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Political Perestroika and the Rise of the Rukh: Ukranian Nationalism, 1989-90

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Political Perestroika and the Rise of the Rukh: Ukranian Nationalism, 1989-90 Sigma: Journal of Political and International Studies Volume 9 Article 3 12-1-1991 Political Perestroika and the Rise of the Rukh: Ukranian Nationalism, 1989-90 Scott Copper Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sigma Recommended Citation Copper, Scott (1991) "Political Perestroika and the Rise of the Rukh: Ukranian Nationalism, 1989-90," Sigma: Journal of Political and International Studies: Vol. 9 , Article 3. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sigma/vol9/iss1/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sigma: Journal of Political and International Studies by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Political Perestroika and the Rise of Rukh Ukrainian Nationalism, 1989-90 by Scott Cooper Precisely because of the Ukraine's im­ Introduction portance, any nationalist or separatist feeling within the Ukraine must be taken seriously. The Soviet Union without the Ukraine may Soviet historians attempt to minimize the never have become a superpower. The differences between Russians and their Ukraine's fertile soil, situated in a relatively Ukrainian kin. The Communist Party offi­ mild climate, has been breadbasket to Russia cially predicts and proclaims the gradual for almost four centuries. Its rich mineral merger of the two nationalities into one resources provided much of the coal and people (Chirovsky 1984a, 17). In spite of iron necessary for Stalin's industrialization, this, the Party has been unable to stamp out and its millions of skilled workers provided Ukrainian nationalism, even by extreme much of the manpower. In fact, Roman methods. And in the Gorbachev era nation­ Szporluk points out that, because Great alist feeling has exploded from hiding, Russians make up only about 52 percent of apparently only strengthened by centuries of the Soviet Union, the Ukrainians and Byelo­ Russian domination and decades of Soviet russians (between them compromising 20 oppression. This paper will trace the devel­ percent of the population) are the crucial, opment of this nationalist feeling in order to marginal factor which allows continued show how historical factors have led to Slavic domination of the diverse Soviet recent, dramatic changes in Ukrainian poli­ empire (1986, 153). Without their coopera­ tics. I will focus especially on this feeling tion, the empire would be too unwieldy and of nationalism, to the exclusion of economic unstable. factors, in explaining Ukrainian political change. While economic factors are obvi- 14 PSA REVIEW ously a critical element in recent events, Cossack state is the historical source of space restrictions prevent me from discuss­ modem Ukrainian nationalism. The memo­ ing these factors in any detail. ry of this period of autonomy has driven twentieth century nationalists to seek greater freedom from Moscow. Kievan-Rus' and Polish Rule The Ukraine first existed as the Kievan-Rus' Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Russian Rule state, which reached the peak of its territori­ al expansion under Prince Vladimir one The year 1648 marked the triumphant peak thousand years ago. Vladimir ruled virtual­ of the Cossack state; Hetman Bohdan ly all of the European portion of the present­ Khmelnytsky destroyed the Polish army and day USSR, from the Black Sea in the south declared the Ukraine a sovereign state. As to the White Sea in the north, and from the usual, however, Ukrainian independence Danube in the west to the Volga basin in the was short-lived. By 1654 continued war east (Chirovsky 1984a, 124). But, because with Poland had weakened the Ukraine of its size, Vladimir's empire proved too dramatically and Khmelnytsky was forced to weak to survive, although he tried to unify form an alliance with the newly emergent it by Christianizing his subjects. In the Muscovite Empire. Ukrainian historians years 1236 to 1240 the weakened kingdom claim that Khmelnytsky's 1654 treaty with was thoroughly conquered by the invading Russia was merely a military alliance (Chir­ Mongols. One hundred years later, the ovsky 1984b, 183), but for over three centu­ weakened Mongols were displaced by a ries Russian and Soviet leaders have inter­ Lithuanian-Rus' commonwealth. But the preted the treaty as a complete Ukrainian commonwealth was short-lived; in l385, submission to Moscow. Lithuania united with a stronger Poland and Russia, as the stronger power, was able ended Rus' sovereignty. Also at this time, to interpret the treaty as it saw fit, despite the name "Ukraine" (literally, "at the edge") Ukrainian protest. Ukrainian autonomy emerged because of the nation's position at gradually decreased until, from 1763 to the border of Europe and Asia. 1783, Catherine the Great introduced serf­ Catholic Poland ruled the Ukraine for dom to the Ukraine, tying the peasants to almost three centuries but was bitterly resist­ the land. The next century and a half of ed by the Orthodox Ukrainian nation. tsarist