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HISTORY of UKRAINE and UKRAINIAN CULTURE Scientific and Methodical Complex for Foreign Students

HISTORY of UKRAINE and UKRAINIAN CULTURE Scientific and Methodical Complex for Foreign Students

Ministry of Education and Science of

Flight Academy of National Aviation University

IRYNA ROMANKO

HISTORY OF UKRAINE AND Scientific and Methodical Complex for foreign students

Part 3 GUIDELINES FOR SELF-

Kropyvnytskyi

2019 ɍȾɄ 94(477):811.111

R e v i e w e r s:

Chornyi Olexandr Vasylovych – the Head of the Department of of Central Pedagogical University, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate professor. Herasymenko Liudmyla Serhiivna – associate professor of the Department of Foreign Languages of Flight Academy of National Aviation University, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate professor.

ɇɚɜɱɚɥɶɧɨɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɧɢɣɤɨɦɩɥɟɤɫɩɿɞɝɨɬɨɜɥɟɧɨɡɝɿɞɧɨɪɨɛɨɱɨʀɩɪɨɝɪɚɦɢɧɚɜɱɚɥɶɧɨʀɞɢɫɰɢɩɥɿɧɢ "ȱɫɬɨɪɿɹ ɍɤɪɚʀɧɢ ɬɚ ɭɤɪɚʀɧɫɶɤɨʀ ɤɭɥɶɬɭɪɢ" ɞɥɹ ɿɧɨɡɟɦɧɢɯ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɿɜ, ɡɚɬɜɟɪɞɠɟɧɨʀ ɧɚ ɡɚɫɿɞɚɧɧɿ ɤɚɮɟɞɪɢ ɩɪɨɮɟɫɿɣɧɨʀ ɩɟɞɚɝɨɝɿɤɢɬɚɫɨɰɿɚɥɶɧɨɝɭɦɚɧɿɬɚɪɧɢɯɧɚɭɤ (ɩɪɨɬɨɤɨɥʋ1 ɜɿɞ 31 ɫɟɪɩɧɹ 2018 ɪɨɤɭ) ɬɚɫɯɜɚɥɟɧɨʀɆɟɬɨɞɢɱɧɢɦɢ ɪɚɞɚɦɢɮɚɤɭɥɶɬɟɬɿɜɦɟɧɟɞɠɦɟɧɬɭ, ɥɶɨɬɧɨʀɟɤɫɩɥɭɚɬɚɰɿʀɬɚɨɛɫɥɭɝɨɜɭɜɚɧɧɹɩɨɜɿɬɪɹɧɨɝɨɪɭɯɭ. ɇɚɜɱɚɥɶɧɢɣ ɩɨɫɿɛɧɢɤ ɡɧɚɣɨɦɢɬɶ ɿɧɨɡɟɦɧɢɯ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɿɜ ɡ ɿɫɬɨɪɿɽɸ ɍɤɪɚʀɧɢ, ʀʀ ɛɚɝɚɬɨɸ ɤɭɥɶɬɭɪɨɸ, ɨɯɨɩɥɸɽ ɧɚɣɜɚɠɥɢɜɿɲɿɚɫɩɟɤɬɢ ɭɤɪɚʀɧɫɶɤɨʀɞɟɪɠɚɜɧɨɫɬɿ. ɋɜɿɬɭɤɪɚʀɧɫɶɤɢɯɧɚɰɿɨɧɚɥɶɧɢɯɬɪɚɞɢɰɿɣ ɭɧɿɤɚɥɶɧɢɣ. ɋɬɨɥɿɬɬɹɦɢ ɪɨɡɜɢɜɚɥɚɫɹ ɫɢɫɬɟɦɚ ɪɢɬɭɚɥɿɜ ɿ ɜɿɪɭɜɚɧɶ, ɹɤɿ ɧɚ ɫɭɱɚɫɧɨɦɭ ɟɬɚɩɿ ɧɚɛɭɜɚɸɬɶ ɧɨɜɨʀ ɩɨɩɭɥɹɪɧɨɫɬɿ. Ʉɧɢɝɚ ɪɨɡɩɨɜɿɞɚɽ ɩɪɨ ɤɚɥɟɧɞɚɪɧɿ ɫɜɹɬɚ ɜ ɍɤɪɚʀɧɿ: ɞɟɪɠɚɜɧɿ, ɪɟɥɿɝɿɣɧɿ, ɩɪɨɮɟɫɿɣɧɿ, ɧɚɪɨɞɧɿ, ɚ ɬɚɤɨɠ ɪɿɡɧɿ ɩɚɦ ɹɬɧɿ ɞɚɬɢ. ɍ ɩɨɫɿɛɧɢɤɭ ɩɪɟɞɫɬɚɜɥɟɧɿ ɪɿɡɧɨɦɚɧɿɬɧɿ ɞɚɧɿ ɩɪɨ ɮɥɨɪɭ ɿ ɮɚɭɧɭ ɤɥɿɦɚɬɢɱɧɢɯ ɡɨɧ ɍɤɪɚʀɧɢ, ʀʀ ɥɚɧɞɲɚɮɬɢ, ɞɢɜɨɜɢɠɧɿɪɨɫɥɢɧɢ, ɨɯɨɪɨɧɭɧɚɜɤɨɥɢɲɧɶɨɝɨɫɟɪɟɞɨɜɢɳɚ. ȼɢɞɚɧɧɹ ɜɤɥɸɱɚɽ ɩɢɬɚɧɧɹ ɞɥɹ ɫɚɦɨɫɬɿɣɧɨʀ ɪɨɛɨɬɢ, ɬɟɦɢ ɞɥɹ ɤɨɪɨɬɤɨɝɨ ɨɝɥɹɞɭ, ɩɪɚɤɬɢɱɧɿ ɬɜɨɪɱɿ ɡɚɜɞɚɧɧɹ, ɜɿɤɬɨɪɢɧɢ, ɬɟɫɬɢ, ɫɥɨɜɧɢɤɨɫɧɨɜɧɢɯɬɟɪɦɿɧɿɜɿɩɨɧɹɬɶ. ɉɟɪɟɥɿɤɪɟɤɨɦɟɧɞɨɜɚɧɨʀɥɿɬɟɪɚɬɭɪɢɞɨɩɨɦɨɠɟ ɿɧɨɡɟɦɧɢɦɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɚɦɭɛɿɥɶɲɝɥɢɛɨɤɨɦɭɜɢɜɱɟɧɧɿɦɚɬɟɪɿɚɥɭɤɨɠɧɨʀɬɟɦɢ. ȱɧɮɨɪɦɚɰɿɣɧɚɬɚɡɚɯɨɩɥɸɸɱɚɮɨɪɦɚɩɪɟɡɟɧɬɚɰɿʀɪɨɛɥɹɬɶɩɭɛɥɿɤɚɰɿɸɤɨɪɢɫɧɨɸɧɟɬɿɥɶɤɢɡɤɨɝɧɿɬɢɜɧɨʀ, ɚɥɟɣɤɭɥɶɬɭɪɧɨɨɫɜɿɬɧɶɨʀɬɨɱɤɢɡɨɪɭ. ɇɚɜɱɚɥɶɧɨɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɧɢɣɤɨɦɩɥɟɤɫɪɟɤɨɦɟɧɞɨɜɚɧɨɞɥɹɿɧɨɡɟɦɧɢɯɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɿɜɤɭɪɫɚɧɬɿɜɅȺɇȺɍɩɟɪɲɨɝɨ ɤɭɪɫɭɨɫɜɿɬɧɶɨɝɨɫɬɭɩɟɧɹ "ɛɚɤɚɥɚɜɪ" ɭɫɿɯɫɩɟɰɿɚɥɶɧɨɫɬɟɣɞɟɧɧɨʀɬɚɡɚɨɱɧɨʀɮɨɪɦɧɚɜɱɚɧɧɹ. Ɋɨɡɝɥɹɧɭɬɨɬɚɪɟɤɨɦɟɧɞɨɜɚɧɨɞɥɹɜɢɞɚɧɧɹɬɚɜɢɤɨɪɢɫɬɚɧɧɹɭɧɚɜɱɚɥɶɧɨɦɭɩɪɨɰɟɫɿɪɿɲɟɧɧɹɦɤɚɮɟɞɪɢ ɩɪɨɮɟɫɿɣɧɨʀɩɟɞɚɝɨɝɿɤɢɬɚɫɨɰɿɚɥɶɧɨɝɭɦɚɧɿɬɚɪɧɢɯɧɚɭɤɜɿɞ 13 ɛɟɪɟɡɧɹ 2019 ɪ., ɩɪɨɬɨɤɨɥʋ 5, ɚɬɚɤɨɠȼɱɟɧɨɸ ɪɚɞɨɸɮɚɤɭɥɶɬɟɬɭɦɟɧɟɞɠɦɟɧɬɭɜɿɞ 29 ɛɟɪɟɡɧɹ 2019 ɪɨɤɭ, ɩɪɨɬɨɤɨɥʋ 8.

Romanko I.I. History of Ukraine and Ukrainian Culture. Scientific and Methodical Complex for Foreign Students. Part 3 Guidelines for self-study/I. I. Romanko – : FA NAU, 2019. – 228 p.

The Scientific and Methodical Complex is worked out in accordance with the work programme of the academic subject "History of Ukraine and Ukrainian Culture" for foreign students of FA NAU, affirmed at the meeting of the Department of Professional Pedagogics and Social and Human Sciences (Records ʋ 1 of 31 August 2018) and approved by the Methodical Councils of Management Faculty, Flight Operations Faculty and Air Traffic Service Faculty. The study guide introduces the foreign reader to the history of Ukraine, its rich culture, covers the most important aspects of Ukrainian statehood. The world of Ukrainian national traditions is unique. For centuries, a system of rituals and beliefs has evolved, and they are gaining a new popularity at the present stage. The book tells about calendar holidays in Ukraine: state holidays, religious holidays, professional holidays, folk holidays and also different memorable dates. The book presents a variety of data on the flora and fauna of the climatic zones of Ukraine, its landscapes, amazing plants, environmental protection. The publication includes questions for self-control, topics for synopsis, practical creative tasks, quiz, tests, a dictionary of basic terms and concepts. The list of recommended literature will help foreign students in the deeper study of the material of each theme. Informative material and fascinating form of presentation make the publication useful not only from a cognitive but also cultural and educational point of view. The Scientific and Methodical Complex is recommended for the first year foreign students of FA NAU of education and qualification level "Bachelor" of all specialties of full-time and extramural studies. Reviewed and recommended for publication and use in the educational process by the decision of the Department of Professional Pedagogics and Social and Human Sciences on 13 March 2019, records ʋ 6, and by the Academic council of Management Faculty on 29 March 2019, records ʋ 8.

ɍȾɄ 94(477):811.111

© ȱȱ. Romanko, 2019

2 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION...... 8

GUIDELINES FOR SELF-STUDY ON ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE "HISTORY OF UKRAINE AND UKRAINIAN CULTURE"...... 9

Theme 1 Ukraine: general information. Geography...... 9 1 Ukraine: general information ...... 9 - Foreign relations of Ukraine...... 9 - ...... 12 - ...... 13 - ...... 16 - ...... 17 2 Geography...... 17 - Climate ...... 17 - Seas and rivers of Ukraine...... 17 - Plants and Animals...... 18 Geography Quiz ...... 19

Topic 2 Economy. Protection of environment in Ukraine...... 20 1 ...... 20 - History...... 20 - Economic Data – Statistical Information ...... 24 - Industries ...... 24 - Agriculture...... 27 - Investments ...... 28 Economy Quiz...... 30

Theme 3 People. Language. Recreation. Tourism. Sports ...... 31 1 People ...... 31 - Ethnic groups...... 31 - Settlement patterns...... 32 - Demographic trends ...... 32 - The ...... 32 2 Language...... 32 - Languages...... 32 - The ...... 33 People and Language Quiz ...... 33 3 Recreation and Tourism...... 34 - Ukraine – Tourism ...... 34 - The wonderful ...... 35 4 ...... 35 - Football...... 35 - ...... 36 - Boxing ...... 37 - Other sports ...... 37 - Outstanding Ukrainian athletes...... 37 Tourism and Sport Quiz...... 39

Theme 4 History of Ukraine: main periods ...... 39 1 From Trypillia culture to Kyivan Rus ...... 40

3 2 The early history of the slavs ...... 40 3 The Galician-Volhynian state (1199–1340)...... 42 4 Ukraine under Lithuanian and Polish rule ...... 42 5 The ...... 44 - The Khmelnytskyi era ...... 46 - The state ...... 47 - The Ruin ...... 48 - Ukraine was divided again...... 49 - The Mazepa era...... 50 6 The decline of Ukrainian ...... 51 7 The liquidation of the Hetmanate...... 52 - Right-Bank Ukraine ...... 53 8 Social transformations ...... 54 9 Ukraine under imperial rule ...... 54 10 The rise of national consciousness ...... 55 11 Imperial change and reforms...... 56 - Socio-economic changes ...... 56 12 The emergence of nationalism and socialism ...... 57 13 Developments in ...... 58 14 Ukraine in the First World War...... 60 15 The rebirth of Ukrainian statehood (1917–1921)...... 60 - The Ukrainian Central Rada ...... 60 - The Hetman government ...... 63 - The period of the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic ...... 64 - The Western Ukrainian National Republic, 1918–1923 ...... 66 16 Ukraine in the interwar years ...... 67 - Soviet Ukraine ...... 67 17 Western Ukraine in the 1920s–1930s ...... 69 - Western Ukraine under ...... 69 - Ukrainian territories under Romanian rule...... 70 - Ukrainian territories under Czechoslovak rule ...... 71 - The Ukrainian political emigres in ...... 72 18 Ukraine during the Second World War ...... 72 19 Postwar Ukraine ...... 75 20 The postwar emigres...... 76 - De-Stalinization in Ukraine, 1953–1959...... 76 - Ukraine in the 1960s ...... 77 - Ukraine in the 1970s and 1980s ...... 78 21 Independence...... 79 Questions for self-learning...... 80 22 Interesting facts about Ukraine...... 82 Complete the tasks...... 85 History Quiz...... 87

Theme 5 ɋonstitution. State symbols of Ukraine ...... 90 1 Constitution...... 90 - The : general information...... 90 - From the Law of Rus to Constitution...... 92 - Ruska Pravda and its descendants...... 93 - Parliamentarism and its traditions...... 94 - Regional self-governance ...... 95 - Civil law ...... 96

4 - Ukraine’s Constitution: a permanent battlefield for politics ...... 97 Constitution Quiz ...... 99 2 State symbols of Ukraine...... 101 - Trident ...... 101 - Flag...... 101 National emblem and anthem Quiz...... 101

Theme 6 Regions, and towns of Ukraine ...... 102 1 is the capital of Ukraine ...... 102 ...... 105 ...... 105 2 ...... 105 ...... 106 3 ...... 107 4 Kamianets-Podilskyi ...... 107 5 Kropyvnytskyi...... 108 6 ...... 109 7 region. Village of Velyky Sorochintsy...... 110 8 region. ...... 110 9 region. ...... 111 10 : History, Settlement, The war in Donbass, Geography, Ecology, administration and local politics, Coat of arms, Ethnic structure Economy, Culture, Tourism and attractions, Architecture and Construction, Education...... 111 11 : History, Russian annexation, Climate, Politics and administrative divisions, Transportation, Economy, Education, Sports ...... 117 Regions, cities and towns of Ukraine Quiz...... 119

Theme 7 Culture of Ukraine: main periods...... 120 1 Introduction to "History of Ukrainian Culture" ...... 121 - Subject and tasks of "History of Ukrainian Culture" ...... 121 - Culture and society...... 122 - Ukrainian culture in context of world culture...... 123 2 Archaic ɋultures at the Territory of Ukraine. Sources of Ukrainian Culture...... 124 - Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. , , , and Greeks...... 124 - Early Slavic culture...... 126 3 Culture of Kyivan Rus' and Galiɫia- Principality ...... 128 - Kyivan Rus' as a new period of Slavic cultural development...... 128 - Christianization like an impulse of new cultural process...... 129 - Education and verbal arts in Rus'...... 130 4 Ukrainian Culture of Lithuanian and Polish Period (14th – the first half of 17th centuries) ...... 132 - Social, political and historical situation...... 132 - Development of education and scientific knowledge...... 133 - Literature and arts. Printing...... 133 5 Ukraine and West-European Cultural Influences. Enlightenment (the second half of 17th – 18th centuries) ...... 139 - Historical conditions of Ukrainian cultural development...... 139 - Education and science...... 139 - Literature and arts...... 141 6 Culture of Ukraine in 19th – early 20th centuries...... 145 - Periods of Ukrainian cultural revival...... 145 - Social and cultural unities of Ukrainian intellectuals...... 149 - Ukrainian cultural movement of early 20th century...... 151

5 7 Culture of Ukraine in 20th – early 21st centuries ...... 151 - Culture of Ukraine (early 20th century – before 1917)...... 151 - Culture of independent Ukraine (1991– nowadays)...... 152 Culture of Ukraine Quiz ...... 155

Theme 8 Education. Printing. Science. . Holidays...... 155 1 Education ...... 156 - Ostrih Academy: 's first institution of higher learning ...... 156 - Smotrytsky Herasym...... 156 - Brotherhoods...... 156 - Brotherhood schools...... 159 - Kyivan Mohyla Academy...... 159 2 Science and technology in Ukraine ...... 162 - Notable people ...... 162 - History of technology in Ukraine...... 163 - The Ukrainian academy of sciences...... 166 Education and Science Quiz ...... 166 3 Religion in Ukraine ...... 167 - Paganism...... 167 - Religious life...... 168 - Attending a Service ...... 169 Religion Quiz ...... 169 4 Holidays ...... 170 - Easter in Ukraine...... 170 - Calendric ritual folk poetry...... 170 - Ukrainian traditions, Rites and Ceremonies ...... 171 - Calendar Holidays and Ceremonies ...... 172 Holidays Quiz...... 174

Theme 9 Literature. Theatre and cinema. ...... 174 1 Literature...... 175 - ...... 175 - Taras Shevchenko's poems in English Opinion...... 176 Literature Quiz ...... 181 2 Theatre and cinema...... 181 - Skomorokhy...... 181 - Ukrainian poetic cinema...... 182 - Dovzhenko Oleksander ...... 182 - Kavaleridze Ivan ...... 183 - Paradzhanov Serhii ...... 184 - Illienko Yurii...... 184 - Osyka Leonid...... 185 - Mykolaichuk Ivan ...... 185 Theatre and Cinema Quiz ...... 186 3 Music ...... 186 - Ukrainian Musical Culture: general information...... 186 - Ukrainian wandering bards: , bandurysts, and lirnyks ...... 186 - Kobzars...... 187 - Lirnyks...... 188 - : Origin. Themes. History of collection and scholarship ...... 189 - Ukraine Wins the Eurovision Song Contest ...... 190 Music Quiz...... 190

6 Theme 10 . Folk . National food...... 191 1 Ukrainian folklore ...... 191 - Folk Dance...... 191 - Folk songs...... 192 - Vechernytsi...... 193 - ...... 193 - Kupalo festival...... 194 - Folk musical instruments...... 195 2 Folk dress ...... 195 - Ukrainian Traditional Dress ...... 195 Folk dress Quiz ...... 196 3 National food ...... 197 - National Ukrainian Food: general information...... 197 - Ukrainian national cuisine – Dinner is served...... 197 - Borsch, Varenyky, Salo...... 197 - Food and Meals...... 198 Food Quiz...... 202

Theme 11 Painting. . Architecture ...... 202 1 Painting ...... 203 - Vasyl Kasiian...... 203 - Socialist realism in soviet Ukrainian art...... 203 - Ukrainian artists of the shistdesiatnyky generation ...... 205 - Ukrainian nonconformist (unofficial) art in the ussr (1960s–1980s)...... 206 - Nonconformist art ...... 206 - Marchuk Ivan...... 207 Painting Quiz...... 208 2 Sculpture ...... 208 - Pinzel Johann Georg...... 208 - Martos Ivan...... 208 - Balavensky Fedir...... 209 - Archipenko Alexander ...... 209 - Kavaleridze Ivan ...... 211 - Borodai Vasyl ...... 211 3 Architecture...... 211 - Temple architecture...... 211 - ...... 212 - Masterpieces of rococo architecture in Ukraine ...... 215

Theme 12 Ukrainian decorative arts and crafts...... 217 1 General information...... 217 2 Pottery...... 219 3 Kylym and rushnyk ...... 219 4 Embroidery (Vyshyvka) ...... 219 5 Pysanky...... 220

LIST OF RECOMMENDED SOURCES OF INFORMATION...... 222

7 INTRODUCTION

Dear foreign reader! What do you know about the beautiful country where you came to study? It is the birthplace of tens of millions of people living in the vast expense from the Carpathians to the steppes. Ukraine is an ancient and ever young country, amazing and very beautiful. Ancient ruins, Scythian burial mounds, medieval castles will reveal to you the secrets of thousand-year history, and the emerald poloniny of the Carpathians, transparent Volyn lakes, feather grass steppes of Tavria and the open spaces will amaze with their grandeur and originality … Ukraine is famous for amazing landscapes and unique nature, a wonderful gem of which is its flora and fauna. From the text you will learn about animals inhabit the Carpathians, Polesie forests and subtropics of the Southern Coast of the Crimea, about amazing grasses, flowers, bushes and trees. This book will give you a lot of new and interesting knowledge. It will reveal the pages of glorious victories and bitter defeats, great hopes and disappointments that the Ukrainian people went through to win their independence. The book tells about the peculiarities of the state structure and symbols of Ukraine, the main holidays of the Ukrainians. Descriptions are accompanied by comments about cultural traditions and national signs. The book offers full information about the history of the national cuisine of the Ukrainians, dishes prepared according to national recipes. The study guide includes a dictionary of basic terms and concepts. It is designed to give you the opportunity to accurately understand accurately the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases. The author hopes that this new book will help you not to get lost from contact with a lot of unfamiliar words and in the arms of knowledge you will find new flows of different information. Appreciate your right to live and study in Ukraine, respect the traditions of the Ukrainian people, follow the laws and norms of the behaviour in the society, take care of the environment. Love Ukraine, know it! It will always answer love for love, good for good.

Poet Volodymyr Sosyura says about this in his poem "Love Our Ukraine!"

Love our Ukraine, as the sun loves her, As the wind, the grass, the water, Love her in the moments of joy and bliss, As well as in the moments of sorrow. Love our Ukraine in your dreams and awake, Love her as a cherry in blossom, Her beauty eternal, her language that rings Like a nightingale’s song in the orchard.

8 GUIDELINES FOR SELF-STUDY ON ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE "HISTORY OF UKRAINE AND UKRAINIAN CULTURE"

Theme 1 Ukraine: general information. Geography – 4 hours

Plan 1 Ukraine: general information - Foreign relations of Ukraine - Politics of Ukraine - Judiciary of Ukraine - Elections in Ukraine - Legislation of Ukraine 2 Geography - Climate - Seas and rivers of Ukraine - Plants and Animals Geography Quiz

1 Ukraine: general information Foreign relations of Ukraine Ukraine has formal relations with many nations and in recent decades has been establishing diplomatic relations with an expanding circle of nations. The foreign relations of Ukraine are guided by a number of key priorities outlined in the foreign policy of Ukraine. Western relations Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective, but in practice balances its relationship with Europe and the with strong ties to . The 's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force on March 1, 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement. The EU Common Strategy toward Ukraine, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association. On January 31, 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe-OSCE), and on March 10, 1992, it became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine also has a close relationship with NATO and has declared interest in eventual membership. It is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). Former President indicated that he supports Ukraine joining the EU in the future. Plans for Ukrainian membership to NATO were shelved by Ukraine following the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election in which was elected President. Yanukovych opted to keep Ukraine a non-aligned state. This materialized on June 3, 2010 when the Ukrainian parliament () excluded, with 226 votes, the goal of "integration into Euro-Atlantic security and NATO membership" from the country's national security strategy giving the country a non-aligned status. "European integration" has remained part of Ukraine's national security strategy and co-operation with NATO was not excluded. Ukraine then considered relations with NATO as a partnership. Ukraine and NATO continued to hold joint seminars and joint tactical and strategical exercises. After February 2014's Yanukovych ouster and following the Russian military intervention in Ukraine (which Russia denies) Ukraine renewed its drive for NATO membership. On 23 December 2014 the Verkhovna Rada abolished, with 303 votes, Ukraine's non-aligned status. Relations with CIS states Ukraine maintains peaceful and constructive relations with all its neighbors [citation needed]; it had especially close ties with Russia and Poland. Relations with the former are

9 complicated by energy dependence and by payment arrears. However, relations have improved with the 1998 ratification of the bilateral Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation. Also, the two sides have signed a series of agreements on the final division and disposition of the former Soviet Black Sea Fleet that have helped to reduce tensions. Ukraine became a (non-official) member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) on December 8, 1991, but in January 1993 it refused to endorse a draft charter strengthening political, economic, and defense ties among CIS members, and completely ceased to participate as a member in March 2014. Ukraine was a founding member of GUAM (-Ukraine-Azerbaijan-). In 1999–2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the , which had asked for seats for all 15 of its union republics. Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made a substantial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992. (chairman of the SBU, which is Ukraine's security service, successor to the KGB) was fired due to Western pressure after he organized the sale of radar systems to Iraq while such sales were embargoed. . The 1997 boundary treaty with [Belarus] remains un-ratified due to unresolved financial claims, stalling demarcation and reducing border security. Russia. Delimitation of the land boundary with Russia is incomplete, but the parties have agreed to defer demarcation. The maritime boundary through the and the Strait remains unresolved despite a December 2003 framework agreement and on-going expert-level discussions. Prime Minister allegedly declared at a NATO-Russia summit in 2008 that if Ukraine would join NATO his country can contend to annex the Ukrainian East and Crimea. Starting in November 2013, the decision by Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych to back out of signing an integration agreement with the European Union started a period of civil unrest between Ukrainians who favored integration with the European Union and those who wanted closer ties with Russia. This culminated in the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution. Russia took advantage of this political instability to annex Crimea in March 2014, though Ukraine still claims sovereignty over the territory. Russia has also allegedly supported separatist forces in the War in Donbass. In December 2015 Russian hackers reportedly hacked Ukraine's power grids leading to a blackout and widespread terror. Moldova. Moldova and Ukraine have established joint customs posts to monitor transit through Moldova's break-away Transnistria Region which remains under OSCE supervision. . Ukraine and Romania have settled their dispute over the Ukrainian-administered Zmiyinyy (Snake) Island and the Black Sea maritime boundary at the International Court of Justice. The CIA World Factbook states that "Romania opposes Ukraine's reopening of a navigation canal from the Danube border through Ukraine to the Black Sea". Foreign relations of The foreign relations of Norway are based on the country's membership in NATO and within the workings of the United Nations (UN). Additionally, despite not being a member of the European Union (EU), Norway takes a part in the integration of EU through its membership in the European Economic Area. Norway's foreign ministry includes both the minister of foreign affairs and minister of international development. History The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established on the same day that Norway declared the dissolution of the union with : June 7, 1905. Although diplomats could not present credentials to foreign governments until the Swedish king formally renounced his right to the Norwegian throne, a number of unofficial representatives worked on the provisional government's behalf until the first Norwegian ambassador, Hjalmar Christian Hauge, sought accreditation by the United States Secretary of State Elihu Root on November 6, 1905.

