Heterodimerization of G Protein-Coupled Receptors: Specificity and Functional Significance
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0031-6997/05/5703-289–298$7.00 PHARMACOLOGICAL REVIEWS Vol. 57, No. 3 Copyright © 2005 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 50301/3048484 Pharmacol Rev 57:289–298, 2005 Printed in U.S.A Heterodimerization of G Protein-Coupled Receptors: Specificity and Functional Significance STEVEN C. PRINSTER, CHRIS HAGUE, AND RANDY A. HALL Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta Georgia Abstract ............................................................................... 289 I. Introduction............................................................................ 289 A. GABAB receptors .................................................................... 290 B. Taste receptors ...................................................................... 291 C. Adrenergic receptors ................................................................. 291 D. Opioid receptors ..................................................................... 292 E. Somatostatin receptors............................................................... 292 F. Purinergic receptors ................................................................. 293 G. Olfactory receptors .................................................................. 293 H. Vasopressin, oxytocin, and other receptors ............................................. 294 II. Clinical significance of G protein-coupled receptor heterodimerization........................ 294 III. Conclusions ............................................................................ 296 Acknowledgments....................................................................... 296 References ............................................................................. 296 Abstract——G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) ity. Even those GPCRs that do not absolutely require are cell surface receptors that mediate physiological heterodimerization may still specifically associate responses to a diverse array of stimuli. GPCRs have with other GPCR subtypes, sometimes resulting in traditionally been thought to act as monomers, but dramatic effects on receptor pharmacology, signaling, recent evidence suggests that GPCRs may form dimers and/or internalization. Understanding the specificity (or higher-order oligomers) as part of their normal and functional significance of GPCR heterodimeriza- trafficking and function. In fact, certain GPCRs seem tion is of tremendous clinical importance since GPCRs to have a strict requirement for heterodimerization to are the molecular targets for numerous therapeutic attain proper surface expression and functional activ- drugs. I. Introduction merous physiological processes and are the targets of many clinically important drugs, with approximately The largest class of cell surface receptors in mamma- half of all current prescription drugs acting through lian genomes is the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs1). Of the approximately 1000 genes GPCRs (Drews, 1996). thought to encode GPCRs in humans, about 300 to 400 GPCRs are characterized structurally by an amino- mediate the effects of endogenous ligands, with the re- terminal extracellular domain, a carboxyl-terminal in- mainder being sensory receptors. GPCRs mediate nu- tracellular domain, and seven hydrophobic transmem- brane domains. The interaction of an agonist with a Address correspondence to: Randy A. Hall, Department of Phar- GPCR binding pocket elicits or stabilizes a conforma- macology, Emory University School of Medicine, 5113 Rollins Re- search Center, 1510 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322. E-mail: tional change in the receptor’s transmembrane domains. [email protected] This conformational change allows the receptor to asso- Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at ciate with heterotrimeric G proteins and initiate a sig- http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org. naling cascade inside the cell leading to a physiological doi:10.1124/pr.57.3.1. 1Abbreviations: GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; mGluR, response (Lefkowitz et al., 1993). GPCRs have tradition- metabotropic glutamate receptor; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; AR, ally been thought to act as monomers, but this idea has adrenergic receptor; OPR, opioid peptide receptor; SSTR, somatosta- been challenged over the past few years by accumulating tin type receptor; OR, olfactory receptor; OTR, oxytocin receptor; pharmacological and biochemical data. The emerging 5-HT, serotonin; TRH, thyrotropin-releasing hormone; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; Fz, frizzled; FEVR, familial exudative vit- view in the field is that the primary functional GPCR reoretinopathy. signaling unit may