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Appendix B Acronyms and Abbreviations

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Appendix B Acronyms and Abbreviations Units of Measure and some Physical Constants A . ampere --- unit of electric current [named after André M. Ampère (1775---1836), French physicist]. 1 A represents a flow of one coulomb of electricity per second (or: 1A = 1C/s) Ah ............ amperehour Å . angstrom --- unit of length (used in particular for the short wavelength spectrum); 1Å= 10---10 m [named after Anders Jonas Ängström (1814--- 1874), Swedish physicist and astronomer] amu. atomic mass unit (1.6605402 10---27 kg) are............) unit of area (1 are = 100 m2 arcmin......... arcminute [1’ = (1/60)º or 1 arcmin = 2.908882 x 10---4 radian] arcsec.......... arcsecond [1” = (1/60)’ or 1 arcsec = 4.848137 x 10---6 radian= 0.000278º] au . astronomical unit --- unit of length, namely the mean Earth/sun distance [=1.495978706 1013 cm, which is the semimajor axis of the Earth’s orbit around the sun (or about 150 million km)] bar............) pressure, (1 bar = 105 Nm---2 Bq . Becquerel [named after Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, a French physi- cist (1820---1891)]. The Bq is a SI unit used to measure a radioactivity. One Becquerel is that quantity of a radioactive material that will have 1 transformations in one second. c . velocity of light in vacuum (299,792,458 m/s) cd . candela (unit of luminous intensity). The candela is the luminous inten- sity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radi- ation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. cm............ centimeter (unit of length) 1 cm = 10---2 m C . coulomb --- unit of electrical charge; 1 C = 1 As [named after Charles--- Augustin Coulomb (1736---1806), French physicist. The coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere. ºC . degree Celsius [named after Anders Celsius (1701---1744), Swedish as- tronomer] dB . decibel --- a unit for expressing the signal strength [named after Alexan- der Graham Bell (1847---1922), Scottish---born American inventor] dm............ decimeter (length) 1 dm = 10---1 m E.............. Eötvös (1 E = 10---9 s---2).Thelineargradientofgravityisdefinedin units of Eötvös, named in honor of the Hungarian physicist Roland Eötvös (1848---1919). The Eötvös unit is used in geophysics to measure the rate of change, or gradient in the acceleration of gravity with hori- zontal distance. Erlang . a dimensionless unit of average traffic density (occupancy) of a facility (telecommunications system, data collection system, etc.) during a pe- riod of time, usually a busy hour. Example: 60 calls in 1 hour, each last- ing for 5 minutes = 300 minutes / 60 min per hour = 5 Erlang. Network designers use the Erlang to understand traffic patterns. eV. electron volt (1.60217733 10---19 J). A unit of energy, equal to the energy an electron (or proton) would gain when accelerated by 1 volt. F .............. farad --- a unit of capacitance [named after Michael Faraday (1791 ---1867), English physicist and chemist]. The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a difference po- tential of 1 volt when it is charged by a quantity of electricity equal to 1 coulomb. f .............. focallength 3518 f/d . focal---length---to---diameter ratio GHz. Gigahertz (109 Hz) GWe. Gigawatt (109 W) electrical energy gal . unit of acceleration (used in particular in gravity measurements): 1 gal = 10---2 m s---2 = 1 cm s---2; 1 mgal = 10---5 m s---2 [named after Galilei Galileo (1564---1642), Italian mathematician, astronomer and physi- cist]. The gal unit is used in making measurements of local variations in the acceleration of gravity g. Variations in the acceleration of Earth’s gravity (e.g. gravity anomalies) are typically measured in milligal (mgal). One gal is approximately 0.0010197 g, or 1 gal is about 10---3 g. Hence, 