10 The initial purposes of the newly formed Foreign Ministry were to represent Norway's interests through diplomatic channels, and to provide consular services for Norwegian shipping and commerce overseas. In 1906, the Storting decided to establish six embassies in Europe, with two more in the Americas: one in the United States and one in Argentina. 20 consular offices were also opened. During , the foreign ministry was confronted with unprecedented challenges in maintaining neutrality for Norway, in particular in order to protect its merchant fleet. In 1922, the ministry was consolidated and reorganised to ensure fuller cooperation between the diplomatic and consular branches. The reorganization included the formation of a designated career path for diplomats that included completion of a university entrance examination and professional experience from international trade. The economic hardship of the times forced austerity measures at the ministry for the next several years. When Norway was invaded by Nazi in 1940, the government fled to the United Kingdom and reconstituted in exile in Bracknell, outside London. Kingston House in London was later used. The government moved back to Norway following the peace in 1945. After the end of World War II, Norway was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and the United Nations, the latter having Norwegian Trygve Lie as inaugural Secretary-General. Elements of policy Since the end of the Cold War, Norway has developed a model to foreign policy known as the "Norwegian model," the goal of which is to contribute to peace and stability through coordinated response among governmental and non-governmental Norwegian organizations; acting as an honest broker in international conflicts; an informal network of Norwegian individuals with access and credibility among parties; and the willingness to take the long view in international issues. The post-war foreign policy of Norway can be described along four dimensions: Strategic alliances Norway's strategic importance for waging war in the North Atlantic became important in the failed neutrality policy of World War II. Norway became a founding member of NATO in order to ally itself with countries that shared its democratic values. Both through diplomatic and military cooperation, Norway has played a visible role in the formation and operations of NATO. It allowed a limited number of military bases and exercises to be based in its territories, which caused some controversy when NATO decided to put forward bases in Northern Norway in preparation for a conflict with the Soviet Union. International cooperation Norway supports international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of disputes, recognizing the need for maintaining a strong national defence through collective security. Accordingly, the cornerstones of Norwegian policy are active membership in NATOand support for the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Norway also pursues a policy of economic, social, and cultural cooperation with other Nordic countries – , Sweden, Finland, and Iceland – through the Nordic Council. Its relations with Iceland are very close due to the cultural bond the two nations share. Norway ended a 2-year term on the UN Security Council in January 2003, and chaired the Iraq Sanctions Committee. Norway is the only Scandinavian country that is not a member of the European Union. Membership has been proposed within Norway, and referendums over Norwegian membership were held in 1972 and 1994. Popular opinion was split between rural and urban areas. The present government is not planning to raise the possibility for future membership. Norway also has a history of co-operation and friendship with the United Kingdom and Scotland, due to their shared cultural heritage since Viking times. The Vikings conquered areas including the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland for several hundred years. Norway is only 300 kilometres (159 Nautical miles) east of Unst, the northernmost island of Shetland. The Norwegian embassy to the United Kingdom is located in London, and Norway also

11 maintains a Consulate General in Edinburgh. A Norway is given by the city of Oslo and presented to London as a tree for display in Trafalgar Square as a token of gratitude for the UK's support during World War II. King Haakon, his son Olav and the country's government lived in exile in London throughout the war. As part of the tradition, the Lord of Westminster visits Oslo in the late autumn to take part in the felling of the tree, and the Mayor of Oslo then goes to London to light the tree at the Christmas ceremony. International mediation Norway has played an active role as a third party mediator in a number of international conflicts. The late foreign minister Johan Jørgen Holst was instrumental in forging the Oslo Accords between Israel and the PLO. Thorvald Stoltenberg was part of the unsuccessful mediation team in seeking an end to the war in Bosnia. Norway has contributed both mediation services and financial assistance in Guatemala. As of 2005, Norwegian diplomats are acting as mediators in Sudan, Bosnia, Sri Lanka, and Colombia. Some of those countries accuse Norway of supporting and propping up separatist groups. Israel is often bitter with harsh criticisms from Norwegian politicians. The spat was at its highest when finance minister Kristin Halvorsen supported boycott of Israeli goods. in early 2006. Finance ministry spokesman, Runar Malkenes, told the BBC News website that "there are no moves to push for a boycott of Israeli goods" at government level. Eritrea has been actively supported by Norway during its liberation from Ethiopia. As of recent, Ethiopia expelled six Norwegian diplomats due to Norway's alleged support to 'Terrorist group and Eritrea'. Norway retaliated by cutting aid to Ethiopia. International disputes Territorial claims in Antarctica (Queen Maud Land and Peter I Island) are only recognized by Australia, , New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Status-seeking A number of scholars have argued that Norway has through its foreign policy engaged in status-seeking. Through an activist foreign policy, Norway has sought to elevate its standing among the international system's small powers and middle powers, and earn recognition from the great powers.

Politics of Ukraine Politics of Ukraine takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet of Ministers (until 1996, jointly with the President). Legislative power is vested in the parliament (Verkhovna Rada). Scholars have described Ukraine's political system as "weak, fractured, highly personal and ideologically vacuous while the judiciary and media fail to hold politicians to account" (Dr. in 2009). Ukrainian politics has been categorised as "over-centralised" which is seen as both a legacy of the Soviet system and caused by a fear of . is rampant, and widely cited, at home and abroad, as a defining characteristic (and decisive handicap) of Ukrainian society, politics and government. The Economist Intelligence Unit has rated Ukraine as "hybrid regime" in 2016. Constitution of Ukraine Shortly after becoming independent in 1991, Ukraine named a parliamentary commission to prepare a new constitution, adopted a multi-party system, and adopted legislative guarantees of civil and political rights for national minorities. A new, democratic constitution was adopted on 28 June 1996, which mandates a pluralistic political system with protection of basic human rights and liberties, and a semi-presidential form of government. The Constitution was amended in December 2004 to ease the resolution of the 2004 presidential election crisis. The consociationalist agreement transformed the form of government in a semi-presidentialism in which the had to cohabit with a powerful Prime Minister. The Constitutional Amendments took force between January and May 2006.

12 The Constitutional Court of Ukraine in October 2010 overturned the 2004 amendments, considering them unconstitutional. The present valid Constitution of Ukraine is therefore the 1996 text. Fundamental Freedoms Freedom of religion is guaranteed by law, although religious organizations are required to register with local authorities and with the central government. Minority rights are respected in accordance with a 1991 law guaranteeing ethnic minorities the right to schools and cultural facilities and the use of national languages in conducting personal business. According to the Ukrainian constitution, Ukrainian is the only official state language. However, in Crimea and some parts of – areas with substantial ethnic Russian minorities – use of Russian is widespread in official business. Freedom of speech and press are guaranteed by law, but authorities sometimes interfere with the news media through different forms of pressure. In particular, the failure of the government to conduct a thorough, credible, and transparent investigation into the 2000 disappearance and murder of independent journalist Georgiy Gongadze has had a negative effect on Ukraine's international image. Over half of Ukrainians polled by the Razumkov Center in early October 2010 (56.6%) believed political censorship existed in Ukraine. Official labor unions have been grouped under the Federation of Labor Unions. A number of independent unions, which emerged during 1992, among them the Independent Union of Miners of Ukraine, have formed the Consultative Council of Free Labor Unions. While the right to strike is legally guaranteed, strikes based solely on political demands are prohibited. Executive branch The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The President nominates the Prime Minister, who must be confirmed by parliament. The Prime-minister and cabinet are de jure appointed by the Parliament on submission of the President and Prime Minister respectively. Pursuant to Article 114 of the Constitution of Ukraine. Legislative branch The Verkhovna Rada (Parliament of Ukraine) has 450 members, elected for a four-year term (five-year between 2006 and 2012 with the 2004 amendments). Prior to 2006, half of the members were elected by proportional representation and the other half by single-seat constituencies. Starting with the March 2006 parliamentary election, all 450 members of the Verkhovna Rada were elected by party-list proportional representation. The Verkhovna Rada initiates legislation, ratifies international agreements, and approves the budget. The overall trust in legislative powers in Ukraine is very low. Political parties and elections Ukrainian parties tend not to have clear-cut ideologies but incline to centre around civilizational and geostrategic orientations (rather than economic and socio-political agendas, as in Western politics), around personalities and business interests. Party membership is lower than 1% of the population eligible to vote (compared to an average of 4.7% in the European Union).

Judiciary of Ukraine The judicial system of Ukraine is outlined in the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine. Before this there was no notion of judicial review nor any since 1991's Ukrainian independence. When it started being slowly restructured. Although judicial independence exist in principle, in practice there is little separation of juridical and political powers. Judges are subjected to pressure by political and business interests. Ukraine's court system is widely regarded as corrupt. Although there are still problems with the performance of the system, it is considered to have been much improved since the last judicial reform introduced in 2016. The Supreme Court is regarded as being an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government.

13 Courts Ukrainian courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by measures adopted in Ukrainian law in 2010. The judicial system of Ukraine consists of three levels of courts of general jurisdiction. Prior to the judicial reform introduced in 2016 the system consists of four levels. The Cassation Court of Ukraine existed until 2003. Those courts were recognized as unconstitutional by the Constitution Court of Ukraine. Local Courts Ukraine has 74 courts. In 2018 they replaced the 142 local general courts (For example in Kyiv 10 district courts were eliminated and 6 district courts created). Courts of appeal Courts of Appeal (combining criminal and civil jurisdiction), consisting of: regional courts of appeal; courts of appeal of the cities of Kyiv. Prior to the judicial reform introduced in 2016 there were parallel Specialized Courts of Appeal (either commercial or administrative jurisdiction) consisting of the commercial courts of appeal and the administrative courts of appeal. The Supreme Court The Klov Palace is home to the . Supreme Court is the highest court within the system of courts of general jurisdiction, conducting the review regarding unequal application of the rules of substantive law by the cassation courts and subject to cases when international judicial institution the jurisdiction of which is recognized by Ukraine has established the violation of international obligations by Ukraine. The Constitutional Court of Ukraine The Constitutional Court of Ukraine is a special body with authority to assess whether legislative acts of the Parliament, President, Cabinet or Crimean Parliament are in line with the Constitution of Ukraine. This Court also gives commentaries to certain norms of the Constitution or laws of Ukraine (superior acts of Parliament). The High Anti-Corruption Court the High Anti-Corruption Court of Ukraine is to be established before the end of 2018. Cases concerning corruption in Ukraine will be bought directly to this court. Appeals will be considered by a completely separate Appeal Chamber of the High Anti-Corruption Court. The law on the High Anti-Corruption Court of Ukraine came into force on 14 June 2018. Abolished High courts with specialized jurisdiction In the judicial reform introduced in 2016 the following three courts were abolished and its tasks transferred to special chambers of the Supreme Court of Ukraine. The High Specialized Court on Civil and Criminal Cases, covering civil and criminal cases; The High Administrative Court of Ukraine, covering administrative cases; The High Commercial Court of Ukraine, covering commercial cases. The rulings of the High (sometimes translated as Supreme) Administrative Court of Ukraine could not be appealed. Judges Since the juridical reform of 2016 judges are appointed by the President of Ukraine upon their nomination by the Supreme Council of Justice. Prior judges were appointed by presidential decree for a period of five years, after which the Ukrainian parliament confirmed them for life in an attempt to insulate them from politics. This 5 year probation period was also abolished in 2016. Judges are protected from dismissal (save in instances of gross misconduct). Immunity from prosecution was guaranteed to judges until 2016. (This immunity could be lifted by parliament) Currently a judge is protected from liability resulting from their judicial actions only. Ukraine has about 8,000 judges. Lay assessors. Ukraine has no jury system; most cases are heard by either a single judge or two judges accompanied by assessors. Administration. The Congress of Judges is the highest body of judicial self-government.

14 The Council of Judges is responsible for the enforcement of the decisions of the Congress and their implementation in the period between congresses, and decides on the convocation of the Congress. The State Judicial Administration provides organizational support of the judiciary and represents the judiciary to the Cabinet of Ministers and the Verkhovna Rada. The High Judicial Qualifications Commission of Ukraine conducts the selection of judicial candidates, submits to the High Council of Justice recommendations on the appointment of a candidate for the subsequent introduction of the submission of the President of Ukraine, makes recommendations on the election of a permanent post, and conducts disciplinary proceedings including dismissal. The High Council of Justice "is a collective independent body that is responsible for formation of the high-profile judge corpus capable of qualified, honest and impartial exercise of justice on a professional basis; and for making decisions regarding violations by judges and procurators of the requirements concerning their incompatibility and within the scope of their competence of their disciplinary responsibility". Three members of the council are automatically assigned for holding the following positions: Chairman of the Supreme Court, Minister of Justice, and General. The other 17 members are elected for a period of six years. The council consists of 20 members. It was created on January 15, 1998. Corruption Ukrainian politicians and analysts have described the system of justice in Ukraine as "rotten to the core" and have complained about political pressure put on judges and corruption. In 2013, a Transparency International Global Corruption Barometer report showed that 66% of the Ukrainian public considered the judiciary to be the most corrupt institution in the country. Twenty-one percent of Ukrainians admitted they had paid bribes to judicial officials themselves. Flaws in the system in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries. According to the European Commission for Democracy through Law "the role and functions of the Prosecutor’s Office is not in accordance with standards".Ukraine has few relevant corporate and property laws; this hinders corporate governance. Ukrainian companies often use to settle conflicts. Ukraine recognizes the verdicts of the European Court of Human Rights. History Ukraine's judicial system was inherited from that of the Soviet Union and the former Ukrainian SSR. As such, it had many of the problems which marred Soviet justice, most notably a corrupt and politicised judiciary. Lawyers have stated trial results can be unfairly fixed, with judges commonly refusing to hear exculpatory evidence, while calling frequent recesses to confer privately with the prosecutor. Insiders say paying and receiving bribes is a common practice in most Ukrainian courts. Fee amounts depend on jurisdiction, the crime, real or trumped-up, and the financial wherewithal of the individual or company involved. The Prosecutor-General's Office – part of the government – exerted undue influence, with judges often not daring to rule against state prosecutors. Those who did faced disciplinary actions; when a Kyiv court ruled for opposition politician , the presiding judge was himself prosecuted. The courts were not even independent from each other, and it was commonplace for trial court judges to call the higher courts and ask how to decide a case. Courts were often underfunded, with little money or resources. It was not uncommon for cases to be heard in small, cramped courtrooms with the electricity cut off while prisoners were unable to attend because of lack of transport from jails to courtrooms. Reformers highlighted the state of the judiciary as a key problem in the early 1990s and established a number of programmes to improve the performance of the judiciary. A Ukraine-Ohio Rule of Law Program was established in 1994 which brought together lawyers and judges from the American state of Ohio, including members of the Ohio Supreme Court, with their Ukrainian counterparts. The United States Agency for International Development supported these and other initiatives, which were also backed by European governments and international organisations.

15 These efforts proved controversial among some of the judicial old guard, but a band of reformist judges – dubbed the "judicial opposition" – increasingly gained support from reformers in local administrations who pushed for an end to judicial corruption. Judges were indicted en masse in Dnipropetrovsk in the early 1990s, and later on judges from the Mykolayiv city court and the Moskovskyy district court of Kyiv were put on trial for corruption. Major changes were made to the judicial system when the law "On the court system" was passed on 7 February 2002, creating a new level of judiciary and enacting institutional safeguards to insulate judges from political pressure. In December 2011 certain economic crimes where decriminalized. Concrete steps taken by the government proposed were the abolishment pre-trial detention for non-violent crimes, promote experienced judges with strong records and punish bribe-taking and corruption in the judiciary. A law passed in 2010 improved the basic salaries of judges, and a more rigorous method of selecting candidates for judges was introduced. But reforms brought many new problems: The Supreme Court lost almost all of its powers, judges become very dependent from the Supreme Council of Justice, ability to sue government was severely limited. A new criminal code came into effect on 20 November 2012. On 8 April 2014 the Ukrainian Parliament adopted the law "On Restoring confidence in the judicial system of Ukraine", this bill established the legal and organizational framework for a special audit of judges of courts of general jurisdiction. On 26 September 2015 Prime Minister claimed Ukraine's court system would be reformed following the example of the National Police of Ukraine. Meaning employing new personal en masse. In the last judicial reform introduced in 2016 the court system was completely overhauled, including the abolishing of certain courts. A new Supreme Court was launched in December 2017.

Elections in Ukraine Elections in Ukraine are held to choose the President (head of state), Verkhovna Rada (legislature body), and local governments. Referendums may be held on special occasions. Ukraine has a multi-party system, with numerous parties in which often not a single party has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments. Legislation Elections in Ukraine are held to choose the President (head of state) and Verkhovna Rada (legislature). The president is elected for a five-year term. The Verkhovna Rada has 450 members and is also elected for a five-year term, but may be dissolved earlier by the president in the case of a failure to form a government. Currently the Verkhovna Rada is elected using a mixed election system. Half of the representatives are elected from national closed party lists distributed between the parties using the Hare quota with a 5% threshold. The remaining half are elected from constituencies using first-past-the-post voting. This system was adopted for the 2012 elections and was also used for the most recent (2014) election, as a new draft law moving to electing all members using open party lists failed to gather necessary support in the Rada. A snap poll must have a voter turnout higher than 50%.Ukraine’s election law forbids outside financing of political parties or campaigns. Presidential candidates must have had residence in Ukraine for the past ten years prior to election day. The election laws were slightly modified on 20 December 2013. Since late February 2016 a party congress is allowed to remove any candidate from its party list before the Central Election Commission recognizes him or her elected. Meaning that parties after elections can prevent their candidates to take a seat in parliament that they were entitled to due to their place on the party list. A party is (since late February 2016) also allowed to excluded people from its electoral list of the last parliamentary elections.

16 Local elections Under the Constitution of Ukraine, the term of office of the heads of villages and towns and the council members of these villages and towns is five years.

Legislation of Ukraine Laws of Ukraine are legal documents created by the Ukrainian legislative power, Verkhovna Rada and establish the state order in country. The Laws of Ukraine support and supplement the fundamental law of country, Constitution of Ukraine. Some laws were codified into Civil Code, Criminal Code and so on. For procedural reasons Verkhovna Rada also issues resolutions that explain how legal document would be presented to parliament. Bills are usually considered by the Verkhovna Rada following the procedure of three readings; the President of Ukraine must sign a law before it can be officially promulgated. After laws are published in Holos Ukrayiny they come into force officially the next day. The Verkhovna Rada can take the decision on final adoption of the bill after the first or second reading if the bill is considered as such that does not require refinement.

2 Geography Climate The climate of Ukraine is determined by its geographical location. Ukraine’s territory lies in the temperate belt and its climate is temperately continental, only the southern coast of the Crimea is subtropical. The climate of Ukraine is characterized by considerable variations due to the great range from north to south and from west to east, stretching from the areas under the influence of the north-western Atlantic to the interior of the continent. This means that the air temperature decreases not only from north to south but also from west to east. The characteristic features of the climate are higher summer temperatures, lower winter temperatures, and rare rainfalls. The Ukrainian climate has considerable fluctuation in weather conditions from year to year. Alongside very wet years there can be droughts, and alongside cold years there are warm years. The Black and the Azov seas have small influence on the climate and it’s felt only in coastal areas. The warmest region is nearby the Black Sea, the coldest – in the north-east and in the mountains. The southern coast of Crimea is subtropical. obstruct the movement of cold Arctic air to the coast and create conditions for one of the best resort areas in Ukraine. The average yearly temperature in Ukraine varies between +5..+7 C in the north and +11..+13 C in the south. January is the coldest month and July is the hottest one. In general Ukraine can be divided into four different climatic regions: cool snow forest climate, steppe climate, Mediterranean climate and mountain tundra climate.

Seas and rivers of Ukraine Ukraine is a picturesque country with many rivers and seas. Most of Ukraine’s rivers are longer than 100 km. The , the , the Danube, the Southern Buh, the Seversky Donets and the Tysa are the largest among Ukrainian rivers. In general Ukraine’s rivers belong to the basins of the Black and Azov Seas. Only the Western Buh and some other rivers flow into the Baltic Sea. Most of Ukraine’s rivers flow slowly in wide valley. Rivers flowing off the Carpathians and Crimean Mountains are narrow, shallow and fast. Ukrainian rivers, lakes, ponds have an important role in water supply and are used as sources of energy. Navigable rivers are important for transport. The Dnieper River flows into the Black Sea and it’s 2285 km long. It’s the third largest river in Europe after the Volga and the Danube. The Dniester is another large river; it flows along the borders of Ukraine and Moldova into the Black Sea. The Danube is an important water route linking the country with many European countries. There are over 3000 lakes all over Ukraine. They are situated mostly in Polissia, the Black Sea lowlands and the Crimea. Ukrainian seas also play an important role in the country’s economy. The southern coast of Ukraine is washed by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The Black Sea has a surface area of

17 422 000 sq. km. Its depth is 2210 m. It has only a few islands in it. It’s curious but in the northwest the sea is only 30–60 m deep. The important ports of the Black Sea are Odesa, , and . The Sea of Azov isn’t so picturesque as the Black Sea. Nevertheless, its wonderful sandy beaches on the northern coast attract tourists and it’s very rich in fish life. In winter The Sea of Azov freezes over. It’s a small sea, and is the world’s most shallow sea; its average depth is 5–7 m.

Plants and Animals Ukraine has mostly coniferous and deciduous trees, such as pine, oak, fir, beech and . The wealth of the forest includes not only timber, but also berries, mushrooms and medical herbs. The animal world of Ukraine is different. It has hundreds of species of animals and birds. They are: wolf, fox, badger, deer, elk, hamster, field mouse and so on. The birds are: the sparrow, titmouse, grouse, owl. Some fur animals, such as mink, silver-black fox, musk-rat, brought into Ukraine, have acclimatized well. In the rivers and lakes there are perch, bream, pike and carp. The Forest-Steppe zone contains the oak, elm, black poplar, willow, ash and pine. The animals include squirrels, foxes, hares and roes. The rivers and lakes are home to ducks, geese, storks and cranes. It also should be said that the animal life of the Carpathians is unique. Here you can find deer, brown bears, wild cats and pigs, black squirrels. Bird life includes golden eagles and black wood peckers. The plants of this region are also different and beautiful. It is well worth visiting, especially in spring. Askaniia-Nova Biosphere Reserve A state nature preserve in the steppe near the town of Askaniia-Nova, Chaplynka , Kherson . A zoo was established there in 1875 by a Prussian colonist, Friedrich Falz-Fein, on the lands of his father, a wealthy landowner. He acclimatized wild animals from Asia, Africa, America, and Australia that were related to extinct species of steppe fauna. In 1910 Professor I. Ivanov worked at the reserve and conducted experiments in acclimatizing the wild Przewalski horse and the European bison, and in crossing the European bison with the buffalo, the bison- buffalo with horned cattle, the zebra with the domesticated horse, and so on. During the revolutionary period a local peasant, Klym Siianko, who was a self-taught zoologist and Falz-Fein's assistant, saved the reserve from complete ruin. On 8 February 1921 the Council of People's Commissars of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic declared Askaniia-Nova a national nature preserve under government supervision. An experimental station, zoo, botanical garden, zootechnical station, and breeding farm were set up at the enlarged reserve in 1921–1925 under Mikhail Ivanov. In 1932 the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute for the Acclimatization and Hybridization of Animals was established there. In 1956 the institute was renamed the M. F. Ivanov ‘Askaniia-Nova’ Ukrainian Scientific-Research Institute of Animal Husbandry of the Steppe Regions. In 1985, UNESCO designated the Askaniia-Nova Nature Reserve a biosphere reserve under the United Nations’ Man and the Biosphere program. In 1993, the biosphere status of the reserve was confirmed by a special decree issued by President . Today the Askaniia-Nova Biosphere Reserve has a total area of 33, 307.6 ha and consists of a 11,200 ha section of virgin fescue-feather grass steppe, a large research farm, an acclimatization zoo, a dendrological park, and a botanical garden. The task of the reserve is to preserve and study the virgin steppe with its wild flora and fauna and to acclimatize, study, and breed plants, birds, and animals that have agricultural value. The reserve’s dendrological park and botanical garden contain 1647 species of plants, including many rare ones. The reserve is home to about 270 species of wild bird (the steppe eagle among them), roe deer, fallow and sika deer, hare, Askanian steppe bucks, bats, moles, squirrels, rock martens, and other animals. Its territory is of particular importance for migratory birds, especially for the migration of very large flocks of cranes and greylag and white-fronted geese.

18 The zoo contains a unique collection of 114 species of wild animals (including 99 exotic species), such as antelopes, European bison, buffalos, zebras, Przewalski horses, etc. Among the wild birds are ostriches, flamingoes, American rheas, and casuari. Experiments in hybridization are performed in the zoo. In the dendrological park the acclimatization of various trees and bushes that are suitable for foresting the dry regions of is studied. The Askaniia-Nova Biosphere Reserve houses 30 species of flora and 32 species of fauna that are included in Ukraine’s Red Book, as well as 12 species of flora and 8 animal species that are included in Europe’s Red book. About 70,000 tourists visit Askaniia-Nova every year.

Geography Quiz 1. Where is Ukraine situated? 2. Which countries does it border on? 3. What seas is Ukraine washed by? 4. What natural resources is the country rich in? 5. What's the population of Ukraine? 1. What area does Ukraine cover? 2. What countries does Ukraine border with in the west? 3. What countries lie on the same latitude with Ukraine? 4. What river gives Ukraine access to European countries? 5. What regions occupy great areas of Ukraine? 6. Name the main lowlands of Ukraine. 7. Where does the Plateau lie? 8. What's the highest peak of the Carpathians? 9. What kind of area is called "polonyna"? 10. How high are the Crimean Mountains? 11. What metals are found in Ukraine? 12. Where are the reserves of black coal concentrated? 13. Where is brown coal used? 14. What are the three oil and natural gas regions of Ukraine? 15. How is peat used? 16. What metals is Ukraine rich in? 17. Where has titanium been discovered? 18. What nonmetallic minerals are widely used in the national economy? 19. What's Ukraine's climate like? 20. What's the main feature of Ukraine's climate? 21. Where is the highest rainfall in the country? 22. Why is the Crimea the best resort area in Ukraine? 23. How deep is the Black Sea? 24. Which of the seas freezes over in winter? 25. How long is the Dnipro? 26. Where does the Dnipro have its source? 27. What sea do most of the rivers empty into? 28. What are the Danube's largest tributaries? 29. How many lakes are there in Ukraine? 30. What coniferous and deciduous trees grow in Ukraine? 31. What fur animals are characteristic of Ukraine? 32. Where do the alder and willow predominate? 33. What animals does the Forest-Steppe zone contain? 34. What vegetation is widespread on the alpine plateaux? 35. What plants are found in the Southern Coast?

19 Topic 2 Economy. Protection of environment in Ukraine – 2 hours

Plan 1 Economy of Ukraine - History - Economic Data – Statistical Information - Industries - Agriculture - Investments Economy Quiz

1 Economy of Ukraine The economy of Ukraine is an emerging free market. Like other post-Soviet states, its gross domestic product fell sharply for 10 years following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. However, it grew rapidly from 2000 until 2008 when the Great Recession began worldwide and reached Ukraine as the 2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis. The economy recovered in 2010, but since 2013 the Ukrainian economy has been suffering from a severe downturn. In 2016 economic growth in Ukraine resumed. The depression during the 1990s included hyperinflation and a fall in economic output to less than half of the GDP of the preceding Ukrainian SSR. GDP growth was recorded for the first time in 2000, and continued for eight years. This growth was halted by the global financial crisis of 2008, but the Ukrainian economy recovered and achieved positive GDP growth in the first quarter of 2010. By October 2013, the Ukrainian economy lapsed into another recession. The previous summer Ukrainian export to Russia was substantially worsened due to stricter border and customs control by Russia. The early 2014 annexation of Crimea by Russia, and the War in Donbass that started in the spring of 2014 severely damaged Ukraine's economy and severely damaged two of the more industrial . In 2013, Ukraine saw zero growth in GDP. Ukraine's economy shrank by 6.8% in 2014, and this continued with a 12% decline in GDP in 2015. In April 2017 the World Bank stated that Ukraine's economic growth rate was 2.3% in 2016, thus ending the recession. The nation has many of the components of a major European economy – rich farmlands, a well-developed industrial base, highly trained labour, and a good education-system. As of 2014, however, the economy remains in poor condition.