actually consist of dimers or oli- 289 290 PRINSTER ET AL. gomers of receptors (Jordan et al., 2000; Marshall, 2001; However, it was found to physically assemble with George et al., 2002; Kroeger et al., 2003; Milligan, 2004; GABABR1 when the two receptors were coexpressed in Terrillon and Bouvier, 2004b). cells, resulting in the formation of functional GABAB Many transmembrane receptors are known to dimer- receptors that trafficked efficiently to the cell surface ize as part of their normal function, with receptor ty- and possessed many of the properties ascribed to neuro- rosine kinases being a particularly well studied exam- nal GABAB receptors (Marshall et al., 1999). These stud- ple. The idea that GPCRs might also dimerize was first ies provided strong evidence that heterodimerization is proposed in 1982 (Agnati et al., 1982), although the idea essential for GABAB receptor function. did not gain wide acceptance until more than a decade The interaction between GABABR1 and GABABR2 ap- later. Early evidence for GPCR dimerization came from pears to be quite specific in nature. However, GABABR1 unexplained cooperativity observed in ligand binding is found in many brain regions that do not detectably assays and unexpectedly large estimates of the size of express GABABR2 (Jones et al., 1998; Kaupmann et al., receptor complexes on gel filtration columns. Detailed 1998; Durkin et al., 1999; Kuner et al., 1999; Margeta- descriptions of these early studies are available in sev- Mitrovic et al., 1999; Ng et al., 1999; Calver et al., 2000; eral previous reviews (Angers et al., 2002; Agnati et al., Clark et al., 2000; Ige et al., 2000; Charara et al., 2004), 2003). and therefore, several groups have explored the possi- Multimerization of GPCRs was originally proposed bility that GABABR1 might be able to assemble with based on studies investigating the propensity of certain other GPCRs to form functional receptors in these re- GPCRs to dimerize with themselves (“homodimeriza- gions of the brain. The eight members of the metabo- tion”). There is now a growing list of receptors that have tropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) family are the closest been found to associate with other receptors (“het- relatives of the GABAB receptors in terms of primary erodimerization”). One concern in the field has been that sequence (Kaupmann et al., 1997); thus, the various GPCR heterodimerization might be an artifact of recep- mGluR subtypes have received special attention as po- tor over-expression and/or a result of the techniques tential partners for GABABR1 (Ng et al., 1999; Pagano used to study receptor associations. Such concerns are et al., 2001; Balasubramanian et al., 2004). One group best addressed by considering the evidence that these found no evidence for association of any of the mGluR receptor-receptor interactions are specific versus non- subtypes with GABABR1 (Pagano et al., 2001), whereas specific and that they are functionally important versus a second group reported an interaction with mGluR4 physiologically irrelevant. This review will focus on the that did not appear to be of functional significance (Sul- current state of research on GPCR heterodimerization, livan et al., 2000). A third group performed a much with an emphasis on the specificity of these interactions wider screen for the ability of other GPCRs to promote and their functional significance. GABABR1 surface expression and found no evidence that any of the mGluR subtypes or 30 other GPCRs A. GABAB Receptors examined could enhance the targeting of GABABR1 to Although the concept of GPCR heterodimerization the cell surface. These studies did reveal, although, a was initially proposed in the early 1980’s (Agnati et al., surprising interaction between GABABR1 and GABAA 1982), the first widely accepted demonstration of func- receptors (Balasubramanian et al., 2004). However, in tional consequences for GPCR heterodimerization came terms of heterodimerization with other GPCRs, the cur- ␥ from the GABAB receptors. -Aminobutyric acid (GABA) rent evidence suggests a high degree of specificity in the is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mamma- interaction between GABABR1 and GABABR2. lian brain, and the physiological actions of GABA are The structural determinants of the GABABR1/ mediated via activation of three distinct types of cell GABABR2 interaction have been examined in some de- surface receptors: GABAA and GABAC receptors, which tail. Both receptors have coiled-coil regions on their car- are ligand-gated chloride channels, and GABAB recep- boxyl-termini that physically interact with each other in tors, which are GPCRs. In 1997, the first GABAB recep- yeast two-hybrid and fusion protein pull-down assays tor cDNA was cloned (Kaupmann et al., 1997). This (White et al., 1998; Kuner et al., 1999). However, it receptor was termed GABABR1 and found to bind to