rule failed, however, to "Russify" the Poland exploited the Ukraine's resources Ukrainian people; history had given the and population without preventing attacks by Ukraine a taste of autonomy and indepen­ Crimean Tatars and other invaders from the dence which tsarist restrictions could not East (Chirovsky 1984b, 28-29). The result overcome. of this unrest was the emergence of the Cossacks, groups that fled Polish rule for the vast steppes of the eastern and southern Ukraine, which were free of foreign domi­ Bolshevik Rule nation. By the mid-1500s these Cossacks had elected a "hetman" as their leader and Upon seizing power in 1917, one of the considered themselves autonomous. This Bolsheviks' first acts was a "Declaration of UKRAINIAN NATIONALISM 15 the Rights of the Peoples of Russia," which Since Stalin granted sovereignty and even separation to the Russian Empire's nationalities (Dmy­ Since Stalin's death, nationalism has been tryshyn 1977, 485). The Ukrainian Rada expressed mainly through the dissident (or parliament) in Kiev established an inde­ movement. These dissidents have called for pendent Ukrainian Peoples Republic within increasing Ukrainian autonomy and Ukrain­ days. The next two years saw bitter civil ization as well as for basic human rights. war in the Ukraine, which was alternately Each of the postwar communist leaders of controlled by the Bolshevik Red Army, the Ukraine has treated dissent harshly; the Germany, Ukrainian nationalists, the White dissidents of the post-Stalin era have faced Army, and finally by the Red Army. In lengthy jail sentences, forced exile, and 1921 the Ukraine was split between Poland "psychiatric treatment." But the dissident and Russia and on December 30, 1922, the movement has survived. Bilinsky even Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, with its suggest that the crackdowns have only pro­ capital at Kiev, entered the Soviet Union. duced "professional oppositionists" who By the mid-1920s, Mykola Skrypnyk, a have survived labor camps and returned to Ukrainian Bolshevik who advocated the dissent (1983, 9). "Ukrainization" of the republic, was the Between 1953 and 1976 both the First dominant political figure in the Ukraine. and Second Secretaries of the Ukrainian Although his power was limited, he was Communist Party have been Ukrainians. able to increase the number of Ukrainians in Even more importantly, the Ukrainian First the party elite, the use of the Ukrainian Secretary has been on the Soviet Politburo language in political life, and the number of since 1953. Thus, the traditional importance books and newspapers published in Ukraini­ of the Second Secretary of the non-Russian an (Mace 1983, 305). This limited Ukrain­ republics has diminished in the Ukraine: ization, however, was terminated by Stalin each of the First Secretaries (Shelest, by 1932. Skrypnyk was denounced and Shcherbitsky, and Ivashko) has been even committed suicide. The forced collectiviza­ more powerful than his Second Secretary. tion of 1932-33 crushed the Ukrainian peas­ Almost all of the top positions in the Ukrai­ antry and the accompanying famine left nian party, government, and KGB have been millions dead. filled by Ukrainians. As mentioned previ­ The Ukrainians' next brief taste of free­ ously, Ukrainians fill a crucial role in the dom came when Nazi troops "liberated" continued Slavic domination of the Soviet them during World War II. The Ukraine Union. In fact, the Ukraine actually "ex­ soon turned against the oppressive German ports" cadres to Moscow rather than import­ rule and fought the Germans until the Red ing them (Gustafson and Mann 1988, 37). Army returned to the Ukraine in 1944--at This obviously implies that the Ukrainians which point the Ukrainian nationalists turned have attained a high amount of trust in their weapons against the communists. Moscow. But Motyl also points out that Bilocerkowycz states that anti-Soviet guerilla moving a Ukrainian party official to Mos­ activities continued until 1950, with isolated cow has the added advantage of separating attacks as late as 1956 (1988, 20). him from any independent power base in the Ukraine, "preventing the formation of a 16 PSA REVIEW native--autonomous--Ukrainian elite" (1987, ro, Shcherbitsky held on to power in the 123). Ukraine and in the Politburo. His power This policy of isolation has not been and longevity in office probably stem from entirely successful though. In the 1950s, his tight control of the Ukrainian party Pyotr Shelest managed to form a strong machine and of the Ukraine's mineral, power base from which he pushed for great­ industrial, and agricultural resources, which er Ukrainian sovereignty within the Soviet are vital to the economic success of the Union and for cultural individuality, much country as a whole (Keller 1989a, A6). as Skrypnyk had done in the 1920s. His Shcherbitsky's grip began to fail in early Ukrainization led eventually to his replace­ 1989. Under pressure from Moscow, the ment in 1972 by Vladimir Shcherbitsky, Ukraine held parliamentary elections which who also established an independent power allowed some degree of competition.
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