History Before 1917 Geography has long influenced the economy of the Ukrainian lands. Rich fertile soils (such as chernozem areas) made the area a "breadbasket": for ancient as well as for early modern Europe. The maintenance of trade corridors – the route from the to the Greeks and access through the Straits to the Mediterranean world – became important. Mineral resources encouraged industrialisation – notably in the – from the 19th century onwards. But the lack of secure borders meant repeated interruptions in economic development. Steppe nomads and other conquerors – , , and the Austro-Hungarian occupiers in 1917–1918, for example, sometimes saw plundering as more important than fostering economic development. In the 16th to 18th centuries, the waste lands of the left much of Ukraine as an area of tentatively militarised outposts prior to tsarist Russia's extension of its power into the region in the 17th and 18th centuries. Economy of the Soviet Union The economy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was based on a system of state ownership of the means of production, collective farming, industrial manufacturing and centralized administrative planning. The economy was characterised by state control of investment, public ownership of industrial assets, macroeconomic stability, negligible unemployment and high job security.

20 Beginning in 1928, the course of the Soviet Union's economy was guided by a series of five- year plans. By the 1950s, the Soviet Union had rapidly evolved from a mainly agrarian society into a major industrial power. Its transformative capacity – what the White House National Security Council of the United States described as a "proven ability to carry backward countries speedily through the crisis of modernization and industrialization" – meant consistently appealed to the intellectuals of developing countries in Asia. Impressive growth rates during the first three five-year plans (1928–1940) are particularly notable given that this period is nearly congruent with the Great Depression. During this period, the Soviet Union saw rapid industrial growth while other regions were suffering from crisis. Nevertheless, the impoverished base upon which the five-year plans sought to build meant that at the commencement of the country was still poor. A major strength of the Soviet economy was its enormous supply of oil and gas, which became much more valuable as exports after the world price of oil skyrocketed in the 1970s. As Daniel Yergin notes, the Soviet economy in its final decades was "heavily dependent on vast natural resources-oil and gas in particular". World oil prices collapsed in 1986, putting heavy pressure on the economy. After came to power in 1985, he began a process of economic liberalization by dismantling the command economy and moving towards a mixed economy. At its dissolution at the end of 1991, the Soviet Union begat a Russian Federation with a growing pile of $66 billion in external debt and with barely a few billion dollars in net gold and foreign exchange reserves. The complex demands of the modern economy somewhat constrained the central planners. Corruption and data fiddling became common practice among the bureaucracy by reporting fulfilled targets and quotas, thus entrenching the crisis. From the Stalin-era to the early Brezhnev-era, the Soviet economy grew much slower than Japan and slightly faster than the United States. GDP levels in 1950 (in billion 1990 dollars) were 510 (100%) in the Soviet Union, 161 (100%) in Japan and 1,456 (100%) in the United States. By 1965, the corresponding values were 1,011 (198%), 587 (365%) and 2,607 (179%). The Soviet Union maintained itself as the second largest economy in both nominal and purchasing power parity values for much of the Cold War until 1988, when Japan's economy exceeded $3 trillion in nominal value. The Soviet Union's relatively small consumer sector accounted for just under 60% of the country's GDP in 1990 while the industrial and agricultural sectors contributed 22% and 20% respectively in 1991. Agriculture was the predominant occupation in the Soviet Union before the massive industrialization under . The service sector was of low importance in the Soviet Union, with the majority of the labor force employed in the industrial sector. The labor force totaled 152.3 million people. Major industrial products included petroleum, steel, motor vehicles, , telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, lumber, mining, and defense industry. Though its GDP crossed $1 trillion in the 1970s and $2 trillion in the 1980s, the effects of central planning were progressively distorted due to the rapid growth of the second economy in the Soviet Union. Foreign trade and currency Largely self-sufficient, the Soviet Union traded little in comparison to its economic strength. However, trade with noncommunist countries increased in the 1970s as the government sought to compensate gaps in domestic production with imports. In general, fuels, metals and timber were exported. Machinery, consumer goods and sometimes grain were imported. In the 1980s trade with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) member states accounted for about half the country's volume of trade. The Soviet currency () was non-convertible after 1932 (when trade in gold-convertible chervonets, introduced by Lenin in the New Economic Policy years, was suspended) until the late 1980s. It was impossible (both for citizens and state-owned businesses) to freely buy or sell foreign currency even though the "exchange rate" was set and published regularly. Buying or selling foreign currency on a black market was a serious crime until the late 1980s. Individuals who were paid from abroad (for example writers whose books were published abroad) normally had to spend

21 their currency in a foreign-currency-only chain of state-owned Beryozka ("Birch-tree") stores. Once a free conversion of currency was allowed, the exchange rate plummeted from its official values by almost a factor of 10. Overall, the banking system was highly centralized and fully controlled by a single state- owned Gosbank, responsive to the fulfillment of the government's economic plans. Soviet banks furnished short-term credit to state-owned enterprises. 1991 to 2000 On 24 August 1991 Ukraine established its independence from the Soviet Union. The new state's economy suffered huge output declines and soaring inflation in the following years. Ukraine saw hyperinflation in the early 1990s because of a lack of access to financial markets and massive monetary expansion to finance government spending, while output declined sharply. Huge output declines and soaring inflation was at the time common to most former Soviet republics; but Ukraine was among the hardest hit by these problems. In response to this hyperinflation the replaced the national currency, the karbovanets, with the hryvnia in September 1996 and pledged to keep it stable in relation to the US dollar. The currency remained unstable through the late 1990s, particularly during the 1998 Russian financial crisis. Deep recession during the 1990s led to a relatively high poverty rate, but beginning in 2001, as a result seven straight years of economic growth, the standard of living for most citizens increased. A World Bank report of 2007 noted: "Ukraine recorded one of the sharpest declines in poverty of any transition economy in recent years. The poverty rate, measured against an absolute poverty line, fell from a high of 32% in 2001 to 8% in 2005. The UN noted that Ukraine had overcome absolute poverty, and that there was only relative poverty in 2009. 2000 to 2014 Ukraine stabilised by the early 2000s. The year 2000 saw the first year of economic growth (since (Ukraine's) independence). The economy continued to grow thanks to a 50% growth of exports between 2000 and 2008 – mainly exports from the traditional industries of metals, metallurgy, engineering, chemicals, and food. Between 2001 and 2008 metals and chemicals prices boomed because of fast international economic growth, while the price of natural gas imported from Russia remained low. Monetization also helped to drive the economic boom Ukraine experienced between 2000 and 2008. Attracted in part by relatively high interest-rates, foreign cash was injected into Ukraine's economy and money supply grew rapidly: from 2001 to 2010 broad money increased at an annual rate of 35%. In 2006 and 2007 credit growth averaged 73%. An effect of this was that Ukrainian assets began to look like a large economic bubble and high inflation started to damage Ukraine's export competitiveness. The ratio of credit to GDP grew extremely fast – from 7 to almost 80 percent over just several years. From 2000 to 2007, Ukraine's real growth averaged 7.4%. This growth was driven by domestic demand: orientation toward consumption, other structural change, and financial development. Domestic demand grew in constant prices by almost 15% annually. It was supported by expansionary – procyclical – fiscal policy. Ukraine benefited from very low labor-costs, slightly lower tariffs, and high prices of its main export goods, but at the same time faced notably higher non-tariff barriers. Russia has not charged Ukraine below world market prices for natural gas since the end of 2008; this led to various Russia-Ukraine gas disputes. Ukraine suffered severely in the economic crisis of 2008; because of it Ukraine experienced a drought in capital flows. The hryvnia, which had been pegged at a rate of 5:1 to the U.S. dollar, was devalued to 8:1, and was stabilized at that ratio until the beginning of 2014. In 2008 Ukraine's economy ranked 45th in the world according to 2008 GDP (nominal), with a total nominal GDP of 188 billion USD, and nominal per-capita GDP of 3,900 USD. There was 3% unemployment at the end of 2008; over the first 9 months of 2009, unemployment averaged 9.4%. The final official unemployment rates over 2009 and 2010 were 8.8% and 8.4%, although the CIA World Factbook notes a "large number of unregistered or underemployed workers". Ukraine's GDP fell by 15% in 2009.

22 The Ukrainian economy recovered in the first quarter of 2010 due to the recovery of the world economy and increasing prices for metals. Ukraine's real GDP growth in 2010 was 4.3%, leading to per-capita PPP GDP of 6,700 USD. In 2011 Ukrainian politicians estimated that 40% of the country's economy is shadow economy. In the summer of 2013 Ukrainian exports to Russia reduced substantially due to Russia's stricter customs controls. By October 2013 the Ukrainian economy became stuck in recession. Moody's put Ukraine's credit rating to Caa1 (poor quality and very high credit risk) in September 2013. At the time swap markets rated Ukraine's default probability over the next five years at 50 percent. In 2013 Ukraine saw no growth in GDP. After : 2014 to present Due to the loss of Ukraine's largest trading partner, Russia, over the annexation of Crimea in March 2014, and exacerbated by the War in Donbass which started in April 2014 Ukraine's economy shrank by 6.8% in 2014; it had been expected to decline by 8%. The annexation of Crimea by Russia also contributed directly to this shrinkage. A Ukrainian Government report stated early in February 2016 that Ukraine's economy had shrunk by 10.4% in 2015. For 2015 the National Bank of Ukraine had expected a further decline of 11.6%, and the World Bank anticipated a 12% shrinkage. The World Bank forecast a growth of 1% in 2016. Early in February 2014 the National Bank of Ukraine changed the hryvnia into a fluctuating/floating currency in an attempt to meet IMF requirements and to try to enforce a stable price for the currency in the Forex market. In 2014 and 2015 the hryvnia lost about 70% of its value against the U.S. dollar. The IMF agreed to a four-year loan program worth about $17.5 billion in eight tranches over 2015 and 2016, subject to conditions which involved economic reforms. However, due to lack of progress on reforms, only two tranches worth $6.7 billion were paid in 2015. A third tranche of $1.7 billion was provisionally scheduled in June 2016 subject to the bringing into law of 19 further reform measures. Some western analysts believe that large foreign loans are not encouraging reform, but enabling the corrupt extraction of funds out of the country. Since December 2015 Ukraine has refused to pay and hence de facto defaults on a $3 billion debt payment to Russia that formed part of a December 2013 Ukrainian-Russian action plan. The turnover of retail trade in Ukraine in 2014 shrank by 8.6% (from 2013) and shrank by 20.7% in 2015 (from 2014). Ukraine saw a 30.9% decline in exports in 2015. – mainly because of a sharp decline in production output in and in Oblast (the two regions of Donbass). These two regions were responsible for 40.6% of the total export-decline rate. Before the war they had been two of the more industrial . According to the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade, Ukraine had a surplus in its balance of payments in January– November 2015 of $566 million and has had a trade deficit of $11.046 billion during the same period in 2014. On 31 December 2015 Ukraine's public debt stood at 79% of its GDP. It had shrank $4.324 billion in 2015 to end up at $65.488 billion. But calculated in hryvnia the debt had grown 42.78%. In 2015 the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine rated 20–25% of Ukrainian households as poor. $2.526 billion entered the Ukrainian economy via remittances in 2015, 34.9% less than in 2014. $431 million was sent from Ukraine to elsewhere using remittances. In January 2016, the US company Bloomberg rated Ukraine's economy as the 41st most-innovative in the world, down from 33rd in January 2015. In May 2016, the IMF mission chief for Ukraine, Ron van Rood, stated that the reduction of corruption was a key test for continued international support. In 2015 Transparency International ranked Ukraine 130th out of 168 countries in its Corruption Perceptions Index. In February 2016 historian Andrew Wilson assessed progress in reducing corruption as poor as of 2016. Aivaras Abromavicius, Ukraine's then Minister of Economy and Trade, resigned in February 2016, citing ingrained corruption. In October at a conference for foreign investors, corruption and lack of trust in the judiciary were identified as the largest obstacles to investment.

23 Late in July 2016 the State Statistics Service of Ukraine reported that, compared with June 2015, real wages had increased by 17.3%. Simultaneously the National Bank of Ukraine reported a $406 million surplus in Ukraine's January–June 2016 balance of payments against a deficit of $1.3 billion in the same period in 2015. According to Ukraine's State Statistics Service, inflation in 2016 came down to 13.9%; while it had stood at 43.3% in 2015 and at 24.9% in 2014. The Economist has compared the severity of Ukraine's recession to that of the Greek recession in 2011–2012 – pointing to Ukraine experiencing an 8–9% decline in GDP from 2014– 2015 and Greece experiencing an 8.1% decline of GDP in 2011–2012, and noted that not all areas of Ukraine were equally effected by the economic downturn. Donetsk and Luhansk (located at the epicenter of the conflict zone) saw industrial production falling by 32% and 42% respectively. On the other hand, Lviv, located over 1000 km from the conflict, posted the largest jump in employment in the nation. The economy of Ukraine overcame the severe crisis caused by armed conflict in the eastern part of country. A 200% devaluation of the (national currency) in 2014–2015 made Ukrainian goods and services cheaper and more ɫompetitive. In 2016, for the first time since 2010, the economy grew by more than 2%. A 2017 World Bank statement projected growth of 2% in 2017, of 3.5% in 2018 and of 4% in 2019 and 2020. Inflation in Ukraine in 2017 was 13.7% (12.4% in 2016). According to IMF calculations in 2020 Ukraine will have gross external financing needs of $46 billion, which is about 34 percent of GDP.

Economic Data – Statistical Information Ukraine is subdivided into nine economic regions: Carpathian, Northwestern, Podillia, Capital, Central-Ukrainian, Northeastern, Black-Sea-Coastal, Trans-Dnipro, and Donetsk. Those regions were redrawn from the three Soviet economic regions of the Ukrainian SSR: Donetsk- TransDnieper, Southwestern, and Southern. Trade Until recently, Russia was Ukraine's largest trading partner with 25.7% of exports and 32.4% of imports in 2012. In 2012, 24.9% of exports and 30.9% of imports were to and from the EU. In 2013, 35.9% of Ukrainian exports went to CIS countries, including eight countries other than Ukraine. Simultaneously, exports to EU countries, of which there are twenty-eight, was 26.6%. By 2015 the EU became Ukraine's largest trading partner, accounting for more than a third of its trade. In 2015 the Ukrainian export to Russia figure had fallen to 12.7%. In 2017 Ukraine imported 14.5% of all its imports from Russia. In 2017 the Ukrainian export to Russia figure was 9%. In 2017 40% of Ukraine's export went to the EU and 15% to CIS countries. Overall Ukraine increased its exports by 20% in 2017. Albeit the growth of imports was faster than the rate of exports boost. In 2015, food and other agricultural products (worth $13 billion), metallurgy ($8.8 billion) and machinery ($4.1 billion) made up most of the Ukraine's exports with trade partners from 217 countries. Exports from Ukraine in 2015 decreased by 29.3% to $38.135 billion and imports were 31.1% down, to $37.502 billion. In 2017 almost half of Ukraine's export was provided by the agrarian complex and food industry, slightly more than 20% by metallurgy and nearly 10% by -building products. Natural gas is Ukraine's biggest import and the main cause of the country's structural trade deficit. Ukraine's "business climate" has a very negative reputation. Natural resources Ukraine is relatively rich in natural resources, particularly in mineral deposits. Although oil and natural gas reserves in the country are largely exhausted, it has other important energy sources, such as coal, hydroelectricity and nuclear fuel raw materials.

Industries In Ukraine covering about 20 major industries, namely power generating, fuel, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical and gas, machine-building and metal-working,

24 forest, wood-working and wood pulp and paper, construction materials, light, food and others. Industry accounted for 26% of GDP in 2012. The country possesses a massive high-tech industrial base, including electronics, arms industry and space program. Mining and production Ukraine is one of the world's most important mineral producing countries, in terms of both the range and size of its reserves. There are nearly 8,000 separate deposits, harboring some 90 different minerals, of which about 20 are economically significant. About half of all the known deposits are under exploitation. Coal reserves in Ukraine amount to 47.1 billion tons. The annual domestic demand for coal as fuel is about 100 million tons, of which 85 percent can be satisfied by domestic production. Ukraine has oil and gas fields that meet 10 percent of her oil and 20 percent of her gas consumption, respectively. Ukraine contains natural gas reserves of 39.6 trillion cubic feet, but only about 20 percent of the country's demand is met by domestic production. Deposits of iron ore (estimated at 28 billion tons), manganese ore (3 billion tons), chalk and limestone (1.5 billion tons) are also large in Ukraine. The domestic industrial sector suffers from constant energy shortages and energy supply payment debts totaling about $792 million at the end of 1995. Iron and steel Ukraine is rich in mineral deposits, including iron ore (of which it once produced 50 percent of the entire Soviet output), manganese ore (of which it produced 40 percent of world output during the Soviet era), mercury, titanium, and nickel. Ukraine has a major ferrous metal industry, producing cast iron, steel and pipes. Among its economy leading companies in that field are Metinvest, Kryvorizhstal, AzovStal, Ilyich Steel & Iron Works, and others. As of 2012, Ukraine is the world's tenth largest steel producer (according to World Steel Association). Chemical industry Another important branch is the country's chemical industry which includes the production of coke, mineral fertilizers and sulfuric acid. Strategic and defense complex BM Oplot, produced by the KMDB guided onto a tank transporter Ukraine's defense industry is organized around , a state owned conglomerate of over 130 companies. These companies include Soviet era giants such as Ivchenko-Progress aircraft design bureau that was opened in 1945, to newer companies such as RPC Fort which came into existence in the 1990s. Ukraine is also among the 10 arms exporters in the world. The signing of recent large contracts may put Ukraine into 6th place among biggest arms traders, after the United States, Russian Federation, France, Germany and Israel. The output of Ukrainian defense plants grew 58% in 2009, with largest growth reported by aircraft builders (77%) and ship builders (71%). In 2013 Ukraine's defense sector manufactured a total of 11.7 billion UAH worth of goods, 10 billion UAH of which were exported. In the first 9 months of 2014 Ukraine's defense sector produced a record 13 billion UAH worth of goods, the increase was largely due to government orders for the War in Donbass. Fuel and energy complex Fuel industry Ukraine imports 90% of its oil and most of its natural gas. Russia ranks as Ukraine's principal supplier of oil, and Russian firms own and/or operate the majority of Ukraine's refining capacity. Natural gas imports come from Russia – which delivers its own gas, as well as the gas from Turkmenistan. Ukraine transports Russian gas to the EU through its well-developed gas pipelines system, being Europe's vitally important connection. The country's dependence on Russian gas supplies dramatically affects its economics and foreign policy, especially after the 2014 Russia-Ukraine gas disputes. However, Ukraine is independent in its electricity supply, and exports to Russia and other countries of Eastern Europe. This is achieved through a wide use of nuclear power and hydroelectricity. Recent energy strategy intends gradual decreasing of gas- and oil-based generation

25 in favor of nuclear power, as well as energy saving measures including lower industrial gas consumption. Reform of the still inefficient and opaque energy sector is a major objective of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank programs with Ukraine. Ukraine is a partner country of the European Union EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, wikt: convergence convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of Internal energy market EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest. Automotive industry LAZ-5208DL built by Lviv Factory The modern Electron T5L64 Ukraine automobile manufacturers produces diesel locomotives, , trucks, , , own-designed cars and . There are 12 automobile manufacturers in Ukraine includes ZAZ, LuAZ, , KrAZ, , Electron, LAZ. ZAZ (Zaporizhia Automobile Building Plant) is the main automobile-manufacturer of Ukraine, based in the south-eastern city of Zaporizhia. Beginning of passenger cars manufacturing in Ukraine started in 1959. From 1960 to 1994, a total of 3,422,444 Zaporozhets vehicles were manufactured in Zaporizhia and engines with air-cooling in . In 2011–2012, Zaporizhia Automobile Building Plant started serial full-scale production of two new models of vehicle, the ZAZ Forza and the ZAZ Vida. Bogdan Corporation is a leading Ukrainian automobile-manufacturing group, including several car- and bus-makers of the country. Bogdan buses are used as the primary small buses in most Ukrainian cities. LAZ is one of the major bus manufacturers in Ukraine. It manufactures city buses, buses, trolley buses, and special purpose buses. The Lviv-based company Electrontrans is an enterprise of a full-scale production, specializing in design and production of modern urban electric transport – trams, trolleybuses, electric buses, units and spare parts. In 2013 Electrotrans starts producing low-floor trams, the first Ukrainian 100% low-floor tramways. Aircraft and aerospace industry Ukraine is one of nine countries with a full cycle of aerospace hardware engineering and production. Besides to design and production of passenger and transportation aircraft, Ukraine also boasts a network of aircraft repair enterprises, including companies involved in recovery of military planes and helicopters. In March 2007, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine created State aircraft building concern "Aviation of Ukraine" (SACAU), which is governed by the Ministry of industrial policy. Production of An-148 aircraft is now one of the most prospective projects for Ukrainian plane manufacturing industry with 35 units manufactured since 2009 (together with Russian production). The aircraft were engineered by Antonov Scientific and Production Complex Design Office (Antonov ANTK). The largest single airplane in the world, Antonov An-225 Mriya was also designed by Antonov ANTK and made in 1988. Gross production of light and ultra light planes in Ukraine does not exceed 200 units per annum. Production of hang-gliders and paragliders of all designs makes nearly 1,000 units each year. Most of produced devices are exported (the buyers of Ukrainian-made ultra light aircraft are the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, etc.). Since the , aerospace industry revenues have fallen by 80%. In June 2016, the Antonov Corporation merged with the state-owned military conglomerate UkrOboronProm, forming Ukrainian Aircraft Corporation within its structure. This merger was done in order to boost Antonov profits and the production rate. Currently, Antonov is working on two cargo planes: An-178, a cargo version of An-158, and An-132D, a redesigned version of An-32. The An-132 is developed jointly with Saudi's Taqnia Aeronautics Company, featuring western avionics and engines. The roll out and first flight is due at the beginning of January 2017. The space rocket industry in Ukraine has been managed by the National Space Agency of Ukraine since 1992. The agency includes 30 enterprises, scientific research institutes, and design

26 offices. Design Bureau is in general responsible for creating the -3SL carrier rocket. The National Space Agency of Ukraine is involved in cooperation with American Rockwell Int., as well as the project. The first stage core of the U.S. Orbital ATK Antares rocket was designed and is manufactured in Ukraine by Yuzhnoye SDO. Shipbuilding The USSR's collapse put Ukraine's shipbuilding into a long-term decline. It lasted until 1999 and was mostly due to a minimum volume of state shipbuilding orders. In general, between 1992 till 2003, the 11 shipyards of the country produced 237 navigation units for a total value of USD 1.5 billion. Production facilities are not working near full capacity, and customers are not always timely in paying for services. Growth of production volumes was witnessed at the enterprises of shipbuilding industry over 2000–2006. State support and the opening of free economic zones, foremost at enterprises based in Mykolaiv were of crucial recent developments in Ukraine's shipbuilding industry. Within the Mykolaiv Special Economic Zone, enterprises like Damen Shipyards Okean, Chornomorskyi (Black Sea) Shipbuilding Plant, 61 Communards Shipbuilding Plant, as well as the (Rainbow) paint and insulation enterprise are implementing investment projects targeted to raise efficiency and quality in primarily export-oriented vessel building through production upgrades. The new engineering developments and high potential of Ukrainian designers give ability to build high quality vessels with competitive prices. There are 49 shipbuilding companies registered in Ukraine. They are able to build a wide range of vessel types: powerboats, barges, bulk carriers (dry cargo ship), tankers, liquefied gas carriers, etc. Ukraine is one of the 10 largest shipbuilding countries in Europe. Information technology Ukraine has a long-standing reputation as a major technology region, with a well-developed scientific and educational base. In March 2013 Ukraine ranks fourth in the world in number of certified IT professionals after the United States, India and Russia. On top of that, the experts recognize both quantitative and qualitative potential of the Ukrainian specialists. In 2011 the number of IT specialists working in the industry reached 25,000 people with 20% growth. The volume of the Ukrainian IT market in 2013 was estimated to be up to 3.6 billion US dollars.

Agriculture Although typically known as the industrial base of the Soviet Union, agriculture is a large part of Ukraine's economy. In 2008 the sector accounted for 8.29% of the country's GDP and by 2012 has grown to 10.43% of the GDP. Agriculture accounted for $13.98 billion value added to the economy of Ukraine in 2012, however despite being a top 10 world producer of several crops such as wheat and corn Ukraine still only ranks 24 out of 112 nations measured in terms of overall agricultural production. Ukraine is the world's largest producer of sunflower oil, a major global producer of grain and sugar, and future global player on meat and dairy markets. It is also one of the largest producers of nuts. Ukraine also produces more natural honey than any other European country and is one of the world's largest honey producers, an estimated 1.5% of its population is involved in honey production, therefore Ukraine has the highest honey per capita production rate in the world. Because Ukraine possesses 30% of the world's richest black soil, its agricultural industry has a huge potential. However, farmland remains the only major asset in Ukraine that is not privatized. The agricultural industry in Ukraine is already highly profitable, with 40–60% profits, but according to analysts its outputs could still rise up to fourfold. Ukraine's flag resembles the nation's farmlands. Ukraine is the world's 6th largest, 5th if not including the EU as a separate state, producer of corn in the world and the 3rd largest corn exporter in the world. In 2012 Ukraine signed a contract with China, the world's largest importer of corn, to supply China with 3 million tonnes of corn annually at market price, the deal also included a $3 billion line of credit extension from China to Ukraine.

27 In 2014 Ukraine total grain crop was estimated to be record 64 million metric tons. However, in 2014 several regions have declared (themselves) independence (and are no longer under control of Ukrainian central authorities) resulting in the War in Donbass and the Crimea Crisis, hence the actual available crop yield was closer to 60.5 million metric tons. By October Ukrainian grain exports reached 11 million metric tons. Due to the decline of the metallurgy industry, Ukraine's top export in prior years, as a result of the War in Donbass agricultural products accounted for the nation's largest exported set of goods. Infrastructure Maritime About 100,000 Ukrainians regularly work on foreign merchant ships, one of the largest group of Ukrainian labor migrants and the sixth largest number of sailors from any country. They are attracted by the relatively high salaries of more than $1,000 per month. Every major Ukrainian coastal city has a maritime university. Communications Ukraine ranks eighth among the world's nations in terms of the Internet speed with the average download speed of 1,190 kbit/s. Five national providers of fixed (DSL, ADSL, XDSL) internet access – Ukrtelecom, Vega Telecom, Datagroup, Ukrnet, Volia, and 5 national operators of mobile internet – MTS, Kyivstar, PEOPLEnet, Utel, and Intertelecom are currently operating in Ukraine. Every regional center and large district center has a number of local providers and home networks. 2011 revenues from Internet service providing in Ukraine reached ೏ 4.75 bn. Over 16 million Ukrainians had Internet access in 2012, growing to 22 million in 2015. In Kyiv 90% of the population had internet access. The mobile-cellular telephone system's expansion has slowed, largely due to saturation of the market which has reached 144 mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people. Tourism Ukraine is the 8th most popular tourism destination in Europe with 23 million visitors in 2012. The country's tourism industry is generally considered to be underdeveloped, but it does provide crucial support for Ukraine's economy. In 2012, the contribution of tourism to the GDP amounted to 28.8 billion ೏, or 2.2% of GDP and directly supported 351,500 jobs (1.7% of total employment). Shopping tourism Ukraine's neighbours (, , Hungarians, and even ) are known to come to Ukraine to purchase products and presents, such as food or gasoline, that are cheaper in Ukraine than in their home countries. Recreational tourism and sightseeing Ukraine has impressive landscapes, ruins of ancient castles, historical parks, vineyards where they produce native wines, unique structures such as Saint Sophia or Chersonesos. Officially, there are seven World Heritage Sites in Ukraine. The Carpathian Mountains suitable for skiing, hiking, fishing and hunting. Bukovel – is the largest ski resort in Ukraine situated in the Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. The 2010–2011 winter season recorded 1,200,000 day visits with foreigners amounting to 8–10% of all visitors. In 2012 the Bukovel was named the fastest growing ski resort worldwide. The coastline on the Black Sea is a popular summer destination for vacationers, especially Odesa.