1 mgal is about 10---6 g. gauss (G) . unit of magnetic induction [named after Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777--- 1855), German mathematician] Gy . Gray [named after Louis Harold Gray (1905---1965) British physicist, president of BIR (British Institute of Radiology) and elected F.R.S. (Fellow of the Royal Society) in 1961]. The gray is a SI unit used to mea- sure a quantity called absorbed dose. This relates to the amount of en- ergy actually absorbed in some material, and is used for any type of radi- ation and any material. One gray is equal to one joule of energy depos- ited in one kg of a material (or: 1 gray = 1 J/kg). Note: In the SI system, the rad is replaced by the gray; 1 krad =10 gray. H . henry --- unit of magnetic inductance; 1 H = 1Wb/A or 1Vs/A [named after Joseph Henry, a nineteenth---century US physicist] Hz . hertz --- a measure of frequency; 1Hz = 1/s [named after Heinrich Ru- dolf Hertz (1857---1894), German physicist]. In 1887, Hertz proved that energy is transmitted through a vacuum by electromagnetic waves. h..............) hecto (102 h (or hr) . hour h. Planck’s constant = 6.6260755 x 10---34 Js (joule second) ha.............) hectare (1 ha = 104 m2 hPa . hectopascal (international standard of pressure, 1 hPa = 100 Pa) Isp . specific impulse with a unit Ns/kg. The numerical value of the specific impulse also corresponds to the effective exhaust velocity (m/s) of the gas exiting the thruster in a vacuum. See also Glossary. J . joule --- unit of work or energy; 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 Ws [named after James Prescott Joule (1818---1889), British physicist] Jy . “Jansky,” the unit of radio---wave emission strength or flux density (brightness of a radio source), in honor of Karl G. Jansky (1905---1950) an American engineer whose discovery of radio waves (1931) from an extraterrestrial source inaugurated the development of radio astrono- my. Jansky published his findings in 1932 while working at Bell Tele- phone Laboratories in Murray Hill, NJ, USA. The “Jy” is a unit of radiative flux density (or radio---wave emission strength) which is commonly used in radio and infrared astronomy. 1 Jy = 10---26 W/(m2 Hz). The units of Jy (Hz)---1/2 then refer to the noise power. K . degreeKelvin[namedafterSirWilliamThomson(LordKelvin,1824--- 1907), Scottish engineer, physicist and mathematician]. The degree Kelvin is the unit of temperature determined by the Carnot cycle with the triple---point temperature of water defined as 273.15 K (corre- sponds exactly to 0 ºC). k..............) kilo (103 kbit/s.......... kilobit per second (103 bit/s) keV........... kiloelectron volt (103 eV) kg............. kilogram (103 g) kg/m3 .......... density kHz. kilohertz (103 Hz) 3519 km............ kilometer (103 m) krad ........... kilorad(seeradbelow) kW............ kilowatt (103 watt) kWe . kilowatt electric (used to distinguish electrical power from thermal power) L.............. liter (volume) 1l = 1 dm3 [thesymbolforliteriscapitalized(whenalone by itself) to avoid confusion with the number 1] lm . lumen (cd sr) luminous flux. The lumen is the luminous flux emitted in a solid angle of 1 steradian by a uniform point source having an intensity of 1 candela. lx.............. lux (lm/m2 )illumination M.............) Mega (106 Mbit/s.......... Megabit per second (106 bitpersecond) MeV........... Megaelectron volt (106 eV) MHz........... Megahertz (106 hertz) Msample/s . Mega sample/s (also written as Msps) m ............. meter m.............) milli (10---3 m2 ............. area(squaremeter) m3 ............. volume(cubicmeter) marcsec........ milliarcsecond = 2.78º x 10---7 mb (mbar) ...... millibar min ............ minute mCrab . “ 1 mCrab” is a unit to describe the X---ray intensity defined as 1/1000 of the intensity of the Crab nebula. X---ray astronomers use this unit when comparing observations from different X---ray detectors on different instruments. mg............ milligram (10---3 g) mgal. milligal 10---6 g (where “g” is the gravity constant) mJ. millijoule (10---3 J) ml............. milliliter (10---3 l) mm............ millimeter (unit of length) 1 mm = 10---3 m mN ............ millinewton mrad........... milliradian 6326) ms............. millisecond m/s ............ meterpersecond(velocity) m ..............)micro (10---6 marcsec......... microarcsecond = 2.8º x 10---10 mgal...........) microgal 10---9 g (where “g” is the gravity constant of 9.81 m/s2 mm............ micrometer (10---6 m) mrad ........... microradian ms. microsecond (10---6 second) N............. newton --- unit of force; 1N = 1 kgm/s2 [namedafterSirIsaacNewton (1643---1727), English natural philosopher and mathematician] Nm . newton meter (work or energy) Nms . newton meter second (angular momentum) n.............. nano (10---9) nm............ nanometer (10---9 m) nm . nautical miles [1 nm = 1852 m (international)] nT. nanotesla (10---9 tesla) SI unit of magnetic flux density W ............. ohm --- unit of electrical resistance; 1 W =1V/A[namedafterGeorg Simon Ohm (1789---1854), German physicist Pa............. pascal --- unit of pressure; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 [namedafterBlaisePascal (1623---1662), French mathematician and physicist]. Normal atmo- spheric pressure = 101,320 Pa (1,013.2 millibar) _____________________ 6326) An example is given to better visualize the plane angle of a milliradian. The apparent sun disk angle as seen from Earth is 32’ 26” (max, or about 30.7 mrad), and 31’ 31” (min) --- --- on average about 32 arcmin. 3520 p..............) pico (10---12 pC............. picocoulomb (10---12 coulomb) pT............. picotesla (10---12 tesla) parsec . pc = astronomical unit of length. It represents the distance at which the radius of the Earth’s orbit subtends an angle of one second of arc; thus a star at a distance of one parsec would have a parallax of one second, and the distance of an object in parsecs is the reciprocal of its parallax in sec- onds of arc. One parsec equals 3.26 light---years, which is equivalent to 3.08374 x 1013 km ppb............) parts per billion (10---9 ppbv ........... partsperbillion, byvolume ppm...........) parts per million (10---6 ppmv .
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    Bibliography from ADS file: gingerich.bib Gingerich, O., “Year of astronomy: Mankind’s place in the Universe”, August 16, 2021 2009Natur.457...28G ADS Gingerich, O., “Book Review: Mikołaj Kopernik Dzieła Wszystkie, iii”, 2008JHA....39..416G ADS Gingerich, O., “The Role of Ephemerides from Ptolemy to Kepler”, Gingerich, O., “Not so amateur”, 2008Natur.453..156G ADS 2017ASSP...50...17G ADS Gingerich, O.: 2007a, Revisiting The Fitness of the Environment, 20 Gingerich, O., “Book Review: The Abridged Almagest”, 2007fcl..book...20G ADS 2016JHA....47..448G ADS Gingerich, O., “Publish or Perish: The Case of Thomas Harriot”, Gingerich, O.: 2016b, Copernicus: A Very Short Introduction 2007AAS...211.3401G ADS 2016cvsi.book.....G ADS Gingerich, O., “Quests of a theoretical astronomer”, 2007Natur.450..480G Gingerich, O., “Book Review: Longitude for the Coffee Table”, ADS 2016JHA....47..224G ADS Gingerich, O., “Book review: Heinrich Rantzau und die Astrologie / Disqui- Gingerich, O., “Letter: On Galileo and the Moon”, 2016JRASC.110...95G sitiones Historiae Scientiarum, Braunschweiger Beiträge zur Wissenschafts- ADS geschichte, Band 2; Braunschweig, 318 pp., 2004, ISBN 3-927939-65-X.”, Gingerich, O., “Book Review: Studien zur ”Sphaera’ des Johannes de Sacro- 2007JHA....38..510G ADS bosco”, 2015JHA....46..101G ADS Gingerich, O., “Gutenberg’s Gift”, 2007ASPC..377..319G ADS Pasachoff, J. M., Needham, P. S., Wright, E. T., & Gingerich, O., “Recreating Gingerich, O., “Book Review: le Conflit Entre L’astronomie Nouvelle et Galileo’s 1609 Discovery of Lunar Mountains”,