………………135 6.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….135 6.2 Measurement Model …………………………………………………………136 6.2.1 Vignette #1 Package Downsizing ……………………………………137 6.2.2 Vignette #2 Environmental Pollution ………………………………..137 6.2.3 Vignette #3 Subprime Lending ………………………………………138 6.2.4 Omnibus Model ………………………………………………………139 6.3 Validity and Reliability ………………………………………………………140 6.3.1 Convergent and Discriminant Validity ………………………………141 6.3.1.1 Vignette #1 Package Downsizing ……………………………141 6.3.1.2 Vignette #2 Environmental Pollution ………………………..146 6.3.1.3 Vignette #3 Subprime Lending ………………………………148 6.3.1.4 Omnibus Model ………………………………………………150 6.3.2 Common Method Variance …………………………………………..152 6.4 Alternative Model …………………………………………………………….155 6.4.1.1 Vignette #1 Package Downsizing …………………………….155 6.4.1.2 Vignette #2 Environmental Pollution ………………………...156 6.4.1.3 Vignette #3 Subprime Lending ……………………………….157 6.4.1.4 Omnibus Model ………………………………………………158 6.4.2 Convergent and Discriminant Validity ………………………………159 6.4.2.1 Vignette #1 Package Downsizing ……………………………159 6.4.2.2 Vignette #2 Environmental Pollution ………………………...161 6.4.2.3
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