Investments A political crisis in the middle of 2006 was feared as a threat to economic and investment stability, however, despite the forecasts, the political situation has not scared investors. The GDP showed a good growth rate of 7% in 2007, compared to the previous year. Industrial output has increased. Car sales soared, while the banking sector has expanded, thanks to the arrival of European banks.

28 Foreign direct investment Ukraine encourages foreign trade and investment. The Parliament of Ukraine has approve a foreign investment law allowing foreigners to purchase businesses and property, to repatriate revenue and profits, and to receive compensation if the property is nationalized by a future government. However, complex laws and regulations, poor corporate governance, weak enforcement of contract law by courts, and corruption all continue to stymie direct large-scale foreign investment in Ukraine. While there is a functioning stock market, the lack of protection of shareholders' rights severely restricts portfolio investment activities. As of April 2011 total foreign direct investment stock in Ukraine stood at $44.7 billion. Statistics from FDi Magazine show Ukraine suffered a year on year decline in foreign direct investment between 2010 and 2013. State enterprise InvestUkraine was created under the State Agency for Investment and National Projects (National Projects) to serve as a One Stop Shop for investors and to deliver investment consulting services. Ukraine signed a shale gas exploration deal with Royal Dutch Shell on 25 January 2013. The $10 billion deal was the largest foreign direct investment ever for Ukraine. Many companies, owned by foreigners, have been successfully operating in Ukraine since its independence. These include companies in agriculture, such as Kyiv-Atlantic Group, founded in 1994 by David Sweere. He sold its business in Minnesota and invested in Ukraine, believing in its huge potential. The company has been operating at a profit since 2002. As a result, he became the fifth richest among the Westerners who made their fortune in Ukraine. In 2016, foreign direct investment in Ukraine's economy amounted to $3.8 billion in 2016, which was almost twice more than in 2015. Legal environment According to the Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013 "the country’s most important challenge is the needed overhaul of its institutional framework, which cannot be relied on because it suffers from red tape, lack of transparency, and favoritism". Since the late 1990s, the government has pledged to reduce the number of government agencies, streamline the regulatory process, create a legal environment to encourage entrepreneurs, and enact a comprehensive tax overhaul. Outside institutions – particularly the International Monetary Fund – have encouraged Ukraine to quicken the pace and scope of reforms and have threatened to withdraw financial support. But reforms in some politically sensitive areas of structural reform and land privatizations are still lagging. On June 24, 2010 Ukraine's Foreign Minister Kostyantyn Hryshchenko signed an agreement on free trade with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). According to specialists, a double taxation avoidance treaty with Cyprus (signed in 1982 by the Soviet Union) has cost Ukraine billions of US dollars of tax revenues. The recent in Ukraine has been criticized as it might have adverse economic effects. Foreign workers A number of foreign guest workers come to work in Ukraine, mainly in seasonal farm work and construction industry, especially from neighboring Moldova and Belarus. Environmental issues Ukraine is interested in cooperating on regional environmental issues. Conservation of natural resources is a stated high priority, although implementation suffers from a lack of financial resources. Ukraine established its first nature preserve, Askania-Nova, in 1921 and has programs to breed endangered species. The country has significant environmental problems, especially those resulting from the nuclear power plant disaster in 1986 and from industrial pollution. In accordance with its previously announced plans, Ukraine permanently closed the Chernobyl Atomic Energy Station in December 2000. In November 2001, Ukraine withdrew an application it had made to the EBRD for funding to complete two new reactor units to compensate for the energy once produced by Chernobyl.

29 Ukrainian concern over reform conditions attached to the loan – particularly tariff increases needed to ensure loan repayment – led the Ukrainian government to withdraw the application on the day the EBRD Board was to have considered final approval. Work on the so-called "object shelter" to permanently entomb the reactor where the world's worst nuclear accident occurred has been slower than anticipated but continues. Design work as well as structural improvements to the "sarcophagus" erected by the Soviet Union are largely complete, and construction on the new shelter was scheduled to begin in 2004. Ukraine also has established a Ministry of Environment and has introduced a pollution fee system that levies taxes on air and water emissions and solid waste disposal. The resulting revenues are channelled to environmental protection activities, but enforcement of this pollution fee system is lax.

Economy Quiz 1. What are the three economic areas of Ukraine? 2. Which of them has a high population density? 3. What industries hold the top positions in the Southwestern Economic Area? 4. What industries is the Donets-Dnipro Economic Area known for? 5. What is the key sector of the Southern Economic Area's industry? 6. What industry holds the top position in Ukraine? 7. In what regions are oil and gas extracted? 8. How many nuclear power plants are there in Ukraine? 9. Where are metallurgical plants spread? 10. What does the instrument-making plant in produce? 11. Where are seagoing vessels built? 12. What do farm machinery plants turn out? 13. What do the chemical enterprises manufacture? 14. Where are large textile enterprises located? 15. What's the principal grain crop in Ukraine? 16. What position does sugar beet occupy among the industrial crops? 17. What vegetable crop is called the second bread in Ukraine? 18. What are important branches of animal husbandry? 19. What birds are farmed in Ukraine? 20. How long is the railway network of Ukraine? 21. What is the principal form of passenger transport within Ukraine? 22. What are large ports in the country? 23. What's pollution? 24. What does contamination originate from? 25. Where is air pollution especially severe in Ukraine? 26. What causes water contamination? 27. Is the Shelter safe for people's lives? 28. What potential does Ukraine have to develop its economy? 29. What are Ukraine's major export and import items? 30. What is characteristic of Ukraine's economy today? 31. What marks the beginning of land privatisation in Ukraine? 32. What is Ukraine's currency called? 33. Ukraine is estimated to account for around one-fifth of the world's commercial-grade iron ore. It is also estimated to have one-quarter of the world's reserves of which mineral? 34. What is the name of Ukrainian state-owned company that achieved global prominence after introduction of its extra large airplanes? 35. Which nuclear power plant exploded in the Ukraine? 36. Ukraine's Chornobyl power plant became the site of one of the world's worst nuclear disasters when a reactor exploded there in 1986. To limit the impact of the catastrophe, a special "exclusion zone" has been in place around the plant ever since. What is the radius of this containment area?

30 Theme 3 People. Language. Recreation. Tourism. Sports – 4 hours

Plan 1 People - Ethnic groups - Settlement patterns - Demographic trends - The Ukrainians 2 Language - Languages - The Ukrainian language People and Language Quiz 3 Recreation and Tourism - Welcome to Ukraine - Ukraine – Tourism - The wonderful Crimea 4 Sport in Ukraine - Football - Basketball - Boxing - Other sports - Outstanding Ukrainian athletes Tourism and Sport Quiz

1 People Ethnic groups When Ukraine was a part of the Soviet Union, a policy of Russian in-migration and Ukrainian out-migration was in effect, and ethnic Ukrainians’ share of the population in Ukraine declined from 77 percent in 1959 to 73 percent in 1991. But that trend reversed after the country gained independence, and, by the turn of the 21st century, ethnic Ukrainians made up more than three-fourths of the population. Russians continue to be the largest minority, though they now constitute less than one-fifth of the population. The remainder of the population includes Belarusians, , Bulgarians, Poles, Hungarians, Romanians, Roma (Gypsies), and other groups. The , who were forcibly deported to Uzbekistan and other Central Asian republics in 1944, began returning to the Crimea in large numbers in 1989; by the early 21st century they constituted one of the largest non- Russian minority groups. In March 2014 Russia forcibly annexed Crimea, a move that was condemned by the international community, and human rights groups subsequently documented a series of repressive measures that had been taken against the Crimean Tatars by Russian authorities. Historically, Ukraine had large Jewish and Polish populations, particularly in the Right Bank region (west of the Dnieper River). In fact, in the late 19th century slightly more than one-fourth of the world’s Jewish population (estimated at 10 million) lived in ethnic Ukrainian territory. This predominantly -speaking population was greatly reduced by emigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and by the devastation of . In the late 1980s and early ’90s, large numbers of Ukraine’s remaining emigrated, mainly to Israel. At the turn of the 21st century, the several hundred thousand Jews left in Ukraine made up less than 1 percent of the Ukrainian population. Most of Ukraine’s large Polish minority was resettled in Poland after World War II as part of a Soviet plan to have ethnic settlement match territorial boundaries. Fewer than 150,000 ethnic Poles remained in Ukraine at the turn of the 21st century.

31 Settlement patterns More than two-thirds of the population lives in urban areas. High population densities occur in southeastern and south-, in the highly industrialized regions of the Donets Basin and the Dnieper Bend, as well as in the coastal areas along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Portions of western Ukraine and the Kyiv area are also densely populated. Besides the capital, major cities in Ukraine include , Dnipro, Donetsk, Odesa, Zaporizhzhya, Lviv, and Kryvyy Rih. Of the rural population, more than half is found in large villages (1,000 to 5,000 inhabitants), and most of these people are employed in a rural economy based on farming. The highest rural population densities are found in the wide belt of forest-steppe extending east-west across central Ukraine, where the extremely fertile soils and balanced climatic conditions are most favourable for agriculture.

Demographic trends Ukraine’s population increased steadily throughout the Soviet era, peaking at over 50 million as the country transitioned to independence. However, a low birth rate, coupled with an aging population and low rates of migration into the country, contributed to a sharp that extended into the 21st century. Millions of Ukrainians – especially those from the western part of the country – sought employment abroad, and by 2010 roughly one in seven Ukrainians was residing outside the country for work purposes. These labour migrants most often sought work in Russia and the EU, and they predominantly found employment in the fields of construction and domestic service. Aware of Ukraine’s net loss of workers to immigration and a fertility rate that was far below replacement level, Ukrainian policy makers recognized the burden that would be placed on the country’s old agepension system. In 2011 the retirement age for men was raised from 60 to 62 and women’s retirement age was raised from 55 to 60. By 2017 it was estimated that at least 1.5 million Ukrainians had been internally displaced by Russia’s forcible annexation of Crimea in 2014 and by ongoing fighting between Ukrainian forces and Russian-backed separatists in southeastern Ukraine.

The Ukrainians Ukrainian mentality was formed influenced by many factors: geographical location at the crossroads of the West and East, specific climatic conditions and complex, at times tragic historical destiny. Since time immemorial Ukrainians have been known as hardworking, thrifty, skilled farmers emotionally strongly affiliated to their native parts, good family men and devoted wives. They are typically kind-hearted, friendly, hospitable and well wishing to both fellow countrymen and foreigners; they are cautious yet inclined to romanticism and sentimentality. But come the time of ordeal, and they are determined, resourceful, brave, slaunch, ready for self- sacrifice. Among themselves, despite their inherent emotionalism, Ukrainians have always valued restraint, consideration and a realistic view of life. They have a very special sense of humor. They can be bitingly ironical. Theirs is a very rich imagination reflecting the surrounding realities in a colourful at times paradoxical way.

2 Language Languages The vast majority of people in Ukraine speak Ukrainian, which is written with a form of the Cyrillic alphabet. The language – belonging with Russian and Belarusian to the East Slavic branch of the Slavic language family – is closely related to Russian but also has distinct similarities to the . Significant numbers of people in the country speak Polish, Yiddish, Rusyn, Belarusian, Romanian or Moldovan, Bulgarian, Crimean Turkish, or Hungarian. Russian is the most important minority language.

32 During the rule of imperial Russia and under the Soviet Union, Russian was the common language of government administration and public life in Ukraine. Although Ukrainian had been afforded equal status with Russian in the decade following the revolution of 1917, by the 1930s a concerted attempt at was well under way. In 1989 Ukrainian once again became the country’s official language, and its status as the sole official language was confirmed in the 1996 Ukrainian constitution. In 2012 a law was passed that granted local authorities the power to confer official status upon minority languages. Although Ukrainian was reaffirmed as the country’s official language, regional administrators could elect to conduct official business in the prevailing language of the area. In Crimea, which has an autonomous status within Ukraine and where there is a Russian- speaking majority, Russian and Crimean Tatar are the official languages. In addition, primary and secondary schools using Russian as the language of instruction still prevail in the Donets Basin and other areas with large Russian minorities. The Ukrainian parliament moved to rescind the minority language law in February 2014, after the ouster of pro-Russian Pres. Viktor Yanukovych, but interim Pres. declined to sign the bill into law.

The Ukrainian language Ukrainian Proverb: Language is the soul of a nation Language has been and is a complex issue in Ukraine, tied up with politics, patriotism, and prejudices. Ukraine is bilingual, with half the population speaking Ukrainian and half speaking Russian. The difference is largely along an east-west division, with Ukrainian spoken in Western Ukraine and Russian predominating in the east and south. With independence, Ukrainian became the official state language. The government conducts business in Ukrainian, public signs are in Ukrainian, and much of public education switched from Russian to Ukrainian. However, the dominates the business world, popular culture, and the airwaves. In 2004 a controversial government regulation putting all television and radio broadcasts in Ukrainian was so impractical that it was considered a provocation designed to fuel Ukrainian-Russian hostilities. Many Russian speakers feel that replacing the language they grew up with is unfair. Some regard those who advocate a much greater use of Ukrainian as rabid, right-wing nationalists, out of step with reality. Those who want a greater restoration of Ukrainian cite the centuries of repression under occupying powers, during which Ukrainian was considered culturally inferior and forbidden in print. Some see the Russian language as an instrument of Russia's continued economic and cultural imperialism. The issue is further clouded by the blurring of the distinction between the two languages following the introduction of Ukrainian in public places. A hybrid language, Surzhyk, is on the rise, particularly among young Ukrainians in most eastern regions of the country exposed for the first time to the Ukrainian language. Most Ukrainians – regardless of their native tongue – lament the contamination of these two separate languages. Even though language can be a flash point for deep political fears, in public there's been real accommodation for the sake of peaceful coexistence. You might observe, for example, Ukrainian spoken to a souvenir vendor or cabdriver who responds in Russian.

People and Language Quiz 1. What territory was the centre of the first state of the Eastern Slavs? 2. What is Ukraine's average population density today? 3. What nationalities are found in Ukraine? 4. What other countries do Ukrainians live in? 5. How many Ukrainians live in towns and cities? 6. How many residents does Kyiv have? 7. What are Ukrainians like? 8. Where do the live?

33 9. How many years does their existence date back? 10.What is the Hutsul folk tradition mostly rich in? 11.What is the population of Toronto? 12.When did Ukrainian immigrants begin to settle in Toronto? 13.Who were the first immigrants? 14.Where are Ukrainians employed in Canada now? 15.What Ukrainian institutions are found in Toronto? 16.How is the Ukrainian language used in Toronto? 17.What Ukrainian choirs are famous in Canada? 18.What drama groups perform in Toronto? 19.What family of languages does Ukrainian belong to? 20.What dialects is Ukrainian divided into? 21.What dialects is Standard Ukrainian based on? 22.When was the law on languages passed in Ukraine? 23.What status does it give to the Ukrainian language? 24.What are the typical features of the Ukrainians?

3 Recreation and Tourism Every Ukrainian town has a downtown and parks with plenty of room to stroll. As in much of Europe, people tend to walk and use public transportation whenever possible (cities are densely populated). Cycling is becoming increasingly popular as well. Swimming and sunbathing. Almost every Ukrainian town also has lakes or rivers nearby where you can swim or sunbathe. Kyiv, for example, has miles and miles of free public beaches along the central Dnipro River, as well as lakes scattered around outlying residential areas of the city. What a treat! Watch for polar bear dippers and ice fishers in the winter as well. Cafes. Another Ukrainians love to do is talk. While strolling, in cafes and restaurants, or at home. Over a cup of tea or coffee (or other drinks). Conversation tends to be light, relaxing, humorous, and sometimes philosophical. Picnics and shish-kabobs. Many Ukrainians enjoy picnics outside at almost any time of year. Picnics often involve shish-kabobs or barbequed meat, homemade salads, and, of course, alcohol. Ukrainians love to sit around fires at night and snack, drink, and sing songs to a guitar. It's one of those quintessential Ukrainian things that you see everywhere.

Ukraine – Tourism Ukraine is a paradise for those who seek a natural, untouched nature to relax in. There are many different regions that have their unique offerings. Whether you seek an adventurous holiday hiking and skiing in the mountains, or a relaxing, healing stay at mudbaths or close to natural mineral springs, Ukraine has it. Religions and Spiritual Matters Ukraine was and will remain a home for many religions and sacraments blessed by faith and time from the pagan houses of worship of the past and up to the present-day Christian, Buddhist and Muslim temples. St. Sophia Cathedral and are outstanding sacred sites but they are not the only historical and architectural monuments of religious belief and spirituality. History and Culture Architectural monuments of Ukraine will tell you about the grey-headed history of the city- states, about fighting nomads and the adoption of Christianity, show the Cossack’s Baroque and the creations by modern architects. Museums in the open air will transport you in history a couple of centuries back; a visit at the time of festivals is sure to immerse you into a whirlpool of joy and elation. Recuperation and recreation on the landscape The Black Sea and Sea of Azov offer for your choice delicious coolness or genial warmth with sand or gravel beach. The Crimean Mountains provide a Mediterranean type subtropical

34 climate and unforgettable views from the peak of Ai-Petri (St. Peter) Mountain. The snowy Carpathian mountaintops are almost untouched and excellent for skiing. Crystalline clear ponds and rivers of the forestation zone gratify one’s desire for calmness, invigorate and give strength. If you are lover of extreme sport, risky and dangerous entertainment is here at your call. Curative resources Ukraine is filled with mineral waters, fresh fruits and juices that are made naturally and locally. Natural recuperation complexes allow you to recover your health near the natural salt mines of Carpathian zone, or using the mineralized mud baths in Slobozhanschyna region.

The wonderful Crimea The Crimea is a marvell ous treasury, a natural storehouse of the secrets of milleniums. Various reserves occupy sixty-seven thousand hectares. Among them you can find Lebiazhyi (Swan) Islands, a bird sanctuary of international importance; the Karadag, an ancient volcanic massif on the Easern Coast of the Crimea, associated with numerous legends; a majestic and awe-inspiring Great Canyon with its 320-metre sheer slopes; the Kizil-Koba, a cave in the western slope of Dolgorukov mountain pasture – the total length of its six-storey underground galleries exceeds thirteen kilometres. Even this brief mention of some of the reserves shows that there are all kinds of natural wonders here – canyons, caves, islands and mountains. Now the Crimea has one hundred and seventy-five officially registered monuments of nature. The Crimea ancient and modern, the Crimea of beautiful landscapes and numerous historic monuments attracts many visitors. You can meet them at any time of the year – hikers, travellers, tourists, rock-climbers, people enchanted by the Crimea. Here the sun shines brighter, the parks and forests are greener, and the air is saturated with the fragrance of flowers, the aroma of the sea and the intoxicating perfume of pine forests combined with the bitter scent of wormwood blown in suddenly by a scorching steppe wind. The Crimea awakens the artist in a man. Thus, a unique open-air museum has been established in Yalta where works by both professional and amateur artists are exhibited, works inspired by the fabulous beauty of surrounding areas. The museum is called the 'Fairy-Tale Glade', and as it should be in a fairy-tale, old stumps and snags, golden straw and rough granite boulders are all here together creating a special world. It has probably always been so: the Crimea has enthralled our ancestors as well, stirring their sense of the beautiful and perfect. Take a good look at outlines of walls and towers in the Sudak Fortress or try to reconstruct in your imagination . If stones could speak... could learn a lot of interesting stories from the fountain in the Livadia Palace and from the famous Alupka lions. And the cliff where Swallow's Nest perches surely remembers how already in our time workers hanging at a dizzying height over the sea reinforced the cleft rock and the castle's foundations, thereby saving it from destruction. The breath-taking serpentine course of mountain roads and the tracery of the Alupka Palace, the fragrant roses in the Nikitskyi Botanical Garden with their unique shades and fantastic shapes, the scarlet flashes of sunset, the everchanging choppy sea and primeval silence of the steppe, the incessant sounds of water-falls and high-rise buildings along the Southern Coast – nobody could claim to have become accustomed to this wonderful land full of life and surprises.

4 Sport in Ukraine Football Football is the most popular sport in Ukraine. is governed by the Football Federation of Ukraine (FFU). FFU organizes various football competitions in the country among men, women, youth, handicapped, others as well as facilitates football competitions among professionals, students and in regions. Format of competitions varies from leagues (round robin) to cup-type (elimination) competitions. FFU also organizes several invitational tournaments (friendlies) in Ukraine and organizes several national teams that compete at various international tournaments.

35 Ukraine has a well developed professional football competitions among men that Ukraine inherited from the Soviet Union. Organization of professional football is delegated by FFU to the (UPL) and the Professional Football League of Ukraine (PFL, competitions in lower leagues). The strongest and highest-tier league is Premier League, which was also known as Vyshcha Liha (Top League, Higher League). The second-ranking league is Persha Liha (First League). The next league down is Druha Liha (Second League), which is divided into two groups, East (B) and West (A), according to their location. At the end of each season, the two lowest-ranking teams in the Vyscha Liha are relegated to the Persha Liha, while the two top teams of the Persha Liha are promoted to the Vyscha Liha. The two lowest-ranking Persha Liha teams are relegated to the Druha Liha, while the top two teams in the Druha Liha League are promoted to the Persha Liha. Teams receive three points if they win, one point for a draw, and no points for a loss. Each team plays each other twice. Ukraine has also amateur level national football competitions which are governed by the Ukrainian Football Amateur Association. Teams from all professional leagues participate in the . The winners of the Ukrainian Championship and the Ukrainian Cup will participate in the . is the most recognizable among Ukrainian footballers, who is considered a national hero in Ukraine. Ukraine was the host to the UEFA European Football Championship in 2012, together with Poland. Following the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, all Crimean based football clubs were dissolved by the Russian occupation administration and most were reorganized as the Russian clubs. Some former Crimean clubs that competed in the Ukrainian competitions relocated to the continental Ukraine where they were reorganized anew.

Basketball Ukrainian basketball players were among the decisive factors for the success of the USSR national basketball team, which dominated Europe for decades and at times dominated the global basketball scene as well. These players included most notably Alexander Belostenny, Anatoli Polivoda, Vladimir Tkachenko and Alexander Anatolyevich Volkov and others. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, especially the Ukrainian club teams BC Kyiv and BC Azovmash gained international attention as they both reached the FIBA EuroCup finals in 2005 and 2007 respectively. The Ukraine national basketball team slowly but surely has made a name among elite competition in Europe. Its hopes are up for the 2015 European Basketball Championship on home soil. When in 2012, the country gained official confirmation to host the 2015 European Championship, basketball received major public boost in Ukraine. Host cities were to be Dnipro, Donetsk, Ivano-Frankivsk, Kyiv, Lions, Odesa and Kharkiv. Several arenas were to be renovated for the occasion. This major international sporting event had the slogan: "We are ready!" and points to the experience of the country, which was received in preparation for the European Football Championship 2012. As Oleksandr Volkov, president of the Ukrainian Basketball Federation pointed out that the country’s experience in hosting an event of such magnitude came through the mentioned football championships. This displays the readiness of Ukrainian infrastructure and had become a decisive factor for the selection of Ukraine. Many facilities necessary for the EuroBasket 2015 (roads, airports, hotels, etc.) have been built in preparation for the European Football Championship in 2012, which significantly reduced the expected cost of the basketball event. Unfortunately, due to the Ukrainian Revolution of 2013–2014, the FIBA Eurobasket event would end up being cancelled for Ukraine and instead would involve four different countries taking part for the first time ever. However, because of their situation, the committee has obligated Ukraine to placing a bid for EuroBasket 2017 instead. Ukraine hosted 2013 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship. In general, the teams of the Ukrainian basketball league are strong enough to make it into the Eurocup basketball

36 championship. The top Ukrainian League is called the Ukrainian Basketball Super League. The next top league is called the Vyscha Liha. The next strongest league is called the Persha Liha.

Boxing Ukraine is noted for its famous heavyweight boxers – Volodymyr and Vitaliy Klitchsko, who have won world championship titles many times, and currently hold the WBC, WBO, IBF, IBO, and Ring Magazine titles. Also hailing from the Ukraine, Vasyl Lomachenko, the 2008 and 2012 Olympic Gold Medalist, and fastest to become Division World Champion in three weight divisions in just twelve professional fights (126, 130 and 135) and current Lightweight Champion.

Other sports Popular outdoor sports in Ukraine are , badminton, table tennis, and hiking (walking in the forest). Fitness clubs have appeared all over the place. Yoga and martial arts are quite popular as well. Mountain climbing and rock climbing clubs can be found. Scuba diving, yachting, and even golf have recently become available for the "elite." Extreme sports Increasingly popular in Ukraine are all sorts of extreme sports (hangliding, bungee jumping, river rafting, downhill mountain biking, spelunking, etc.), and, more generally, all forms of active recreation (hiking, biking, boating, horseback riding, skiing, etc.). After the fall of the Soviet Union Ukraine has gradually become aware of all the urban fads worldwide and is gradually catching up. Another factor is the increasing (but still inadequate) availability of imported sporting goods.

Outstanding Ukrainian athletes Ivan Piddubnyi Professional wrestler, multiple world champion. Ivan Piddubnyi was born into a peasant family in the village of Krasenivka (nowadays oblast) in 1870, where his childhood and youth had passed. In Piddubnyi's family, that of Cossack descendants, everyone was marked by powerful strength. His father, Maksym I. Piddubnyi, was also a strong man, and Ivan considered him to be stronger than he himself. Nobody in the village could contend with the Piddubnyi's strength. The future champion began his labour activity as a docker in Sevastopol port. In 1895, he moved to where he took a great interest in weight lifting. Afterwards I. Piddubnyi started performing on circus rings of Sevastopol, Odesa, Kyiv and soon gained his first victory in circus championship. In Kyiv club of athletes he was familiarised with French wrestling which later brought him worldwide fame, participated in circus tours all over the country. The Ukrainian Hercules went for triumphal tours over European countries. In world championships of 1905–1909 that took place in Paris, Milan, , Frankfurt, each time Ivan Piddubnyi won an honorary title of the world champion in Graeco-Roman wrestling among professionals, beating the strongest wrestlers of Europe and the world. The outstanding sportsman was a heavyweight wrestler, he weighed 120 kg, possessed perfect wrestling technique, endurance and mastery of choosing correct tactics of fighting. He was called "the champion of champions". The secret of the prominent sportsman's invincibility consists in the combination of his exceptional physique with constant enduring training, keeping a balanced diet, healthy way of life and self-development. Due to this I. Piddubnyi had remained an invincible wrestler for 25 years running in the world and till the age of 55 he successfully participated in international competitions. For many years the sixfold world champion was not only a symbol of strength, but also a true example of decency and sports honour. More than once sports swindlers addressed the Ukrainian giant offering big money for the planned defeat, and he always rejected them. In 1925, I. Piddubnyi undertook a victorious tour over large cities of the United States of America. Although the Americans had not recognised French wrestling yet and the wrestler was forced to master freestyle wrestling, he was invincible again.

37 The last appearance of the Ukrainian Hercules took place in 1941 when he was 70 years old. Ivan Piddubnyi lived a beautiful, fair sporting life, which serves as an example to young sportsmen until the present. He was awarded the title of Honoured Artist of the Russian Federation (1939) and Honoured Master of Sports (1945). He died in 1949. Recall the facts to prove the following statements 1. Powerful strength is a hereditary feature of the Piddubnyi family. 2. I. Piddubnyi was familiarised with different styles of wrestling. 3. His tours over European countries were triumphal. 4. He was famous for sports longevity. 5. He was a symbol of decency and sports honour.

Valerii Lobanovskyi Sportsman, coach. Valerii Lobanovskyi was born in Kyiv in 1939. Following completion of a secondary school, he entered Kyiv Politechnical Institute aiming to become an engineer. In parallel to the studies, he spent a lot of time playing football, his favourite game. As it often happens, a child's hobby became the major activity that eventually made Lobanovskyi's name known to millions of football fans worldwide. In 1957, he joined Kyiv. As a member of the team, he showed original style of playing, insistence and striving for excellence. 1961 was the year of break-through for the team that for the first time became the USSR Champion. This was the beginning of victorious ascension of FC Dynamo Kyiv that soon became a doubtless leader of domestic football. Valerii Lobanovskyi, a brilliant forward famous for his corner kick style known as the "dry leaf, contributed a lot to the teams' success. The gift of an outstanding player transformed into the still stronger gift of a coach. In 1974, after a period of successful work with the Dnipro football team of Dnipropetrovsk, he took over his native Dynamo. This was a new phase for the club that could be suitabh qualified as the "Lobanovskyi Epoch". The chief coach implemented a large number of new ideas and bred up a constellation of prominen: sportsmen – world class football stars who brilliantly conquered numerous peaks. Under Lobanovskyi's command, Dynamo became eight times the USSR Champion, six times the USSR Cup Winner, and many times the Ukrainian Champion. The team twice acquired the European Cup Winners' Cup (1975, 1986). The defeat of Bayern. at the time the continent's strongest club, in the match for the European Super Cup in 1975 was the coach's ultimate triumph. Every following success of the leading Ukrainian team caused growth of ethnic consciousness and pride for Ukraine. Under the famous coach"s supervision the USSR Olympic Team won a bronze (1976), and the national team was the second at the 1988 European Championship. The creation of a "star-team" able to defeat European "teams o: the stars" was the ideal the mature coach was seeking to achieve. Luminous matches of Dynamo Kyiv made the vast contribution to the consolidation of our nation's prestige worldwide. The acknowledgements of the Master's inspired work included the honourable title of and the FIFA Ruby Order He died in 2002. The Dynamo Stadium in Kyiv bears the name of V. Lobanovskyi. How are the following items related to Valerii Lobanovskyi? Kyiv Politechnical Institute Dynamo Kyiv corner kick The Dnipro football team The USSR Cup Winner The European Cup Winners' Cup 1976 The 1988 European Championship Star-team Hero of Ukraine

38 The Dynamo Stadium

Recreation, Tourism, Sports Quiz 1. What three tourist resources does Ukraine have? 2. What can tourists enjoy in the Crimea? 3. What does Zakarpattia boast as a tourist centre? 4. How many monuments of nature have been registered in the Crimea? 5. What attracts numerous visitors to the Crimea? 6. What is the open-air museum in Yalta called? 7. What would we learn from the Crimean stones if they could speak? 8. What makes the Crimea a marvellous place on earth? 9. When did Ukraine start participating in the world Olympic movement? 10.When did independent Ukraine first participate in the Olympic Games? 11.Who was the first to receive the title "Merited Master of Sport of Ukraine"? 12.How many world records does S. Bubka hold? 13.What Olympic champions do you know? 14.Who is Borzov? 15.How many times has the Kyiv Dynamo soccer team taken the European Cup Holders' Cup? 16.Whom of the current world champions do you know? 17.Till what age did Ivan Piddubnyi participate in international competitions? 18.What was V. Lobanovskyi famous for as a forward?

Theme 4 History of Ukraine: main periods – 6 hours

Plan 1 From Trypillia culture to Kyivan Rus 2 The early history of the slavs 3 The Galician-Volhynian state (1199–1340) 4 Ukraine under Lithuanian and Polish rule 5 The Cossacks - The Khmelnytskyi era - The Hetman state - The Ruin - Ukraine was divided again - The Mazepa era 6 The decline of Ukrainian autonomy 7 The liquidation of the Hetmanate - Right-Bank Ukraine 8 Social transformations 9 Ukraine under imperial rule 10 The rise of national consciousness 11 Imperial change and reforms - Socio-economic changes 12 The emergence of nationalism and socialism 13 Developments in Western Ukraine 14 Ukraine in the First World War 15 The rebirth of Ukrainian statehood (1917–1921) - The Ukrainian Central Rada - The Hetman government - The period of the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic

39 - The Western Ukrainian National Republic, 1918–1923 16 Ukraine in the interwar years - Soviet Ukraine 17 Western Ukraine in the 1920s – 1930s - Western Ukraine under Poland - Ukrainian territories under Romanian rule - Ukrainian territories under Czechoslovak rule - The Ukrainian political emigres in Europe 18 Ukraine during the Second World War 19 Postwar Ukraine 20 The postwar emigres - De-Stalinization in Ukraine, 1953–1959 - Ukraine in the 1960s - Ukraine in the 1970s and 1980s. 21 Independence - Questions for self-learning 22 Interesting facts about Ukraine - Complete the tasks History Quiz

1 From Trypillia culture to Kyivan Rus The Paleolithic early Stone Age bears witness to human presence on the territory of present- day Ukraine. One of the planet's oldest human settlements, separated from our time by 800,000 years, was unearthed in the territory of present-day Ukraine near Korolove, a village in Transcarpathia. In 1899 the world came to know about the Trypillia culture which appeared in the mid-fourth millennium B.C. (before Christmas). The coming centuries saw the formation of new ethnic and cultural communities in Ukraine. Written sources mention the Cimmerians, the Taurians, the Scythians, the Antes and the Slavs. Over a thousand years ago, on the vast expanses stretching from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Volga River in the east, from the Black Sea in the south to the White Sea in the north, appeared one of the largest and mightiest medieval powers, Kyivan Rus. In 882, the most legendary Prince Oleh the Seer defeated Kyiv Askold and Dir and rallied round Kyiv the Slavic tribes of Eastern Europe. "Let Kyiv be Mother of Rus cities", he said as the chronicle reads. Under the first Kyiv Princes Oleh the Seer, Ihor the Elder and Sviatoslav the Warrior Kyiv Rus became a strong power in Eastern Europe. In 955, Kyiv Princess Olha was baptized at Constantinopol. The Eastern Orthodox faith was introduced in Rus by Prince Volodymyr the Great, and the first ceremony of baptism took place in 988. It was under Prince Volodymyr the Great (980–1015) and Prince (1019– 1054) that Kyiv Rus reached its apex, becoming a major factor in European politics. But in the twelfth century feudal strife split Kyivan Rus into principalities and lands. Then came the formidable Mongol hords of Batu Khan, emptying wheat fields and ruining ancient cities. In 1240 the invaders approached Kyiv. The siege was long, but the enemy was strong and the capital fell.

2 The early history of the slavs The Slavs are an indigenous European population of Indo-European origin. The Great (2nd – 7th centuries AD) gave rise to three groups of Slavic tribes on the territory of Europe: western, southern and eastern. The South Slavic peoples are Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Slovenians, Bosnians, and Montenegrins. The West Slavic group is represented by Poles, , Slovaks, Lusatians (Sorbs).The East Slavs settled the greater part of what is now Ukraine, Belarus and Russia.

40 The 8th century was marked by the formation of a number of tribal alliances, such as the Polians (on the right bank of the Dnieper), the Severians (on the and the Seim rivers), the Drevlians (on the Prypiat), the Dulebs (on the ), the Tivertsians (on the Dniester), the Uliches (between the Bug and the Dnieper). The territory between the Dniester and the Siversky Donets rivers was populated by the Antes who are thought to have been Slavs (5th century AD). One of the largest East Slavic tribes was that of the Polians. Of vital importance for the Slavs of the first millennium were various trades. Farming and cattle-breeding not only provided the East Slavic tribes with essential foodstuffs but also constituted a basis for the development of crafts, exchange of goods and commerce. Kyiv, founded in the late 5th – early 6th centuries, became the centre of their tribal alliance. The Kyiv princes launched aggressive raids and gradually enlarged their territory. The conquered states retained their original set-up and their own princes. The Kyiv princes confined themselves only to collecting tribute. Oleg, the Prince of Novgorod, united Kyiv and Novgorod lands and established himself firmly in Kyiv in 882. Thus was created the State of Kyivan Rus. At the peak of its glory it covered a vast territory and was one of the major states in Europe since it united practically all East Slavic tribes. Kyivan Rus did not yet boast every distinguishing feature of statehood (it lacked a single currency, ideology, tax system, clear-cut borders, distinct principles of political succession). The reign of princes Askold, Oleg, Igor relied on a military commercial alliance. After the death of Prince Igor, Grand Princess Olga saw the instability of such alliances and recognized a need for reform. In fact, she introduced the first fiscal legislation in Kyivan Rus which regulated the obligations of vassals and serfs, set up the prince's administration in provinces, streamlined tribute collection. The prince's military retinue turned into an influential political force. With its help the prince conquered new lands and collected tribute. The most experienced warriors together with the court aristocracy formed a council, which became a permanent body under the rule of princes. This led to the decline of viche (the people's assembly), which earlier used to solve the most important problems of the Kyivan State. Afterwards the viche was convened only when the prince found it necessary. The gradually shaped a class of big landowners – – who were granted land by the prince in return for their service. The boyars had the right to demise their land possessions. In the sphere of foreign policy the first Kyiv princes (Askold, Dir, Oleg, Igor) gave top priority to campaigns against Byzantium. One of the most successful was Prince Oleg's raid of 911 on , as a result of which Kyivan Rus signed a beneficial agreement. In accordance with it, Rusian merchants were not only granted the right to duty-free trade in the capital of Byzantium but were also guaranteed half-year overall maintenance by the Byzantine government. The State of Kyivan Rus reached the peak of its might under the rule of Prince Volodymyr the Great and Prince Yaroslav the Wise in the late 10th – the first half of the 11th centuries. Rus was converted to Christianity under Prince Volodymyr at the end of the 10th century. Orthodoxy became the official religion and exerted a profound influence on every aspect of the state. Unlike the western , which at that time upheld the priority of ecclesiastical authorities over secular power, the Christian Church in Rus granted spiritual sanction to the princely power which considerably strengthened its authority. Besides, the new creed accelerated the development of feudal relations among the East Slavs. Christianity facilitated the development of education, the enrichment of Rusian culture with the best achievements of the Christian world, the establishment of humane relations in society. It also promoted closer international ties between Rus and the Christian world. The rule of Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) was the height of glory for Kyivan Rus.Yaroslav the Wise founded a number of schools and libraries, placed construction on a broad footing. Kyiv turned into a European capital. It was under Yaroslav the Wise that the first legal code Ruska Pravda (The Ruthenian Truth) was compiled. The ancient Rusian law served, first of all, the interests of the

41 prince and his administration, the military nobility, later – those of the feudal landowners. Ruska Pravda established more civilized norms in the court system. Yaroslav the Wise set up close ties with many European states through a number of dynastic marriages. In 1036 he finally defeated the , after which the formidable nomads that once posed a serious threat left the Rusian borderland for good. The development of the East Slavs' productive forces and the formation of their statehood promoted cultural progress at large. A number of archaeological discoveries indicate the existence of primitive writing in Rus before its conversion to Christianity. After 988 it gave way to the Cyrillic alphabet which soon became the most widespread system in Rus. It was created specially for the Slavs by -enlighteners Cyril and Methodius, the prominent preachers of Christianity.

3 The Galician-Volhynian state (1199–1340) As the ruler of the newly created Principality of -Volhynia, and particularly after he conquered the lands of Kyiv principality in 1202, Roman Mstyslavych reigned over a large and powerful state, which he defended from the Yatvingians and Cumans. When he died the boyar oligarchy took control in Galicia. Prince Leszek of Cracow and King Andrew II of exploited the succession crisis and civil strife: Leszek occupied most of Volhynia, and Andrew placed his son Kalman on the throne of princely in 1214 as ‘King of Galicia and Lodomeria.’ In 1221 Mstyslav Mstyslavych of Novgorod the Great, to whom the boyars had appealed for help, defeated the Hungarians, occupying the Galician throne until 1228. By 1230 Danylo Romanovych and Vasylko Romanovych were able to consolidate their rule in Volhynia, and in 1238 they drove the Hungarians, to whom Mstyslav had restored Galicia in 1228, from Galicia. Yet the threat from the east continued. The Mongols entered Kyivan Rus’ and routed the united armies of the Rus’ princes under the command of Mstyslav Mstyslavych and Danylo Romanovych at the Kalka River in 1223. A large army of Mongols led by Batu Khan invaded Rus’ again in 1237, devastated the principality and Chernihiv principality in 1239, sacked Kyiv in 1240, and penetrated into Volhynia and Galicia, where it razed most of the towns, including Volodymyr-Volynskyi and princely Halych in 1241. Danylo Romanovych, the outstanding ruler (1238–1264) of Galicia-Volhynia, after defeating the Teutonic Knights at Dorohychyn in 1238, subduing the rebellious boyars in 1241– 1242, and defeating Rostyslav Mykhailovych of Chernihiv and his Polish-Hungarian allies at Jaroslaw in 1245, prepared to overthrow the Mongol yoke. His attemps at forming a military coalition with the Papacy, Hungary, Poland, and Lithuania against the Mongols did not succeed, however, and in 1255 Danylo relied on his own forces to defeat the Mongols and their vassals between the Dnister River and Boh River and in Volhynia. But the massive Mongol offensive of 1259, led by Burundai, forced him to submit to the authority of the . The Principality of Galicia-Volhynia declined steadily under Danylo Romanovych's successors Lev Danylovych (1264–1301), Yurii Lvovych (1301–1315), Lev Yuriiovych and Andrii Yuriiovych (corulers 1315–1323), and Yurii II Boleslav (1323–1340). After the death of Yurii II, rivalry among the rulers of Poland, Hungary, Lithuania, and the Mongols for possession of Volhynia and Galicia ensued. The Lithuanian duke Liubartas became the ruler of Volhynia and the Kholm region. The Polish king Casimir III the Great attacked Lviv in 1340, but it was not until 1349 that he was able to defeat the Galician boyars led by Dmytro Dedko and to occupy Galicia. Casimir's successor, Louis I of both Hungary (1342–1382) and Poland (1370–82), ruled Galicia through his vicegerents, among them Wladyslaw Opolczyk. In 1387, Louis's daughter Queen Jadwiga annexed Galicia and the Kholm region to Poland.

4 Ukraine under Lithuanian and Polish rule While the Ukrainian principalities declined under onslaughts of the Asiatic nomads, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania rose to prominence in the Baltic region. Gediminas (1316–1341) annexed the Belarusian and Ukrainian land of Chorna Rus’, the Vitsebsk land, land, Berestia

42 land, Turiv-Pynsk principality, Volhynia, and the northern Kyiv region. In 1323 Gediminas assumed the title of ‘Lithuanian, Samogitian, and Ruthenian (Rus) grand duke’. To consolidate his realm, he fostered dynastic ties by marrying his daughters to Ruthenian (Belarusian and Ukrainian) princes and promoting Ruthenian culture. Algirdas (1345–1377) enlarged the grand duchy by conquering the Ukrainian lands of the Chernihiv principality, Novhorod-Siverskyi principality, and, after defeating the Tatars at Syni Vody in 1363, Kyiv principality, Pereiaslav principality, and Podilia. Thus, nine-tenths of the grand duchy became composed of autonomous Ukrainian and Belarusian territories. Until 1385 the intermarriage of Ruthenian and Lithuanian princely families strengthened the Ruthenian influence in Lithuania, which many scholars have referred to as the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state. As members of the grand duke's privy council, high-ranking military commanders, and administrators (vicegerents), Ruthenian noblesbecame part of the ruling elite. Ruthenian became the official state language and Orthodoxy the prevailing religion (10 of Algirdas's 12 sons were Orthodox). Under Algirdas's son and successor Jogaila, the Lithuanian- Ruthenian state was threatened by the Teutonic Knights, Tatars, and Muscovy. To gain support Jogaila agreed to marry the Polish queen Jadwiga, share her throne, and unite Lithuania with Poland. After the Union of Krevoof 1385, Jogaila became King Wáadysáaw II Jagieááo of Poland as well as remaining the grand duke of Lithuania. Although the grand duchy retained its independence, the Polish nobility made inroads there, resulting in a strong Lithuanian-Ruthenian backlash against Polonization and Catholicism. Opposition to this union was led by Vytautas the Great, whose popularity and alliance with the Teutonic Knights forced Jagieááo to recognize him in 1392 as grand duke of all Lithuanian- Ruthenian lands. Under his rule (1392–1430) the grand duchy incorporated all the lands between the Dnister River and Dnipro River as far south as the Black Sea and reached the summit of its greatness. After his defeat by the Tatars in battle at the River in 1399, however, Vytautas was forced to abandon his expansionist plans in the east and seek an accord with Jagiello. The Lithuanian-Polish Union of Horodlo of 1413 curtailed the participation of the Orthodox (and thus the ) in governing the state and allowed only Catholics to remain in the Lithuanian state council. Towards the end of the 15th century a new external menace arose – the , which seceded from the Golden Horde and in 1478 became a vassal of Ottoman . As the ally of Grand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy, Lithuania's enemy, Khan Mengli-Girei sacked Kyiv in 1482. From then on the Tatars regularly raided and ravaged the Ukrainian lands. Lithuania was unable to prevent these raids, nor could it stop Muscovy from annexing a large part of its Ruthenian lands, including northern Chernihiv principality and Novhorod-Siverskyi principality. With the support of Muscovy, certain Ruthenian princes, led by Mykhailo Hlynsky, who proclaimed himself grand duke, rebelled against Lithuanian Catholic rule in 1508. The rebellion was quelled, however, and the Hlynsky and other noble families fled to Muscovy. Thus ended the last attempt by the Ruthenian princes to secede from Lithuania. Lithuania and Poland's ongoing wars with Muscovy and the Tatar threat during the reigns of Alexander JagielloĔczyk (1492–1506), Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548), and Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572) created the need for close collaboration, mutual defense, and a movement for a real, and not just dynastic, union of the two states. The Lithuanian-Ruthenian lower nobility supported unification, for it would give them the privileges and freedoms enjoyed by the in the Polish parliamentary monarchy. The princes and opposed it, however, for it would mean the loss of their authority. In January 1569 the in Lublinfailed to reach an accord on the union, and Sigismund II annexed Podlachia, Volhynia, and the Kyiv region and Bratslav region – over one-third of the grand duchy – to Poland. After further negotiations and conflicts the Union of Lublin was signed on 1 July 1569. Thereafter Poland and Lithuania constituted a single, federated state – the Polish-Lithuanian

43 Commonwealth – ruled by a jointly elected monarch; the state was to have a common Diet, foreign policy, currency, and property law. Both partners were to retain separate administrations, law courts, treasuries, armies, and laws, however. Because Poland now possessed the larger territory, it had greater representation in the Diet and thus became the dominant partner. The only Ukrainian lands left in the grand duchy were parts of the Berestia land and Pynsk region. With the Union of Lublin, the Lithuanian-Ruthenian period – the only period of full-fledged feudalism in Ukrainian history – came to an end. Thereafter the Ukrainian lands, for the most part, constituted the Rus’ voivodeship, Belz voivodeship, Podilia voivodeship, Podlachia voivodeship, Volhynia voivodeship, Bratslav voivodeship, Kyiv voivodeship, and, from 1635, Chernihiv voivodeship within the Polish crown. There the Lithuanian Statute – the legal code of the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state – remained in effect, but Ukrainian as the official language was supplanted by Polish and Latin. Nevertheless Ukrainian princes continued to own large estates and thus maintained their former privileged positions. On the territory of Volhynia, in particular, there remained a large number of influential Ukrainian nobles – eg, the Ostrozky, Vyshnevetsky (WiĞniowecki), Koretsky, Kysil, Chartoryisky (Czartoryski), Chetvertynsky (Sviatopolk-Chetvertynsky), Zbarazky (Zbaraski), and Zaslavsky (Zasáawski) families. The Polish king, however, began distributing ownership charters to the ‘empty’ lands in Right-Bank Ukraine to a small number of Polish and Polonized Ukrainian magnates; thus arose the huge latifundia – virtually autonomous domains – of the Potocki, Zamoyski, Sieniawski, Kalinowski, Tyszkiewicz (Tyshkevych), Zbaraski (Zbarazky), Koniecpolski, and WiĞniowiecki (Vyshnevetsky) families in Ukraine. The integration of the Ukrainian lands into Poland resulted in significant national and religious transformations. Part of the relatively small Ukrainian elite, particularly the magnates, became Polonized as a result of the influence of Polish education and of the large number of in- migrating Polish nobles and Catholic clergy (especially the Jesuits). Even many prominent Ukrainian families, including that of Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky, a leading defender of Orthodoxy, converted to Roman Catholicism and readily adopted Polish language and culture. Under the new regime, the noble-dominated cities and towns grew in size and number and experienced an economic boom. It was, however, almost exclusively the Catholic and Polish burghers who benefited from self-government by Magdeburg law. The Orthodox Ukrainian burghers were the victims of persecution and segregation; this incited them to organize brotherhoods in order to defend and promote their national, cultural, and corporate interests. The peasants gained nothing from the Union of Lublin. Fully subjected to the nobles and their agents, they were forced to perform increasingly more corvée labor and were restricted in their right to move from one landlord to another. Conditions in the newly colonized lands of the Dnipro River basin were somewhat better, owing to their relative underpopulation. There, in order to attract peasant settlement, the nobles introduced the – an agricultural settlement whose inhabitants were exempted temporarily from feudal obligations. The rule of the Polish ‘nobles,’ the Polonization, economic exploitation, and religious and national-social oppression provoked organized forms of protest: the growth of Protestantism, particularly of the Socinians, among the Ukrainian nobility; the above-mentioned Orthodox burgher brotherhoods and brotherhood schools; and attempts by the déclassé Orthodox hierarchy and clergy to gain parity with their Roman Catholic counterparts, culminating in the 1596 Church Union of Berestia and the creation of the Uniate or Greek . The church union was not accepted by the majority of the Ukrainian population, however, and many Ukrainian nobles, led by Kostiantyn Ostrozky, as well as the brotherhoods actively opposed it. The religious struggles that ensued found their written expression in polemical literature.

5 The Cossacks From the 15th century onward, thousands of men, some seeking opportunity, some escaping serfdom, settled in the Commonwealth-Tatar steppe frontier. To defend themselves from Tatar

44 attacks, they organized armed groups and fortified settlements. With time they also began attacking the Tatar and Turkish settlements on the Black Sea. In 1552–1554, Prince Dmytro Vyshnevetskyi united various Cossack groups and founded a Cossack fortress on Mala Island south of the Dnipro Rapids. This became the first of several Cossack centers called the , the nucleus of the quasi-democratic Cossack domain that became known as the Zaporizhia (‘land beyond the rapids’). The Cossacks' expeditions against the Tatars and Turks made them famous throughout Europe. In 1577 they marched on to help one of their own, Ivan Pidkova, become the hospodar there. In 1594, A. Komulovich and Erich Lassota von Steblau, the envoys of Clement VIII and Emperor Rudolph II, enlisted Cossack mercenaries under Hryhorii Loboda and in the war against the Turks. These and other manifestations of Cossack military and political autonomy were a threat to the Polish regime, for they provoked Tatar and Turkish retaliation in Ukraine. As early as 1572, Sigismund II Augustus tried to circumscribe the Cossacks' growth and freebootery by creating a register of 300 royal Cossacks, who were granted privileges, liberties, land, and money in return for military service to the crown. The institution of these so-called , whose number increased (at times to 6,000) during Poland's wars, provoked discontent among the magnates, who opposed any ennoblement of the Cossacks, as well as social divisions and discord among the Cossacks as a whole. Those not ‘registered’ were officially considered peasants and subject to feudal obligations. These and other measures precipitated rebellions led by Kryshtof Kosynsky (1591–1593) and Nalyvaiko and Loboda (1594–1596) (in which registered Cossacks participated) against the magnates in Ukraine. The latter rebellion in particular involved many burghers and peasants, and engulfed large parts of Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus; it was brutally suppressed by the crown army led by Stanisáaw ĩyákiewski, and Polish oppression in Ukraine intensified. In the first quarter of the , Poland needed the Cossacks in its wars with Turkey (in Moldavia), Sweden (in Livonia), and Muscovy. The crown therefore restored the civil rights it had abolished after the Kosynsky rebellion and reinstated the register of Cossacks. At that time the Cossacks assumed a more political role as the defenders of outlawed Orthodoxy, which cemented their ties with the burghers and peasants; the unceasing defense of their corporate rights prepared them for their future role as the vanguard of a national revolution. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny (1614–1622), the renowned leader of Cossack sea expeditions against the Tatar towns in the Crimea (1606–1617), succeeded in creating a disciplined, regular Cossack army. In 1618 his army took part in the campaign of Prince Wáadysáaw against , and in 1621 the united Polish-Cossack army halted the Turkish advance on at the . A protector of Orthodoxy, in 1621 Sahaidachny played a key role in persuading the Patriarch of Jerusalem to renew the Ukrainian Orthodox hierarchy and consecrate Yov Boretsky as metropolitan of Kyiv. Sahaidachny pursued a conciliatory policy vis-à-vis the Polish Crown. The king, however, would not recognize the new Orthodox hierarchs, and soon after Khotyn any privileges the Cossacks had been granted for their wartime role were abrogated. Although in this period the Cossacks were cognizant of their strength, they were not united in their attitude to the Polish regime. One group, consisting of the registered Cossacks, sought a compromise with the Poles. The other, the unprivileged majority, led by Olyfer Holub, ignored the Polish injunctions. They remained recalcitrant, and in 1624–1625 even fought on land and sea against Turkey as the allies of the Crimean khan Mohamet-Girei III. The Polish king, seeing his relations with Turkey endangered, sent the crown army under Stanisáaw Koniecpolski to subdue the . Hetman Marko Zhmailo and his successor Mykhailo Doroshenko were forced to sign the Treaty of Kurukove, which limited the number of registered Cossacks to 6,000 and the Cossacks' freedom in general. But peace did not last long. The 1630 Zaporozhian rebellion, led by Taras Fedorovych (Triasylo), forced the Poles to negotiate the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1630, which increased the register

45 to 8,000 but failed, as before, to appease the Zaporozhian Cossacks, who continued their raids against the Turks. In 1632 the registered Cossacks, led by Ivan Petrazhytsky-Kulaha, demanded that they, as a loyal, obedient, knightly estate, be allowed to take part in the election of the new king after the death of Sigismund III Vasa. The Diet in that elected Wáadysáaw IV Vasa legalized the Orthodox church and recognized its hierarchy to mollify the Ukrainians and counter pro-Muscovite attitudes. Under Petro Mohyla, the new metropolitan of Kyiv (1633–1647), the Orthodox church experienced a renaissance, as did Ukrainian education, scholarship, and culture in general. King Wáadysáaw IV Vasa was much more liberal toward his Ukrainian subjects than Sigismund III Vasa had been. But although the Cossacks helped him in his wars with Sweden, Muscovy (during which the Chernihiv region was annexed), and Turkey, he did not recognize their demands for increased privileges. Consequently, many Cossacks continued to flee to the Zaporizhia. To stop this exodus the Polish government built a fort in Kodak in 1635, but the Cossacks, led by Hetman Ivan Sulyma, razed it. The general dissatisfaction with Polish rule resulted in a new uprising in 1637, led by Pavlo Pavliuk. The rebels were defeated in the Battle of Kumeiky1637 and forced to accept even greater restrictions. In the spring of 1638, a rebellion again erupted, this time in Left-Bank Ukraine, under the leadership of Dmytro Hunia, Yakiv Ostrianyn, and Karpo Skydan. Having fought several battles, the rebels finally surrendered at the Starets landmark. After this event the number of registered Cossacks was limited to 6,000, their senior officers were appointed by the Polish nobles, the hetman was replaced by a Polish commissioner, burghers and peasants were forbidden to marry Cossacks or join their ranks, Cossacks could reside only in , Korsun, or Cherkasy , unregistered Cossacks were outlawed, the was rebuilt, and Polish garrisons were stationed throughout Ukraine. For a decade thereafter the Polish kinglets kept the Cossacks in check and intensified their exploitation and oppression of Ukrainian Orthodox peasants and burghers. This ‘golden tranquility’ was broken by yet another uprising, this time on a much greater scale.

The Khmelnytskyi era The great uprising of 1648 was one of the most cataclysmic events in Ukrainian history. It is difficult to find an uprising of comparable magnitude, intensity, and impact in the history of early modern Europe. A crucial element in the revolt was the leadership of Hetman (1648–1657), whose exceptional organizational, military, and political talents to a large extent accounted for its success. The uprising engulfed all of Dnipro Ukraine. Polish nobles, officials, Uniates, and Jesuits were massacred or forced to flee. Jewish losses, estimated at over 50,000 during what became a decade-long Cossack-Polish War, were especially heavy, because the Jews, who were concentrated in Ukraine in large numbers, were seen as agents of the Polish szlachta. Great massacres were also perpetrated against the Ukrainian populace by the retreating Poles, led by the magnate Jeremi WiĞniowiecki. The Poles were crushed at the Battle of on 16 May 1648 and again in September, at the Battle of Pyliavtsi in Volhynia where the Cossacks were joined by the peasants en masse. Poland proper was now defenseless, but Khmelnytsky, after briefly occupying Western Ukraine and besieging Lviv and Zamosc, decided, because of oncoming winter and doubts about the chances of success of a full-scale , to return to Dnipro Ukraine. Upon his triumphant entry into Kyiv, he declared that although he had begun the uprising for personal reasons he was now fighting for the sake of all Ukraine. By April 1649, it was clear that Khmelnytsky was contemplating a separation of Ukraine from the Polish Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth armies, led by the new king, Jan II Casimir Vasa, and Prince Janusz Radziwiáá, launched a counteroffensive. Defeated once again at the Battle of on 15 August, the Poles sued for peace and the was signed on 18 August 1649.

46 The Poles, however, broke the treaty in 1651 and with the help of the Tatars defeated the Cossacks at the Battle of Berestechko; and Khmelnytsky was forced to conclude the Treaty of in September 1651. The treaty allowed the Poles to return to much of Ukraine. Realizing that he could not defeat the Poles by military means alone and hoping to expand his political base, Khmelnytsky turned to diplomacy. In September 1650 he dispatched a large Cossack force to Moldavia in the hope of installing his son, Tymish Khmelnytsky, there. The hetman envisaged the creation of a great coalition backed by the Ottomans, Tatars, and Danubian principalities and consisting of Ukraine, , Brandenburg, Lithuania, and even Cromwell's England. His aim was to restructure the Commonwealth into an equal union of Poland, Lithuania, and Ukraine with Prince György Rakoczi II of Transylvania as its new king. Khmelnytsky's plans suffered a great setback when the Moldavian boyars revolted and his son died in battle in 1653. Another major setback occurred during the siege of Zhvanets in Podilia in December 1653: Khmelnytsky was about to annihilate the army of Jan II Casimir Vasa when his Tatar allies signed a separate peace with the Poles. Khmelnytsky then abandoned his orientation on the Ottomans and Tatars and drew closer to Muscovy. Aleksei Mikhailovich agreed to help Bohdan Khmelnytsky ‘for the sake of the Orthodox faith,’ expecting also to regain some of the lands Muscovy had previously lost to Poland, to utilize Ukraine as a buffer zone against the Ottomans, and, in general, to expand his influence. The Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 established an alliance of Ukraine and Muscovy. The Poles responded to the new alliance by combining forces with the Tatars. A new expanded phase of conflict began. In 1654, while a combined Muscovite-Ukrainian army scored major successes in Belarus, the Poles and, especially, the Tatars devastated Ukraine. A year later it was Poland that experienced devastation, when the , taking advantage of the war, invaded the country. Sensing the imminent demise of the Commonwealth, György Rákóczi II of Transylvania concluded an alliance with Khmelnytsky, and in January 1657 a large Ukrainian- Transylvanian force was sent into Poland to expedite its partition. Khmelnytsky's foreign policy, especially his co-operation with the Swedes, who were also at war with Muscovy, raised the tsar's ire. But Khmelnytsky also had his grievances: he was bitter over the imposition of Muscovite rule in Belarus, where the populace had expressed preference for a Cossack government; even more infuriating was the Peace Treaty with the Poles in October 1656, which Moscow had concluded without consulting the hetman. Mutual recriminations followed, and there were signs that the hetman was reconsidering the link with Moscow. Then the Ukrainian-Transylvanian offensive in Poland collapsed. Crushed by these setbacks and already ill, Khmelnytsky died on 6 August 1657.

The Hetman state At the time of Bohdan Khmelnytsky's death, the Cossacks controlled the former Kyiv voivodeship, Bratslav voivodeship, and Chernihiv voivodeship, an area inhabited by about 1.5 million people. About 50 percent of the land, formerly owned by the Polish crown, became the property of the Zaporozhian Host, which, in return for taxes, allocated it to self-governing peasant villages. Cossacks and Ukrainian nobles retained approximately 33 percent of the land, and the church, 17 percent. The entire area was divided into 16 military and administrative regions corresponding to the territorially based regiments of the Cossack army. Initially, the Cossack starshyna (senior officers) were elected by their units, but in time these posts often became hereditary. At the pinnacle of the Cossack military-administrative system stood the hetman. Assisting the hetman was the General Officer Staff, which functioned as a general staff and a council of ministers. The formal name of the new political entity was the Zaporozhian Host; the Muscovites, however, referred to it as , while the Poles continued calling it Ukraine. Hoping to establish a dynasty, Bohdan Khmelnytskyi had arranged for his 16-year-old son Yurii Khmelnytskyi to succeed him. It soon became apparent, however, that the young boy was

47 incapable of ruling, and was chosen hetman (1657–1659). Vyhovsky hoped to establish an independent Ukrainian principality. His elitist and pro-Polish tendencies engendered a rebellion by the rank-and-file Cossacks and Zaporozhian Cossacks, led by Martyn Pushkar and Yakiv Barabash and covertly backed by Moscow. Vyhovskyi emerged victorious but militarily and politically weakened. Realizing that a confrontation with Moscow was inevitable, Vyhovskyi entered into negotiations with the Poles regarding the return of Ukraine to the Polish Commonwealth. In September 1658 they concluded the Treaty of . Viewing the treaty as an act of war, Moscow dispatched a large army into Ukraine. In July l658, it was crushed near by a combined force of Poles, Ukrainians, and Tatars. But Vyhovsky's politics continued to elicit opposition, and several Cossack leaders (Ivan Bohun, , Ivan Bezpaly) rose in revolt. Realizing that his base of support was crumbling, in September 1659 the hetman fled to Poland. The Cossack starshyna, hoping that the appeal of his name would help to heal internal conflicts, elected Yurii Khmelnytskyi hetman (1659–1662). The Muscovites, who returned to Ukraine with another large army, forced the young hetman to renegotiate the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 . The new pact was a major step forward in Moscow's attempts to tighten its hold on Ukraine: it increased the number of Muscovite governors and garrisons in Ukraine, forbade the hetman from maintaining foreign contacts without the tsar's permission, and stipulated that election of Cossack leaders should be confirmed by Moscow. Disillusioned, Khmelnytskyi went over to the Poles in 1660, helped them defeat the tsar's army at Chudniv, and signed the Treaty of Slobodyshche. The regiments of Left-Bank Ukraine, led by Yakym Somko, refused to follow Khmelnytskyi, however, and remained loyal to the tsar. Unable to cope with the strife and chaos, Khmelnytskyi resigned in 1663. A period of constant war and devastation began.

The Ruin During this period, called the Ruin by contemporaries, Ukraine was divided along the Dnipro River into two spheres of influence, the Polish in Right-Bank Ukraine and the Muscovite in Left-Bank Ukraine and Kyiv. At times, the Ottoman presence was felt in the south. All Cossack during this period were dependent on these powers for support. The hetmans' weakness stemmed largely from internal conflicts, especially the ongoing social tensions between the Cossack starshyna and the rank and file and the peasants, who resented the attempts of the starshyna to monopolize political power and impose labor obligations upon them. Consequently, political factionalism, opportunism, and adventurism became prevalent among the Cossack leaders, who were easily manipulated by Ukraine's powerful neighbors. Two typical hetmans of the period were Pavlo Teteria (1663–1665) in Right-Bank Ukraine and Ivan Briukhovetsky (1663–1668) in Left-Bank Ukraine. Teteria, who adhered strictly to a pro- Polish line, invaded the Left Bank together with the Poles in 1664 and urged its Cossacks to march on Moscow. When the offensive failed, Teteria and the Poles returned to the Right Bank; their brutality in quelling numerous anti-Polish uprisings aroused such animosity that Teteria was forced to abdicate and flee to Poland. On the Left Bank, Briukhovetsky's policy toward Moscow was exceedingly conciliatory. The first Ukrainian hetman to pay homage to the tsar (for which he received the title of boyar, estates, and the daughter of Prince Dmitrii Dolgoruky in marriage), he signed the Moscow Articles of 1665, which significantly increased Muscovy's political, military, fiscal, and religious control. These concessions, the hetman's high-handedness, the behavior of the Muscovite governors and tax collectors, and the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667) – an armistice that ratified the partition of Ukraine between Poland and Muscovy – infuriated the populace and led to widespread revolts against Briukhovetsky and the Muscovite garrisons. Briukhovetsky's attempts at backing away from Moscow and heading the revolt against it failed to appease the rebels, and in 1668 he was killed by an angry mob.

48 An attempt to preserve Cossack Ukraine from chaos and to reassert Ukrainian self- government was made by the popular of Cherkasy and hetman of Right-Bank Ukraine, (1666–1676). After the Poles signed the Treaty of Andrusovo, Doroshenko turned against them and resolved to unite all of Ukraine under his rule. To gain the support of the rank-and-file Cossacks, he agreed to hold frequent meetings of the General Military Council, and to free himself from overdependence on the powerful , he established mercenary Serdiuk regiments under his direct command. In fall 1667, a combined Cossack-Ottoman force compelled King Jan II Casimir Vasa to grant the hetman wide-ranging authority over the Right Bank. Doroshenko then invaded Left-Bank Ukraine and, after Ivan Briukhovetsky's demise in 1668, was proclaimed hetman of all Ukraine. During his absence from the Right Bank, however, the Zaporozhian Cossacks proclaimed Petro Sukhovii hetman; soon after, the Poles returned and established Mykhailo Khanenko as yet another rival hetman. Returning to confront his adversaries, Doroshenko appointed Demian Mnohohrishny acting hetman (1668–1672) on the Left Bank. A Muscovite army invaded the Left Bank, however, and Mnohohrishny was forced to swear allegiance to the tsar in 1669.

Ukraine was divided again Weakened, Petro Doroshenko was forced to rely increasingly on the Ottomans. In 1672 his forces joined the huge Turkish-Tatar army that wrested Podilia away from the Poles, and in 1674– 1677 he found himself fighting on the side of the Turks against the Orthodox forces of the tsar and of the new hetman of Left-Bank Ukraine, Ivan Samoilovych. Compromised by his association with the Muslim occupation and the ravages of the civil war, the now unpopular Doroshenko surrendered to Samoilovych in 1676. To replace Petro Doroshenko in the ongoing struggle between the Porte and Moscow for Right-Bank Ukraine during the Chyhyryn campaigns, 1677–1678, the Ottomans resurrected Yurii Khmelnytskyi as the ‘Prince of Ukraine’ (1677–1678, 1685). The 1681 Peace Treaty of Bakhchesarai left much of southern Right-Bank Ukraine a deserted neutral zone between the two empires. No longer in need of Khmelnytskyi, the Ottomans had him executed, and pashas governed the Right Bank from Kamianets-Podilskyi. From 1669 Left-Bank Ukraine remained under Muscovite control and was spared the recurrent Ottoman, Tatar, Polish, and Muscovite invasions that devastated the once flourishing Right-Bank Ukraine. Although Demian Mnohohrishnyi, like Ivan Briukhovetskyi, was elected hetman there with Muscovite acquiescence, he did not intend to be a puppet of the tsar. This was evident from his demands that Moscowlimit its military presence in the cities to Kyiv, Nizhyn, Pereiaslav, and Chernihiv. With the help of mercenary regiments, he managed to establish order on the Left Bank, but his constant conflicts with the increasingly entrenched Cossack starshyna brought about his downfall. Demian Mnohohrishny's successor Ivan Samoilovych (1672–1687) made loyalty to Moscow and cordial relations with the starshyna the cornerstones of his policy. He thus managed to remain hetman for an unprecedented 15 years. To win over the starshyna, he awarded the members generous land grants and created the so- called fellows of the standard (a corps of junior officers), thereby encouraging the development of a hereditary elite in Left-Bank Ukraine. Like all hetmans, Samoilovych attempted to extend his authority over all of Ukraine. He tightened his control over the unruly Zaporozhian Cossacks, and from 1674 he fought alongside the Muscovites against Petro Doroshenko and the Turks. Greatly disappointed by his and Muscovy's failure to conquer the devastated Right-Bank Ukraine, he organized the mass evacuation of its inhabitants to the Left-Bank Ukraine and Slobidska Ukraine. The Polish-Muscovite Eternal Peace of 1686 and anti-Muslim coalition validated Poland's claims to Right-Bank Ukraine and placed the Zaporizhia lands under the direct authority of the tsar instead of the hetman. Consequently, Samoilovych was not overly co-operative when Muscovy launched a huge invasion of the Crimea in 1687. Blamed by the Muscovite commander Vasilii Golitsyn and the Cossack starshyna for the failure of the campaign, Samoilovych was deposed and exiled to .

49 After Poland recovered Right-Bank Ukraine from Turkey in 1699 and the Zaporozhian Cossacks asserted their autonomy, only about a third of the territory of the Hetman state, or Hetmanate, that Bohdan Khmelnytskyi established remained under the authority of the hetmans. Situated now mostly in Left-Bank Ukraine, the Hetmanate consisted of only 10 regiments. While the structure of Cossack self-government underwent only minor changes, major shifts occurred in the socioeconomic structure of the Left Bank. By the late 17th century, the starshyna had virtually excluded rank-and-file Cossacks from decision-making and higher offices, and the latter's political decline was closely related to their mounting economic problems. Individual Cossacks took part in the almost endless wars of the 17th and early 18th centuries at their own expense. Consequently many of them were financially ruined, and this caused a decline in the number of battle-ready Cossacks and in the size of the Cossack army. In 1700 the Hetmanate's army numbered only about 20,000 men. Moreover, the equipment, military principles, and tactics on which the Cossacks relied had become increasingly outdated. Confronted by internal weaknesses, leading a depleted military force, and disillusioned by the behavior of the Poles and Ottomans during the Ruin, most Cossack leaders no longer questioned the need to maintain links with Moscow. But they were still committed to preserving what was left of the rights guaranteed to them by the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654.

The Mazepa era A decisive phase in the relationship of the Hetman state to Moscow occurred during the hetmancy of Ivan Samoilovych's successor (1687–1708/9), one of the most outstanding and controversial of all Ukrainian political leaders. For most of his years in office Mazepa pursued the traditional, pro-Muscovite policies of the Left-Bank Ukraine hetmans. He continued to strengthen the Cossack starshyna, issuing them over 1,000 land grants, but he also placed certain limits on their exploitation of the lower classes. The largess of the made him one of the wealthiest landowners in Europe. Mazepa used much of his wealth to build, expand, and support many churches and religious, educational, and cultural institutions. His pro-starshyna policies, however, engendered discontent among the masses and the anti-elitist Zaporozhian Cossacks and resulted in a dangerous but unsuccessful Tatar- supported Zaporozhian uprising led by Petro Petryk in 1692–1696. A cardinal principle of Ivan Mazepa's policy was the maintenance of good relations with Moscow. He developed close relations with Tsar Peter I, energetically helping him in his 1695– 1696 Azov campaigns against the Tatarsand Turks. He was also his adviser in Polish affairs. These close contacts helped him gain Muscovite backing for the occupation of Right-Bank Ukraine in 1704 during the great anti-Polish Cossack revolt led by Semen Palii. Once again Ukraine was united under the rule of one hetman. But as the Northern War (1700–1721), in which Charles XII of Sweden and Peter were the main opponents, progressed, dissatisfaction with Muscovite rule spread in the Hetmanate. The Cossack regiments suffered huge losses during difficult campaigns in the Baltic Sea region, Poland, and Saxony; the civilian populace had to support Muscovite troops and work on fortifications; and Peter's reforms threatened to eliminate Ukrainian autonomy and integrate the Cossacks into the Muscovite army. Pressured by the disgruntled starshyna, Mazepa began having doubts about Moscow's overlordship. In 1705 Stanislaus I LeszczyĔski, Charles's Polish ally, secretly proposed to him to bring Ukraine into the Polish-Lithuanian federation. In October 1708, after the tsar informed Mazepa that he could not count on Moscow's aid should the Swedes and Poles invade Ukraine, Mazepa decided to join the advancing Swedes. In July 1709, Charles and Mazepa were defeated in the decisive and fled to Ottoman Moldavia, where the aged and dejected hetman died. About 50 leading members of the starshyna, almost 500 Cossacks from the Hetman state, and over 4,000 Zaporozhian Cossacks followed Ivan Mazepa to Bendery. These ‘Mazepists’ were the first Ukrainian emigres. In the spring of 1710 they elected , Mazepa's general chancellor, as their hetman-in-exile. Anxious to attract potential support, Orlyk drafted the

50 Constitution of Bendery. With Charles XII's backing, he concluded anti-Muscovite alliances with the Tatars and the Ottoman Porte and in January 1711 launched a combined Zaporozhian-Tatar offensive in Ukraine. After initial successes, the campaign failed.

6 The decline of Ukrainian autonomy Left-Bank Ukraine. After the failure of Ivan Mazepa's plans, the absorption of the Hetman state into the began in earnest. It was, however, a long, drawn-out process, which varied in tempo, because some Russian rulers were more dedicated centralizers than others, and during certain times it was dangerous to antagonize the Ukrainians (particularly in the course of war with the Ottomans). To weaken Ukrainian resistance, the imperial government used a variety of divide-and-conquer techniques: it encouraged conflicts between the hetmans and the Cossack starshyna, cowed the latter into submission by threatening to support the peasantry, and used complaints by commoners against the Ukrainian government as an excuse to introduce Russian administrative measures. With the acquiescence of the tsar, was chosen hetman (1708–1722). Several Russian innovations followed his election. In violation of tradition, no new treaty was negotiated, and the tsar confirmed Ukrainian rights only in general terms. Peter I appointed a Russian resident, accompanied by two Russian regiments, to the hetman's court with supervisory rights over the hetman and his government. The hetman's residence was moved from to , closer to the Russian border. Peter began the practice of personally appointing colonels, bypassing the hetman, while the resident received the right to confirm other officers. Many of the new colonels were Russians or other foreigners, and for the first time Russians, particularly Aleksandr Menshikov, acquired large landholdings in Ukraine (many of them expropriatedfrom the Mazepists). Even publishing was controlled by Peter's decree of 1720, which forbade publication of all books in Ukraine with the exception of liturgical texts, which, however, were to be published only in the Russian redaction of . In 1719 Ukrainians were forbidden to export their grain and other products directly westward. Instead, they had to ship through Russian-controlled Riga and Arkhangelsk, where the prices were dictated by the Russian government. Russian merchants, meanwhile, received preferential treatment in exporting their goods to the Hetmanate. Tens of thousands of Cossacks were sent north to build the Ladoga canal and the new capital of , where many of them died from overwork, malnutrition, and unsanitary conditions. As a final blow to the autonomy of the hetman, Peter I instituted the Little Russian Collegium on 29 April 1722. Established supposedly to look after the tsar's interest by controlling finances and to hear appeals against any wrongdoings of the Cossack starshyna, it seriously undermined the position of the hetman. Ivan Skoropadsky protested vehemently but to no avail. Soon after its establishment he died. While Pavlo Polubotok was acting hetman (1722–1724), a struggle for power developed between him and Gen Stepan Veliaminov, the head of the Little Russian Collegium. Refusing to give ground to the Collegium, Polubotok improved several aspects of the hetman government, especially the judiciary, so as to deprive Russians of an excuse for interference. To reduce peasant grievances, he pressured the starshyna to be less blatant in exploiting the peasantry. Polubotok's and the starshyna's repeated entreaties to restore their privileges, abolish the Collegium, and appoint a hetman angered Peter I and he responded by increasing the authority of the Collegium. Soon afterward, Polubotok and his colleagues were ordered to Saint Petersburg and imprisoned there. Polubotok died in prison. His colleagues were pardoned after Peter's death in 1725. With Pavlo Polubotok incarcerated, the Little Russian Collegium had free rein in the Hetmanate. In 1722 it introduced direct taxation of the Ukrainians. But, when Stepan Veliaminov demanded that Russians in Ukraine, and especially the influential Aleksandr Menshikov, also pay taxes, he lost support in Saint Petersburg. Moreover, the possibility of a new war with the Ottoman

51 Empire raised the need to appease the Ukrainians. Therefore, in 1727, Emperor Peter II, influenced by Menshikov, abolished the Collegium and sanctioned the election of a new hetman, (1727–1734). The new hetman's diplomatic, military, and political prerogatives were limited. Aware that any attempt to restore the hetman's political rights was doomed, Danylo Apostol concentrated on improving social and economic conditions. He regained, however, the right to appoint the General Officer Staff and colonels, greatly reduced the number of Russians and other foreigners in his administration, brought Kyiv, long under the authority of Russian governors, under his sway, and had the number of Russian regiments in Ukraine limited to six. Thus, he slowed the process of the Hetmanate's absorption into the Russian Empire. After Danylo Apostol's death, the new empress, Anna Ivanovna (1730–1740), forbade the election of a new hetman and established a new board, the Governing Council of the Hetman Office (1734–1750), to rule the Ukrainians. Its first president, Prince Aleksei Shakhovskoi, received secret instructions to spread rumors blaming the hetmans for taxes and mismanagement and to persuade Ukrainians that the abolition of the Hetman state would be in their interest. Russian political practices, such as that of obligatory denunciation (slovo i delo), were introduced in Ukraine in this period. Because of the Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739, during which Ukraine served as a base, the Cossacks and peasants suffered tremendous physical and economic losses. During the council's existence the Code of Laws of 1743, which had been begun under Danylo Apostol, was completed but never implemented. During the reign of Empress Elizabeth I (1741–1762), her consort and (from 1742) husband Oleksii Rozumovsky, by birth a simple Cossack who rose to the title of count, influenced her to abolish the Governing Council of the Hetman Office and restore the hetmancy with his younger brother Count Kyrylo Rozumovskyi as hetman (1750–1764). The new hetman spent most of his time in Saint Petersburg, where he was president of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and deeply involved in court politics and governmental affairs. During his absences from Ukraine, the land was governed by the Cossack starshyna, thus hastening their transformation, begun in the late 17th century, into a typical hereditary, landowning, nobility. The starshyna persuaded Rozumovskyi to issue an edict in 1760 limiting the free movement of the peasantry. A major setback, however, was the Russian abolition in 1754 of Ukrainian import and export duties, a major source of income in the Hetmanate's budget. After helping Catherine II (1762–1796) come to power, Rozumovskyi returned to the Hetmanate. In October 1763 he and the starshyna met in council at Hlukhiv and petitioned the empress to renew the Hetmanate's lost prerogatives and to approve the creation of a noble diet modeled on the Polish Sejm. Rozumovskyi also requested hereditary rights to the hetmancy for his family. Catherine, however, in line with her general policy of uniformity and centralization, and following Grigorii Teplov's advice, decided to abolish the legal separation of Ukraine and Russia altogether, and in 1764 she compelled Rozumovsky to resign as hetman.

7 The liquidation of the Hetmanate Catherine II completed the policy of centralization and institutional Russification that Peter I began in Ukraine and in other autonomous lands of the Russian Empire. In 1763 she approved the creation of New Russia gubernia out of the lands of New Serbia and Slobidska Ukraine, and in 1764 she restored the Little Russian Collegium (this time with four Russians and four Ukrainians). The task of its president, Count Petr Rumiantsev, was to eliminate Ukrainian autonomy gradually and cautiously. He neutralized the Ukrainian elite by recruiting their members into Russian service and giving them rank and promotions. In order to introduce taxation and control peasant labor in Ukraine, Catherine ordered a thorough survey of the population and resources of the Hetmanate – the Rumiantsev census – to be carried out. An unexpected complication arose with the strong stand in defense of Ukrainian autonomy taken by the Ukrainian deputies, particularly Hryhorii A. Poletyka, at the Legislative Commission Assembly of 1767.

52 After the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 and the Peace Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the liquidation of Ukrainian autonomy gained new impetus. The Zaporozhian New Sich was destroyed by Russian troops in 1775; many of the dispersed Zaporozhian Cossacks fled and established the Danubian Sich, and the vast lands of Southern Ukraine were incorporated into the Russian Empire as part of New Russia gubernia and Azov gubernia and developed by their governor Grigorii Potemkin. Catherine promoted the settlement of these largely unpopulated areas by Germans, Serbs, Mennonites, Bulgarians, and others, and the establishment of several new cities on the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to attract foreign trade. By 1782 all the traditional 10 Left-Bank regiments of the Hetman state were abolished and reconstituted as the new Kyiv vicegerency, Chernihiv vicegerency, and Novhorod-Siverskyi vicegerency and part of New Russia gubernia. In 1780 most of Slobidska Ukraine became part of the new Kharkiv vicegerency. The imperial bureaucracy replaced Ukrainian administrative, judicial, and fiscal institutions and social and legal norms with Russian ones. In 1783 the Cossack regiments were transformed into 10 regular cavalry regiments and the Russian system of conscription and serfdom was extended into Ukraine. The Ukrainian elite acquiesced becaused they benefited from the changes: the 1785 charter gave them the privileges of Russian nobility (though less than half of those who registered as nobles were recognized as such). The Ukrainian church suffered a major setback under the new order: its lands and peasants were secularized, and many monasteries were closed down in 1786. The Hetman state and the Cossack social order ceased to exist.

Right-Bank Ukraine In 1714 Poland again regained control of the devastated and depopulated Right-Bank Ukraine, and a colonizing movement was organized by the Polish magnates who owned much of the land. Peasantsfrom northwestern Ukraine, especially Volhynia, were attracted there by 15-to-20- year exemptions from corvée and other obligations. With them came Orthodox and Uniate clergy. Cossackdom, however, was not allowed to develop. The towns that were re-established were largely inhabited by Jews, who earned their living as innkeepers, artisans, and merchants. Polish gentry were largely attendants at the magnates' courts, and leaseholders or stewards managed their estates. At the peak of the social order were the few wealthy magnate families that owned huge latifundia. For much of the 18th century the Right Bank was a typical noble-dominated society, marked by lack of central authority, oligarchic politics, and extreme exploitation of the peasantry. Without Cossacks, the peasantry was ineffective in resisting the nobility. Occasionally minor disturbances broke out, led by runaway peasants who congregated in forests and emerged to attack isolated noble estates. These so-called haidamakas usually enjoyed the support of the peasants; gradually, they became a serious problem for the Polish nobles, especially after the corvée exemption expired, serfdom was imposed, and religious oppression was intensified. In 1734, when Poland was involved in a conflict with Russia, the first serious haidamaka uprising broke out. Another major one occurred in 1750. The most widespread and bloodiest was the so-called rebellion of 1768, when the Poles were engaged in another war with Russia. Thousands of Polish nobles, Jews, and Catholic clergy were massacred. Fearing that rebellion would spread into its possessions, the Russian government sent forces to quell it. Thus ended the last great uprising of the Ukrainian peasantry against the Polish nobles. Russia's expansion was a dominant factor in the history of Ukraine. In the late 18th century its ruler, Catherine II, concentrated on a great drive southward to the Black Sea in order to gain access to the Mediterranean and world trade. Southern Ukraine was thus colonized and urban centers began to develop. While it was liquidating the autonomy of the Hetman state and absorbing the lands of the Zaporozhian Sich, Russia also conquered the Crimean Khanate in 1774 and, after annexing it in 1783, gained control of the entire northern Black Sea coast.

53 Russia interfered in Poland and influenced political developments there throughout the 18th century, ostensibly to protect its Orthodox population. In 1772, 1793, and 1795 the Polish Commonwealth was partitioned among Russia, , and Prussia. Thus, by 1795 all of Right-Bank Ukraine had been incorporated into the Russian Empire, which now controlled about 80 percent of the Ukrainian lands. The remainder were part of the . Transcarpathia became part of the Habsburg Empire along with Hungary in 1526; Galicia was taken in the first partition of Poland in 1772; and Bukovyna was taken from the Turks in 1774 and formally incorporated into Austria in 1787.

8 Social transformations In the 17th and 18th centuries there were extensive social changes in Ukraine. In Left-Bank Ukraine, the Cossack starshyna evolved from elective officers into a hereditary nobility. By the end of the 18th century they numbered about 2,000 adult males. Constituting less than 1 percent of the population, they controlled about 50 percent of the land. Meanwhile, the status of rank-and-file Cossacks declined drastically. Deprived of political prerogatives by the starshyna, they also encountered debilitating economic difficulties. Obliged to render extremely protracted, and therefore costly, military service throughout the 18th century, many of them fell into debt and lost or gave up their Cossack status and became state peasants. This downward mobility was reflected in the decline of their numbers in active military service: from 50,000 in 1650 to 30,000 in 1669 and 20,000 in 1730. Because the starshyna and Cossacks were not taxed, they often competed successfully with the burghers in local commerce and primitive, small-scale manufacturing and thereby undermined the prosperity of the relatively small urban stratum (about 4 percent of the population). Even more drastic was the decline in the fortunes of the peasantry. After 1648 they became free peasants who lived in self-governing communities and owed relatively minor obligations for use of the land to the Zaporozhian Host. But as the starshyna accumulated more land, it constantly raised the labor obligations of the peasantry. In Ivan Mazepa's time peasants were forced to work, on the average, two days a week for local starshynalandowners. Within a generation the obligations rose to three days and more. The final step in the enserfment of the Left-Bank Ukraine peasantry occurred in 1783, when Catherine II deprived them of the right to leave their landlords under any circumstances. With the introduction of serfdom most traces of the social upheaval and experimentation that began with Bohdan Khmelnytsky's uprising disappeared, and Ukrainian society became much like the noble-dominated societies of its neighbors.

9 Ukraine under imperial rule From the late 18th century to 1917–1918, Ukrainians lived in two large land-based empires. During the reign of Alexander I (1801–1825), the Russian presence in Ukraine consisted primarily of the imperial army and bureaucracy. By the 1830s, during the reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), the process of establishing a centralized administration throughout Ukraine was completed. The abolition of Magdeburg law in 1831 and the Lithuanian Statute in 1840 put an end to non-Russian legal influences, elected officials, and municipal self-government in Ukraine. Even the name ‘Ukraine’ almost disappeared from usage: Left-Bank Ukraine was generally referred to as Little Russia, while Right-Bank Ukraine was officially called the Southwestern land. Among the Ukrainian elite, especially the descendants of the old Cossack starshyna, a ‘Little Russian mentality’ – a tendency to view Ukraine as a distinct but organic part of the Russian Empire – became widespread. Although the impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasion of 1812 was minimal in Ukraine, secret societies nonetheless arose there as part of the Decembrist movement. Its members attempted unsuccessfully to stage the first revolution (1825) in the Russian Empire. In 1830 the Polish nobles in Right-Bank Ukraine joined the anti-Russian rebellion that began in the Congress Kingdom of Poland. After suppressing it in 1831, the tsarist government instituted Russification policies on the Right Bank.

54 Harshly implemented by Governor-general Dimitrii Bibikov, they had a major impact on both the Ukrainians and Poles. To curtail the influence of the Polish nobles in society and local government, the estates of about 3,000 nobles were confiscated, and some 340,000 were deprived of their status and deported to the east. To counter Polish influence in culture and education on the Right Bank, the Kremenets was closed down, and a Russian University was opened in Kyiv in 1834. In 1839 the numerous Uniates in the region were forced to adopt Orthodoxy. To win over the Ukrainian peasantry and further alienate them from the Polish nobles, in 1847 Bibikov introduced Inventory Regulations limiting the obligations a peasant owed his landlord. The vast majority of the approximately 2.4 million Western Ukrainians in the Habsburg Empire in the early 19th century lived in ; the remainder lived in Bukovyna and Transcarpathia. Their social structure was relatively simple, for the population in eastern Galicia consisted mostly of impoverished peasantry (95 percent) and about 2,000 priestly families. The nobles in Galicia were almost all Poles or Polonized Ukrainians, and Jews made up the overwhelming majority of the small urban population. The socioeconomic development of Western Ukraine lagged behind that of Russian-ruled Ukraine. It was one of the poorest regions in all Europe. Galicia was incorporated into the Habsburg Empire during a time of major changes, and Emperor Joseph II developed a special interest in Galicia, viewing it as a kind of laboratory for his educational, social, and economic reforms. Most notable in this respect was the transformation of the clergy into a civil service, the limitation of corvée labor, the regulation of feudal units, and the abolition of the personal dependence of peasants on the seigneur. After Joseph's death (1790), many of his reforms, especially those pertaining to the peasants, were either subverted by the nobles or rescinded by his conservative successors.

10 The rise of national consciousness In Ukraine, as elsewhere in Eastern Europe, the rise of national consciousness was primarily associated with the impact of Western ideas (especially those of Johann Gottfried von Herder, the French Revolution, and Romanticism) and with the birth of an intelligentsia. The institutions of higher learning established to provide the imperial governments with well-trained bureaucrats facilitated the development of the intelligentsia. Kharkiv University served as the intellectual center of Russian-ruled Ukraine until Kyiv University assumed this role in the 1830s. Initially, the Ukrainian intelligentsia under Russia consisted primarily of nobles by background. A small minority were priests' sons, burghers, or Cossacks. The intelligentsia's numbers were small; eg, prior to 1861 Kharkiv University and Kyiv University produced a total of only about 4,300 graduates. Later, noble representation in the intelligentsia declined and that of commoners, including peasants, rose. Indicative of the first phase of nation-building was the interest shown by the intelligentsia in the late 18th and early 19th century in Ukrainian history, historiography, ethnography, and folklore. Given the central importance of the native language in the maintenance of national consciousness, the Ukrainian intelligentsia was anxious to raise its status. A significant event in this regard was the publication in 1798 of Ivan Kotliarevsky's Eneïda (Aeneid). Despite their achievements in literature and scholarship, the Ukrainian intelligentsia of the early 19th century continued to view Ukraine and the Ukrainians in regionalist terms, convinced that in cultivating things Ukrainian it was also enriching the cultural heritage of Russia as a whole. In the 1840s a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals, now based in Kyiv, emerged. Among its leaders were the historian Mykola Kostomarov, the author Panteleimon Kulish, and, most important, the poet Taras Shevchenko, whose works have exerted an unparalleled influence on Ukrainians. In 1847 they, together with a small group of other Ukrainian intellectuals, began the political phase of nation-building by founding in Kyiv the secret Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood, which

55 was quickly uncovered by the tsarist police. The trials and exile of its leaders marked the beginning of the long confrontation between the Ukrainian intelligentsia, which stood for national rights and social justice, and the Russian imperial authorities. In Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine, in the early 19th century the intelligentsia was practically synonymous with the Greek Catholic clergy – the only social group that could avail itself of higher learning. Thus, of the 43 Ukrainian-language books that appeared there between 1837 and 1850, 40 were written by priests. The first signs of interest in the native language appeared in Peremyshl, where, in 1816, Rev Ivan Mohylnytsky organized a clerical society for the purpose of disseminating culture and enlightenment and preparing simple religious texts. In the 1830s the center of nation-building activity shifted to Lviv, where young, idealistic seminarians captivated by romantic national ideas came to the fore.

11 Imperial change and reforms Nationhood became a major political issue in Western Ukraine during the Revolution of 1848–1849 in the Habsburg monarchy, which shook the Habsburg Empire and much of Europe. Confronted by uprisings in Hungary, , and Vienna itself, and threatened by a Polish revolt in Galicia, the Habsburgs sought to gain popular support by abolishing serfdom and establishing parliamentary representation. These developments provided the impetus for political self-organization of Ukrainians. Rejecting the claims of the Poles to represent the entire population of Galicia, the Ukrainians established the Supreme Ruthenian Council as their representative body and clashed with the Poles at the Slavic Congress in , 1848. Thus began a long period of Polish-Ukrainian political conflicts in Galicia. Demanding autonomy, the Ukrainians established the first Ukrainian-language newspaper (Zoria halytska) and the popular enlightenment and publishing society Halytsko-Ruska Matytsia, pressured the Habsburgs to establish a chair of Ukrainian philology at Lviv University, began the construction of the People's Home in Lviv, formed pro-Habsburg militias, and established contacts with compatriots in Bukovyna and Transcarpathia . Thus, the revolutionary climate of 1848 allowed the Western Ukrainians to express and organize themselves as a distinct nation for the first time in modern history. Russia's defeat in the of 1853–1856 brought to the fore the empire's socioeconomic backwardness and impelled Alexander II to introduce major reforms. The most important of these was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The impact of this emancipation on the Ukrainians was especially great because 42 percent of them (compared to an average of 35 percent in the Russian Empire) had been private serfs. Other reforms introduced by Alexander in the 1860s included the sale of land to state peasants; the introduction of local organs of self-government (zemstvos) to look after education, public health, the mail, and roads; expanded accessibility to ; and the modernization of the court system.

Socio-economic changes In the latter part of the 19th century, the economic situation in the Ukrainian countryside steadily worsened as heavy redemption payments, taxes, and lack of land impoverished the peasantry. Rapid population growth increased land hunger, and great numbers of peasants were forced to emigrate to the Asian regions of the Russian Empire; by 1914 almost 2 million Ukrainianshad settled permanently in these regions. Paradoxically, this stagnation did not prevent Ukraine from enlarging its role as the ‘granary of Europe.’ A small segment of the nobles, along with entrepreneurs from other classes, succeeded in transforming their estates into large, modern agribusinesses that supplied the imperial and foreign markets. In the steppe regions wheat was the main cash crop, and 90 percent of the empire's wheat exports – and 20 percent of world production – came from Ukraine. Right-Bank Ukraine, where sugar beets were the chief cash crop, produced over 80 percent of the empire's sugar.

56 With the abolition of serfdom the way was finally cleared for industrialization and economic modernization. The first railway was laid in 1866–1871 between Odesa and Balta to facilitate the movement of grain. As the railway network grew, even more Ukrainian food and raw materials were sent northward to Russia in exchange for an unprecedented quantity of finished products. As a result, Ukraine's economy, which theretofore had been relatively distinct and self- sustaining, began to be integrated into the imperial economic system. The rapid growth of railroad transportation stimulated the demands for coal and iron. Consequently, between 1870 and 1900, and especially during the 1890s, the southeastern Ukrainian Donets Basin, with its rich coal reserves, and Iron-ore Basin became the fastest-growing industrial regions in the Russian Empire. Developed by foreign capital, with the aid of state subsidies, by 1900 these regions produced almost 70 percent of the empire's coal and most of its iron ore. In 1914 over 320,000 workers were employed here. During the 19th century Ukraine experienced much urban development. Between 1860 and 1897, the population of Odesa, the largest city, grew from 113,000 to 404,000; Kyiv grew from 55,000 to 248,000 and Kharkiv from 50,000 to 174,000. In 1897, however, still only 13 percent of Ukraine's population lived in the 113 population centers officially designated as cities and towns. A crucial aspect of the industrial and urban change was that Ukrainians, who constituted 73 percent of the population in 1897, were little affected by them. They constituted 30 percent of the urban population, while Russians formed 34, Jews 27, and other national groups 9 percent of the urban total. Ukrainians were also a minority within the working class – 39 percent of the total. They were also very weakly represented in the intelligentsia: 16 percent of lawyers, 25 percent of teachers, and less than 10 percent of the writers and artists in Ukraine. Whereas at the turn of the 19th century there had been relatively few Russians in Ukraine, by 1897 they constituted 12 percent of its inhabitants and formed the vast majority of the workers in the coal industry and metallurgical industry, as well as of employees in state administration. Because of especially rapid population growth among the Jews, by the late 19th century they accounted for 8 percent of the population (compared to 4 percent for the empire as a whole) and they played a dominant role in trade and commerce in Ukraine. The Poles, who like the Jews were concentrated in Right-Bank Ukraine, constituted about 6.5 percent of the population.

12 The emergence of nationalism and socialism After the death of the archconservative Nicholas I in 1855, the nascent Ukrainian movement showed new signs of life. In Saint Petersburg and Kyiv, a new generation of Ukrainian activists, composed mostly of students, formed civic and cultural groupings called . Petersburg published an important journal, Osnova (Saint Petersburg). A significant feature of the Hromada of Kyiv was that it attracted a small group of Polish and Polonized nobles from Right-Bank Ukraine who, guilt-stricken by the age-old exploitation of the Ukrainian peasantry by their class, resolved to draw closer to the masses among whom they lived. Led by Volodymyr Antonovych and others, they called themselves khlopomany (peasant lovers). Hromadas also appeared in the early 1860s in Poltava, Chernihiv, Kharkiv, and Odesa, as well as Saint Petersburg and Moscow. Because of their advocacy of populism and national traditions their members came to be called Ukrainophiles. The cultural and scholarly activities of the Ukrainophiles aroused the ire of Ukrainians of the Little Russian orientation, Russian conservatives and government officials, and they were accused of fostering Ukrainian separatism. Consequently, in July 1863 Petr Valuev, the minister of the interior, banned the publication in Ukrainian of all scholarly, religious, and educational books. Soon after, the hromadas were dissolved and some Ukrainophiles were sent into internal exile. About a decade later, the Ukrainophiles, still led by Volodymyr Antonovych, surreptitiously renewed their activities. They formed the Old Hromada of Kyiv, so named to differentiate it from the new hromadas formed by students, and in 1873 they expanded their cultural activities by gaining control of the semiofficial Southwestern Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographic

57 Society. That same year they also convinced Countess Yelysaveta Myloradovych and other wealthy philanthropists to fund the newly formed Shevchenko Society in Lviv. As ties between the Ukrainian intelligentsia in the Russian Empire and in Austria became stronger, Galicia increasingly served as the main center of Ukrainophile activities because it was beyond the reach of tsarist restrictions. In 1876, alarmed by the growth of the Ukrainophile movement, Alexander II banned the printing and importation of Ukrainian-language publications. Several activists, most notably Mykhailo Drahomanov, were forced into exile abroad. From , Drahomanov and other émigrés addressed the socioeconomic plight of the peasantry and advocated socialist ideas in the journal Hromada (Geneva), which was smuggled into Ukraine. With the rise of radicalism among the intelligentsia in the Russian Empire in the 1870s, the question of the relationship between revolutionaries and Ukrainophiles and the ‘Ukrainian question’ came to the fore. Many revolutionaries in Ukraine, such as Andrei Zheliabov, Dmytro Lyzohub, Valeriian Osinsky, and Mykola Kybalchych, believed that it would be better for national distinctions to disappear so that a global socialist society might emerge. Consequently, a split between the socialist and more traditional Ukrainophiles occurred. Early exponents of Marxism in Ukraine were the economist Mykola Ziber and Serhii Podolynsky, a close associate of Mykhailo Drahomanov. But it was only in 1891–1892 that the first stable Marxist group – the Russian Social Democratic Group – appeared in Kyiv. A reflection of the political activism that swept through the Russian Empire beginning in the 1890s was the appearance of illegal Ukrainian political organizations and parties: the Brotherhood of Taras (1891–1898), the General Ukrainian Non-Party Democratic Organization (1897–1904), the Revolutionary Ukrainian party (1900–1905), the Ukrainian Socialist party (Kyiv) (1900–1903), the Ukrainian People's party (1902–1907), the Ukrainian Democratic party (1904–1905), the Ukrainian Radical party (1904– 1905), the Ukrainian Democratic Radical party (1905–1908), the Ukrainian Social Democratic Spilka (1904–1913), the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (1905–1920), and the Society of Ukrainian Progressives (1908–1917). The Revolution of 1905 had an important impact on the development of the Ukrainian movement because Ukrainian-language publishing was permitted, as was freedom of association. Consequently by 1906 the number of Ukrainian-language periodicals had increased from 2 to 18, and Ukrainian publishing houses, Prosvita societies, co-operatives, and music and theater groups proliferated. These new initiatives were desperately needed to improve the cultural and educational levels of development of the Ukrainian population. In 1897 only 13 percent of Ukrainians were literate. In the wake of the revolution an imperial parliament – the State Duma – was established, and its Ukrainian members formed a caucus within it. By 1908, however, government restrictions against the rapidly spreading Ukrainian movement had mounted again. Despite the repression that marked the 1876–1905 period, Ukrainian scholarship made great progress. flourished, many scholarly societies were established, and by 1890 Ukrainian theater boasted five professional troupes, each with repertoires of 20 to 30 plays that were performed with great success throughout the Russian Empire.

13 Developments in Western Ukraine In 1851 the population of Galicia was 4.6 million, of which Ukrainians constituted about 50 percent, Poles 41 percent, and Jews 7 percent. By 1910 the population had almost doubled, to 8 million (Ukrainians 42 percent; Poles [and other Roman Catholics], 47 percent; Jews, 11 percent). Over 90 percent of Ukrainians were peasants. Inhabiting the poorest regions in the Habsburg Empire and only recently emancipated from serfdom, they made slow economic progress. Many had landholdings of less than 5 ha and were heavily in debt, mainly to Jewish moneylenders. Thousands of peasants were forced to auction their land. Because industry was practically non-existent (except in the -Boryslav Industrial Region), there were few alternatives to rural poverty. Consequently, pressure to emigrate was great, and between 1890 and 1914 the emigration of over 500,000 Ukrainians from Western Ukraine to the New World took place.

58 After 1849, when Count Agenor Goáuchowski was appointed governor of the province, the political situation of the Ukrainians in Galicia deteriorated markedly. Following the Austro-Hungarian compromise of 1867, the Polish nobility won total control over the recently formed (1861) Galician Diet, and Vienna promised not to interfere in the Polish conduct of Galician affairs. Discouraged by the Polish predominance, disenchanted with the Habsburg dynasty, and lacking confidence in the Ukrainians' ability to stand on their own, in the 1860s a large part of the West Ukrainian clerical and conservative elite, which controlled most Ukrainian institutions, looked to Russia for support. The Russophiles' tendency to identify with the tsar and the Russian people and culture was opposed by Ukrainophile students, younger clergy, and members of the rising secular intelligentsia. Using Taras Shevchenko and the Ukrainophiles in Russian-ruled Ukraine as well as the Ruthenian Triad as their models, the Galician Populists championed the use of the vernacular, sought closer ties with the Ukrainian peasantry and its culture, and stressed the national distinctiveness of the Ukrainians. By the 1880s, however, a small group of young intelligentsia, led by and Mykhailo Pavlyk, concluded that neither the Populists nor the Russophiles addressed adequately the pressing socioeconomic needs of the West Ukrainian peasantry. Greatly influenced by Mykhailo Drahomanov, they adopted a program that combined socialism with Ukrainian national demands, and in 1890 they formed the Ukrainian Radical party. Despite their political disadvantages vis-à-vis the Poles, Galicia's Ukrainians lived in a constitutional monarchy that allowed much greater freedom of association and expression than was possible in the Russian Empire. This freedom, as well as examples set by the Czechs, Germans, and Poles, led to an upsurge of organizational activity in Western Ukraine in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A harbinger of this tendency was the Prosvitasociety founded by the Populists in 1868 to spread literacy among the peasants. By 1914 it operated nearly 3,000 reading rooms and had close to 37,000 members. Later the gymnastic Sokil (1894) and the Sich societies (1900) were founded; by 1914 they had well over 50,000 members. From the 1880s a Ukrainian co-operative movement flourished in Western Ukraine, as did the Ukrainian press, and by 1913 West Ukrainians could boast of having 80 periodicals, 66 of them in Galicia, 8 in Bukovyna, 4 in Transcarpathia, and 4 in Vienna and . All this activity not only addressed the cultural and socioeconomic needs of the Ukrainian masses, it also spread national consciousness and encouraged close ties between the intelligentsia (consisting usually of leaders of organizations) and the peasantry. With the arrival in 1894 of from Kyiv to occupy the Chair of History at Lviv University a new era in Ukrainian scholarship began, and under his direction in 1893 the Shevchenko Society was transformed into the Shevchenko Scientific Society, a de facto academy of sciences. As various ideologies crystallized, the organizational infrastructure grew, and the need to function effectively in a parliamentary system became more pressing, the West Ukrainians formed political parties, notably the above-mentioned Ukrainian Radical party (1890–1939), the populist- independentist National Democratic party (1899–1919), the MarxistUkrainian Social Democratic party (1899–1924), and the Catholic Ruthenian People's Union (1896). As a result of the widespread educational, religious, civic, cultural, literary, and economic activity, Galicia became the bastion of the Ukrainian national movement. The Poles' increased efforts to limit it led to a rapid escalation of hostilities between the two communities, reflected in the fierce clashes between Ukrainian and Polish students at Lviv University and the assassination, in 1908, of Vicegerent by the Ukrainian student Myroslav Sichynsky. Bukovyna's 300,000 Ukrainians experienced an upsurge in activity similar to that of their Galician counterparts. They succeeded in establishing an effective educational system and gaining significant representation in the Viennese parliament. By contrast, the 500,000 Ukrainians in Hungarian- dominated Transcarpathia had great difficulty in establishing their national identity because of the intense Magyarization policies of the government and strong Russophile tendencies among the tiny intelligentsia.

59 14 Ukraine in the First World War The impact of the First World War on the Ukrainians, who were caught between major adversaries in the conflict, was immediate and devastating. About 3 million of them fought in Russia's armies, and over 250,000 served in Austria's forces. Some of the biggest battles on the eastern front occurred in Galicia, and much of Western Ukraine suffered terribly from repeated offensives and occupations. On the eve of the war, the West Ukrainians declared their loyalty to the Habsburg dynasty. When war broke out, they formed an umbrella organization – the Supreme Ukrainian Council in Lviv – and organized a 2,500-man volunteer legion, the Ukrainian – the first Ukrainian military unit in modern times. In 1915 they created a co-ordinating body in Vienna – the General Ukrainian Council – consisting of 21 Galician and 7 Bukovynian representatives and 3 members of the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (an organization of émigrés from Russian-ruled Ukraine who sought German and Austrian aid for the creation of an independent Ukrainian state). As Russian armies occupied much of Galicia and Bukovyna in September 1914, the retreating Habsburg authorities, suspecting the Ukrainians of pro-Russian sympathies, arrested and executed hundreds without trial and deported over 30,000, including many Russophiles, to internment camps, such as the one near Thalerhof in Austria. Under Russian occupation, the West Ukrainians were also subjected to exceedingly harsh treatment. Intent on Russifying the population, the tsarist authorities arrested and deported thousands of Ukrainian activists, shut down Ukrainian institutions, and banned the use of Ukrainian. They also launched a campaign to liquidate the Greek Catholic church, exiling Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky to Russia in the process. In 1915 Western Ukraine was reoccupied by Austria. In the rest of Ukraine, Ukrainian activities were almost totally suppressed until the outbreak of the Revolution of 1917.

15 The rebirth of Ukrainian statehood (1917–1921) The Ukrainian Central Rada. By the third year of the First World War, the multinational Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, and all showed signs of internal weakness and disintegration. In the Russian Empire, military defeats, disorganization, inflation, and serious food shortages provoked mass social discontent and unrest, which culminated in the of 1917 and the collapse of the monarchy. Following the abdication of Nicholas II on 15 March 1917, most of the opposition parties in the State Duma banded together to form the Russian Provisional Government. The , however, who came to dominate the soviets of workers' and soldiers' deputies in Petrograd and elsewhere, refused to participate in the government. In this situation of social and economic chaos and dual political authority, the Provisional Government found it impossible to maintain control. Taking advantage of the revolutionary situation, Ukraine's national leaders put forth not only social but also national and political demands. On 17 March 1917, the representatives of various Ukrainian political, community, cultural, and professional organizations gathered in Kyiv and formed the Ukrainian Central Rada as an all-Ukrainian representative body. On 22 March, the Rada issued an appeal to the Ukrainian people to maintain peace, establish order, and form political, cultural, and economic associations. Almost immediately a Constituent Military Council and Ukrainian Central Co-operative Committee were established, and the Prosvita society (banned in 1910) and the newspaper Rada (Kyiv) (banned in 1914), no w renamed Nova rada (Kyiv), were revived. The congress of co-operatives held in Kyiv on 27–28 March came out in support of Ukrainian autonomy, as did a mass rally of over 100,000 people in Kyiv on 1 April. Beginning in March, various political parties were reorganized or created. The liberal Society of Ukrainian Progressives was renamed the Union of Ukrainian Federalists-Autonomists and, in June 1917, the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Federalists (UPSF); led from June by Serhii Yefremov, it favored autonomy within a federal Russian republic. The Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (USDRP) was revived; led by Volodymyr Vynnychenko and , it propagated the idea of Ukrainian independence. The

60 Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (UPSR) headed by Mykola M. Kovalevsky enjoyed mass peasant support; it pushed for territorial autonomy and the nationalization of land and dominated the Peasant Association, a mass organization that pursued the socialization of land. At the end of December 1917, the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Independentists (UPSS) was founded by Ukrainian patriots who were military personnel or had army backgrounds; its members (who in March 1917 had formed the Ukrainian Military Club headed by Mykola Mikhnovsky) organized Ukrainian military formations and were the first to propagate the idea of an independent Ukrainian state. The small, conservative but separatist Ukrainian Democratic Agrarian party (UDAP) was founded in May 1917 by Ukrainian landowners; its ideologist Viacheslav Lypynsky promoted the idea of an independent monarchy ruled by a hetman and a Cossack elite. The USDRP and UPSR came to play leading roles in the Rada; the UPSF provided many of its functionaries; but the UPSS and UDAP played minor roles. Other minor parties – the Ukrainian Labor party (Kyiv) (UTP) and Ukrainian Federative Democratic party – also appeared. In Petrograd itself, a rally of over 20,000 Ukrainians, mostly soldiers, came out in support of Ukraine's autonomy. A week later the Ukrainian National Council in Petrograd was established with close links to the Central Rada. A similar Ukrainian Council was created in Moscow in late May. An important event in the first phase of the Ukrainian struggle for independence (1917– 1921) was the All-Ukrainian National Congress convoked by the Central Rada (Kyiv, 19–21 April 1917) whose 900 delegates recognized the Rada as the ‘supreme national authority’ and demanded Ukraine's autonomy, minority rights, and the participation of Ukrainian representatives in a future peace conference. The congress reorganized the Rada and elected its president (Mykhailo Hrushevsky) and vice-presidents (Volodymyr Vynnychenko and Serhii Yefremov). After the congress, the Rada elected from among its members an executive committee, later called the Little Rada. Soldier, peasant, and worker organizations were also born in this period. These groups convened to proclaim their support for the Central Rada and elect delegates to it. The first All- Ukrainian Military Congress (18–21 May 1917) created the Ukrainian General Military Committee headed by Symon Petliura; the second congress (18–23 June 1917) organized the (volunteer units) and elected the All-Ukrainian Council of Military Deputies to the Rada. The first All-Ukrainian Peasant Congress (10–16 June 1917) elected the Central Committee of the Peasant Association and the All-Ukrainian Council of Peasants' Deputies to the Rada, and the first All-Ukrainian Workers' Congress (24–26 ) elected the All-Ukrainian Council of Workers' Deputies to the Rada. With the Revolution of 1917, all tsarist interdictions concerning the Ukrainian language were abolished and Ukrainian culture, education, and publishing flourished. Ukraine's national minorities – the Russians, Jews, and Poles – also organized themselves. Russians continued to dominate in city elections. The Provisional Government appointed (mostly Russian) gubernial commissioners (usually the heads of gubernial zemstvo executives) in Ukraine. Thus, in the first months of the revolution in Ukraine, dual authority – that of the Central Rada and the Provisional Government – existed. The Rada was also confronted in the Russified cities by the soviets of workers' and soldiers' deputies, but these had little Ukrainian support. Most non-Ukrainian political and civic organizations were hostile to the idea of Ukrainian autonomy, let alone independence. When the Central Rada's autonomist demands were presented by a delegation to the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet in May 1917 and rejected, the Rada issued the first of the four Universals of the Central Rada on 23 June 1917 during the second All-Ukrainian Military Congress. It called for the creation of an elected people's assembly (diet) to ratify the laws determining the political and social order of an autonomousUkraine. On 28 June the General Secretariat of the Central Rada was established as its executive body under Volodymyr Vynnychenko.

61 These important steps were accepted by the majority of Ukrainians. Consequently the Russian government had to come to terms with the Central Rada and its demands. In its Second Universal (16 July 1917) the Rada informed the people that the final decision on Ukraine's autonomy would be made by the All-Russian Constituent Assembly. The legal basis for Ukraine's autonomy was elaborated in the Statute of the Higher Administration of Ukraine and approved by the Little Rada on 29 July 1917. The Provisional Government, now headed by Aleksandr Kerensky, refused to ratify the statute, however, and on 17 August it issued a ‘Temporary Instruction to the General Secretariat’ subordinating the General Secretariat of the Central Rada to the Provisional Government instead of the Rada. The Rada reluctantly accepted the instruction as a temporary truce and the basis for obtaining further rights. Ukrainian-Russian relations continued to deteriorate, as did economic conditions, military discipline, law and order, and the situation at the front. Interparty relations within the Central Rada and its control outside Kyiv became even more unstable. Although the Rada did succeed in organizing the Congress of the Peoples of Russia (21–28 September) and a congress of 80 gubernial commissioners and county commissioners (16–17 October), the Provisional Government continued to oppose the attempts of the General Secretariat of the Central Rada at functioning as an autonomous government. On 7 November 1917 (25 October OS) the Bolsheviks in Petrograd overthrew the Provisional Government. Under the leadership of and Leon Trotsky, they soon took power throughout most of ethnic Russia. But they were unsuccessful in Ukraine, the , and the Don region. The Central Rada condemned the coup on 8 November, but tried to remain neutral. On 10–13 November, however, battles took place in Kyiv between the units of Kyiv Military District, still loyal to the Provisional Government, and local Bolshevik forces. The pro- Rada First Ukrainian Regiment for the Defense of the Revolution, formed out of the delegates at the third All-Ukrainian Military Congress, intervened on the side of the Bolsheviks, and the Provisional Government's troops retreated to the Don River. On 12 November the Central Rada created a larger, more left-leaning General Secretariat. In its Third Universal (20 November 1917), it proclaimed the creation of the Ukrainian National Republic in federation with Russia. The new General Secretariat of the Central Rada also guaranteed freedom of speech, press, religion, and assembly, announced a political amnesty, and decreed that land was to be socialized without compensation. Workers were to be given control over their workplaces and production was to be state controlled. National-personal autonomy was granted to national minorities. The elections in Ukraine to the All-Russian Constituent Assembly (10–12 December 1917) gave majority support to the Ukrainian parties, particularly the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (45.3 percent). The relations between the Central Rada and Bolshevik Russia deteriorated further. On 12 December, an attempted Bolshevik armed takeover in Kyiv was suppressed, and Bolshevik attempts to turn the All-Ukrainian Congress of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies (17–19 December) against the Rada failed after the Council of People's Commissars in Petrograd sent an ultimatum on 17 December, demanding that the Rada allow Bolshevik forces to fight counterrevolutionaries on Ukrainian territory and that it prevent the passage of leaving the southwestern front to join Aleksei Kaledin's anti-Bolshevik army in the Don region. The Central Rada rejected the Soviet Russian ultimatum and, soon after, the Ukrainian- Soviet War, 1917–1921, broke out. The Bolsheviks proclaimed a Ukrainian soviet republic at the first All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets in Kharkiv (24–25 December) and appointed a workers' and peasants' government (the Peoples' Secretariat) on 30 December. A Russian Bolshevik army, aided by local rebellions, invaded Left-Bank Ukraine in and, after the (29 January), began advancing on Kyiv. Though the Army of the Ukrainian National Republic suppressed the Bolshevik uprising at the Arsenal plant in Kyiv (4 February), the Rada was forced to abandon Kyiv and flee to on 7 February.

62 By December 1917 the Central Rada's leaders concluded that a separate peace treaty with the and German military aid were the only way of saving the Ukrainian National Republic. Since only a full-fledged independent state could conclude an international agreement, on 25 January 1918 the Rada issued its Fourth Universal (back-dated to 22 January) proclaiming Ukraine's independence. The General Secretariat of the Central Rada was renamed the Council of National Ministers of the Ukrainian National Republic, and 2 February was announced as the date for the convention of the Constituent Assembly of Ukraine, elections to which had taken place on 9 January in regions not occupied by the Bolsheviks. A week later Volodymyr Vynnychenko resigned as prime minister, and on 30 January Vsevolod Holubovych formed a new government dominated by the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries. On 9 February 1918 the Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Ukrainian National Republic and the Central Powers was signed, and on 19 February German-Austrian armies began their offensive against the Bolshevik-occupied lands. In early March Holubovych's government returned to Kyiv, and by early April the last of the retreated from Ukraine. The German high command interfered in Ukrainian internal affairs as soon as its offensive began. Germany was interested mainly in exploiting Ukraine economically as part of its war effort, and the disorder, anti-German guerrillas, and policies of an uncooperative Ukrainian socialist government made the attainment of this goal difficult. To ensure the delivery of foodstuffs, the Germans took control of the railways. To force the recalcitrant peasants to sow their fields, Field Marshal Hermann von Eichhorn issued an order on 6 April reversing the Rada's land nationalization policies, and on 25 April he formally introduced . Gen Wilhelm Groener began secret negotiations with Gen Pavlo Skoropadsky, a representative of conservative and landowning circles in Ukraine, about forming a new government that would be favorably disposed to the Germans' aims and policies. On 26–27 April the Ukrainian Bluecoats divisions were disarmed and on 29 April, the day that the Constitution of the Ukrainian National Republic was adopted and Mykhailo Hrushevsky was elected president of the republic, a German-supported coup d'état was staged, and the congress of the All-Ukrainian Union of Landowners proclaimed Skoropadsky ‘’.

The Hetman government Pavlo Skoropadsky assumed all executive and legislative power and supreme command of the army and navy; only judiciary functions were left to a General Court. All laws promulgated by the Central Rada were abolished, and the Ukrainian National Republic was renamed the Ukrainian State. The new regime, its legislation, and administration resembled those of tsarist times. The first Hetman government under Premier Fedir Lyzohub included such well-known Ukrainian figures as and Mykola Vasylenko. Many of the other members belonged to Russian parties, mainly to the Russian Constitutional Democratic (kadet) party (aka the Kadets); some were even Russian monarchists. The repressive, pro-German, and reactionary social and economic policies of the new regime and its (mostly Russian) collaborators engendered opposition from most of the Ukrainian political parties and the zemstvos, and led to strikes, widespread peasant rebellions and peasant guerrillas (eg, and Yurii Tiutiunnyk), arson and bombings, assassinations (eg, that of Hermann von Eichhorn), and even increased support for the Bolsheviks. Organized Ukrainian political opposition to the Hetman regime began in May 1918, when members of the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Independentists, Ukrainian Democratic Agrarian party, Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Federalists, Ukrainian Labor party (Kyiv), and the railwaymen's and postal-telegraph unions formed the Ukrainian National-State Union (UNDS). In July this coalition was joined by the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries, and various cultural, civic, labor, and professional organizations, and renamed the Ukrainian National Union (UNS). After Germany's surrender in November 1918 and the withdrawal of its troops, the danger of a renewed Bolshevik occupation led

63 Pavlo Skoropadsky to turn to the anti-Bolshevik, but also anti-Ukrainian and pro-White, Entente Powers. To appease them he proclaimed his intention to federate with a future non-Bolshevik Russia and appointed a new cabinet made up mostly of Russian monarchists. These developments triggered the popular uprising that the Ukrainian National Republic had been planning. Commanded by the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic, the uprising was supported militarily by the Sich Riflemen, various guerrilla detachments, thousands of peasants, and, towards the end, Ukrainian soldiers in the hetman's army. In December 1918, his military and German support gone, Skoropadsky abdicated, and the UNR was re-established in Kyiv.

The period of the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic On 26 December 1918 the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic restored the legislation of the Ukrainian National Republic (UNR) (landowners' and church estates were again socialized without compensation), and in January 1919 a new Council of National Ministers of the Ukrainian National Republic was constituted. To counter widespread pro-Bolshevik propaganda, the socialist Directory built its authority on the basis of gubernia and county labor councils of workers, peasants, and toiling intelligentsia. The Labor Congress that took place on 23–28 January 1919 in Kyiv ratified the unification of the UNR and the newly created Western Ukrainian National Republic (ZUNR) and recognized the supreme power of the Directory until the next session of the congress. Upon assuming power, the Directory was faced with an extremely difficult internal and international situation. It was forced to deal with a renewed Bolshevik offensive and to continue fighting the Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–1921; to aid the ZUNR in the ongoing Ukrainian-Polish War in Galicia, 1918–1919; to circumvent Gen. 's anti-Ukrainian as well as anti- Bolshevik in the Don region and hostile Romanian forces in and Bukovyna; to contain the Franco-Greek Entente expeditionary forces that had occupied the Crimea and Odesa and were helping Denikin; and to cope with an unruly Partisan movement in Ukraine, 1918–1922 (eg, Nestor Makhno and Nykyfor Hryhoriv), whose activities and excesses compromised and even endangered the new government. The only solution was to come to an agreement with either Moscow or the Allied Powers. The failure of Premier Volodymyr Chekhivsky and Directory chairman Volodymyr Vynnychenko to arrange peace with the Bolsheviks prompted the government to accept the pro-Entente orientation proposed by Symon Petliura, the supreme military commander. On 10 February 1919, Vynnychenko and Chekhivsky resigned and Petliura became the new chairman. To facilitate negotiations with the Entente, the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party and Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries withdrew from the government, and on 13 February a new cabinet, headed by Serhii Ostapenko and composed mainly of ministers belonging to the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Federalists, was formed. The new government tried to negotiate a common strategy against the Bolsheviks with the French commander in Odesa, Col Henri Freydenberg. The plan failed because of Anton Denikin's opposition, the population's hostility to the policies of the ‘bourgeois’ cabinet and its accommodation with the French, and the Entente's insistence on Petliura's resignation and French control of the army, railroads, and finances. Beaten on several fronts, the government was no longer in control. Ukrainian army units became more demoralized, increasingly more and more partisan otamans appeared, and forces associated with the UNR engaged in a series of that took thousands of Jewish lives, as did Volunteer Army units, Red Army troops, and sundry partisan units. The Bolshevik offensive forced the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic to evacuate . Meanwhile Otaman Nykyfor Hryhoriv drove the Entente forces out of Kherson (10 March), Mykolaiv (15 March), and Odesa (6 April). With the Entente forces' retreat from Ukraine, Serhii Ostapenko's cabinet lost its raison d'etre, and on 9 April a new cabinet, headed by Borys Martos and made up of members of the

64 Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party and Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries, was formed in Rivne, Volhynia. The new government appealed to the populace to continue resisting the Bolshevik aggressors, reassured it that it would not turn for aid to foreign powers, and reiterated its adherence to democracy. Between April and July, 328 anti-Bolshevik revolts took place in Ukraine. They were led by the left faction that had split from the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party in January and founded the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (Independentists) and by part of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries; together they formed the All-Ukrainian Revolutionary Committee, with a program of creating an independent socialist (non-Bolshevik) Ukrainian republic. The insurgent forces of otamans Nykyfor Hryhoriv and Danylo Zeleny also fought the Bolsheviks. The initial successes of the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic in the Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–1921, were undermined by opposition from the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Independentists and the right-wing Ukrainian People's Republican party, which backed Otaman Volodymyr Oskilko's abortive coup in Rivne on 29 April. In June the government moved to Kamianets-Podilskyi, and on 27 August a new USDRP/UPSR-dominated cabinet, headed by Isaak Mazepa, was constituted there. In July a joint offensive of the Army of the Ukrainian National Republic and the (UHA) began against the Bolsheviks in Right-Bank Ukraine. Simultaneously but independently, Anton Denikin's Volunteer Army began its offensive against the Bolsheviks in Left-Bank Ukraine. On 31 August both forces entered Kyiv; to avoid armed conflict, the Ukrainian command withdrew from the city. At this point, views among the Ukrainian leaders diverged. The Directory and the cabinet considered both the Whites and the Reds to be Ukraine's main foes; to get aid from the Entente they were prepared to form an alliance with Poland. The Ukrainians from Galicia, headed by , however, considered Poland the greater enemy; they were prepared to come to terms with Anton Denikin and thus get the support of the Entente. Meanwhile, the Entente Powers, being hostile to Ukrainian independence, began an economic blockade of Ukraine, and the Volunteer Army pursued a reactionary policy of destroying everything Ukrainian, terrorizing the populace, and restoring land to the gentry in the occupied territories. Massive jacqueries against the Whites, led by Nestor Makhno, Danylo Zeleny, and other partisan leaders, erupted, and Symon Petliura, to whom the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic yielded all power on 15 September, declared war on Denikin on 24 September. A typhus epidemic, exacerbated by the lack of medical supplies owing to the Entente's blockade, annihilated up to 70 percent of the Ukrainian army (90 percent of the Ukrainian Galician Army) and decimated the populace. Consequently the UHA commander, Gen Myron Tarnavsky, signed an alliance with Denikin on 6 November, on the eve of the start of the third Soviet offensive in Ukraine. Yevhen Petrushevych opposed this alliance, and on 16 November he and others in the government of the Dictatorship of the Western Province of the Ukrainian National Republic left Kamianets-Podilskyi for Vienna. A day earlier, Fedir Shvets and Andrii Makarenko, two of the three remaining members of the Directory, went abroad on state business and gave Petliura authority to act in the name of the Directory. Petliura and the government and UNR Army left Kamianets-Podilskyi for Volhynia, and on 17 November the Poles occupied Kamianets-Podilskyi. In late November the Army of the Ukrainian National Republic found itself surrounded by the Bolshevik, Polish, and White forces in Volhynia. In December the UNR government and army commanders abandoned regular warfare for partisan tactics against the Bolshevik and Denikin forces and the began. Symon Petliura went to Warsaw to join the vice- premier, Andrii Livytsky, in trying to influence the attitude of the Entente Powers. On 16 December the Bolsheviks occupied Kyiv for the third time. By the middle of February 1920, they had forced Anton Denikin's army out of Ukraine with the aid of formations of the Ukrainian Galician Army (the Red Ukrainian Galician Army), which had joined them in

65 January. Thus, by early 1920 Volhynia and western Podilia were occupied by the Polish army, and the rest of Ukraine was under Bolshevik control. Meanwhile, the Ukrainian emissaries in Warsaw had begun negotiations favorable to the Poles resulting in the Treaty of Warsaw of 22 April 1920 signed by Symon Petliura and Józef Piásudski. The terms of the treaty, especially the surrender of the western Ukrainian territories to Poland, caused painful and profound discord among Ukrainians. As a result, Isaak Mazepa's government resigned, and a new government of the Ukrainian National Republic – the last one on Ukrainian soil – was formed in May 1920 by Viacheslav Prokopovych. A joint offensive of the Polish-Ukrainian armies against Soviet-occupied Ukraine and Belarus began on 24 April. On 6 May they took Kyiv, but in June they were forced to retreat to Galicia and Poland proper. On 15 August the Bolsheviks were routed near Warsaw, and the joint armies of a new Polish-Ukrainian counteroffensive occupied part of Podilia by mid-October. On 12 October the Polish government signed an armistice with the Soviets, and the 30,000- man Army of the Ukrainian National Republic was forced to retreat on 21 November into Poland, where its soldiers were incarcerated. Armed struggle against the Bolsheviks was continued by dozens of partisan groups in Podilia gubernia, Kyiv gubernia, Katerynoslav gubernia, and Poltava gubernia. The insurgents, who numbered some 40,000 in late 1920, resisted Soviet rule until 1924. They were joined by UNR Army veterans from Poland under the command of Yurii Tiutiunnyk, who operated in Volhynia and Podilia in November 1921 (the ). The 18 March 1921 Peace Treaty of Riga reaffirmed the Polish-Soviet armistice, established diplomatic relations between Poland and Soviet Ukraine, and legitimized Poland's annexation of Western Ukraine. The parliament in exile of the Ukrainian National Republic – the Council of the Republic – functioned in Tarnów, Poland, from February to August 1921.

The Western Ukrainian National Republic, 1918–1923 The rebirth of the Western Ukrainian state was influenced strongly by the Revolution of 1917 and its aftermath in the rest of Ukraine. On 18–19 October 1918, the Ukrainian members of the Austrian parliament, the Galician Diet, and the Bukovynian Diet and three delegates from each Ukrainian political party in Galicia and Bukovyna constituted the Ukrainian National Rada (UNRada) in Lvivas the representative council of the Ukrainians in Austria-Hungary and proclaimed the creation of a Ukrainian state on the territory of Galicia, northern Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia. A democratic constitution, granting proportional representation to all national minorities in the state organs, was adopted. Yevhen Petrushevych was elected chairman of the UNRada, and a delegation for Galician affairs in Vienna under the direction of Kost Levytsky was formed. On 9 November the UNRada named the new state the Western Ukrainian National Republic (ZUNR) and the members of the Galician delegation became its first government – the State Secretariat of the Western Ukrainian National Republic. The Ukrainian National Rada proclaimed personal autonomy for the national minorities. Nonetheless, the Poles in Galicia were hostile to the Western Ukrainian National Republic from the outset and mounted armed opposition to it. The Ukrainian-Polish War in Galicia, 1918–1919, began 1 November 1918. Polish forces occupied Lviv on 21 November, forcing the new government to move to Ternopil. While the Poles were backed by the might of the new Polish state, the ZUNR could only count on the military potential of Galicia's Ukrainians. Nonetheless, with the exception of Lviv, the corridor linking it with Peremyshl, and a few western counties, most of Galicia remained in Ukrainian hands. In late December, the UNRada and the government moved to Stanyslaviv. On 4 January 1919 a 10-member government executive, headed by Sydir Holubovych, was appointed. From its inception the State Secretariat of the Western Ukrainian National Republic was charged with the task of unifying all the Ukrainian territories into one state. On 1 December 1918 an agreement to federate had been signed by representatives of the ZUNR and UNR governments in

66 Fastiv; on 4 January 1919, the Ukrainian National Rada ratified the law of union, and on 22 January the union was proclaimed and celebrated in Kyiv. Thereafter, the Western Ukrainian National Republic was officially called the Western Province of the Ukrainian National Republic. Its political structure and ruling bodies were not changed, however, owing to the exigencies of the wars with Ukraine's enemies. The Ukrainian National Rada promulgated various laws for the new state and sought international recognition of the Western Ukrainian National Republic and an end to the war with Poland. The government devoted much of its attention to the Paris Peace Conference and to lobbying the Entente Powers. By June 1919, the tide in the Ukrainian-Polish War had turned against the ZUNR and the Ukrainian Galician Army (UHA). Sydir Holubovych's government resigned, and the UNRada empowered Yevhen Petrushevych to head a Dictatorship of the Western Province of the Ukrainian National Republic. The war continued to go badly despite the successes of the offensive, and on 16–18 July UHA and the government retreated into territory of the Ukrainian National Republic, leaving Galicia under Polish occupation. While in Kamianets-Podilskyi, Yevhen Petrushevych and Symon Petliura failed to come to terms, and after the Ukrainian Galician Army was decimated by typhus and the third Soviet invasion of Ukraine began, Petrushevych left in November for Vienna, from where he and his government launched a diplomatic campaign against Poland until the Conference of Ambassadors sanctioned the Peace Treaty of Riga (1921) and the annexation of Galicia and western Volhynia by Poland in March 1923.

16 Ukraine in the interwar years Soviet Ukraine. During the Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–1921, the Bolsheviks formed several short-lived governments in Ukraine. Although, for tactical reasons, they recognized the independence of Ukraine, and the Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets (Kyiv, 6–10 March 1919) adopted the first Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic as ‘an independent and sovereign state,’ in reality the military, state, and Party apparatuses were directed from Moscow and dominated by foreign and anti-Ukrainian elements, who terrorized the population while imposing their rule, nationalizing all industry and commerce, and enforcing a ruthless requisitioning of farm produce. The excesses of War Communism led to the ruin of the agricultural economy and culminated in the of 1921–1923 in Ukraine. As a result of widespread opposition, the Bolsheviks were forced to build an indigenous power base by seeking accommodation with and incorporating the ‘national communists’ – the influential Borotbists and Ukrainian Communist party. By 1921, the forces of the Ukrainian National Republic and Gen Petr Wrangel's White army had been defeated and the peace treaty with Poland had been signed. Soviet power was by and large secure, and Vladimir Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP). On 30 December 1922 the USSR – a multinational federation of Soviet republics – was formally constituted. According to the Constitution of the USSR that was ratified by the Second Congress of Soviets on 31 January 1924, foreign relations, commerce, the military, transportation, and communications became prerogatives of the all-Union government, while the republican governments were given authority over internal and agrarian affairs, education, the judiciary, public health, and social security within their own borders. Nevertheless, the USSR remained in practice a centralized state, and directives continued to come from Moscow. To appease the various nationalities and gain their support for Soviet rule, the Bolsheviks approved the principle of korenizatsiia (indigenization) and condemned Russian chauvinism at their 12th Congress in 1923. The new nationality policy emphasized the need for the economic development of various republics, the creation of indigenous national cadres, education in the mother tongue, de-Russification of the Party and state apparats, and even the creation of territorial military units in the individual republics. As a result, was introduced in 1923 and its development had a profound impact on culture, education, and politics.

67 The positive changes that the New Economic Policy and Ukrainization brought about convinced certain Galician Ukrainian and émigré political figures and scholars (eg, Mykhailo Hrushevsky, Andrii Nikovsky, Pavlo Khrystiuk, Mykola Chechel, Mykola Shrah, Stepan Rudnytsky) to return to Ukraine. These policies also generated a national Literary Discussion about the direction that Ukrainian literature should take; during it the influential and popular writer even advocated cultural (and ultimately political) independence from Moscow and an orientation toward Western civilization. Ukrainization also buttressed the position of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (UAOC), which was founded in Kyiv in 1921. The success of Ukrainization and the national legitimacy it gave Ukraine soon threatened Moscow's hegemony and spawned a fierce struggle between its supporters and opponents in the CP(B)U. In May 1926 the People's Commissar of Education, Oleksander Shumsky, protested against delays in Ukrainizing the proletariat, as well as Joseph Stalin's appointment of a non- Ukrainian, , as first secretary of the CP(B)U (1925–1928). He also defended the views of Mykola Khvylovy and the Neoclassicists, and was condemned as a ‘nationalist deviationist.’ His removal provoked a schism in the Communist Party of Western Ukraine, resulting in the expulsion of its ‘Shumskyist’ majority from the Comintern in 1928. Mykhailo Volobuiev's argument that Moscow continued to exploit Ukraine as a colony was also condemned as the ‘economic foundation of Khvylovyism and Shumskyism’. Between 1926 and 1928 over 36,000 ‘Shumskyists’, ‘Khvylovyists,’ and ‘Trotskyists’ were expelled from the CP(B)U. Mykola Khvylovy was forced to renounce his views, and Vaplite – the group of writers he led and influenced – was forced to dissolve in 1928. In 1928 a campaign against the ‘nationalist deviations’ of the Ukrainian Marxist school of history, led by Matvii Yavorsky, also began. In 1930, 45 leading figures in Ukrainian scholarship, culture, and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church were sentenced at the show trial of the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (SVU) and the Association of Ukrainian Youth, which were allegedly led by Serhii Yefremov, Volodymyr Durdukivsky, and Volodymyr Chekhivsky. Fifteen other alleged counterrevolutionary organizations were ‘uncovered’ during the Stalinist terror of the 1930s. Towards the end of the 1920s, having defeated the various internal Party oppositions, Stalin consolidated his personal power. Under his rule the USSR became an increasingly Russocentric state whose population was governed by a powerful bureaucracy and terrorized by the ruthless Soviet secret police – the OGPU and NKVD. In December 1927, the 15th Party Congress approved the acceleration of industrialization and ushered in the first five-year plan (1928–1933). Private industry was abolished, and all commerce was nationalized. The plan also called for the collectivization of agriculture. Subsequently the peasants were herded into collective farms and impossible quotas for the delivery of grain and other foodstuffs to the state were imposed. Those who opposed these draconian measures were deported to concentration camps, if not killed outright, and hundreds of thousands of peasants were labeled kulaks (Ukrainian: kurkuli) and deported to Siberia or the Arctic. Collectivization caused great hardship and suffering in the rural areas of Soviet Ukraine and the RSFSR’s adjacent Kuban region, where a sizable Ukrainian peasant population also lived. However, it was only the prelude to an outright catastrophe: the Famine-Genocide of 1932–1933, also known as the . Increased Soviet grain requisitioning during the years 1930–1932 had led to some starvation in Ukraine and the Kuban. All the same, the Stalinist authorities, who believed that Ukraine held substantial reserves of grain that were not being delivered, were unwilling to lower quotas. Ukrainian Party officials, particularly those at the local or regional level, were alarmed by what they considered unrealizable levies and the growing food shortage problem. Nevertheless, the CP(B)U conference of July 1932 agreed to the onerous grain-collection figures for that year’s harvest, albeit under heavy pressure from Moscow. However, the amount of grain delivered from Ukraine in July 1932 (and in the months following) was far short of the requisition target.

68 By August 1932 Joseph Stalin had begun to doubt the loyalty of the entire Party apparat in Soviet Ukraine and to view the situation in that republic as politically unstable and insurrectionary. Consequently, in October 1932 he appointed Viacheslav Molotov head of an extraordinary commission, which from November 1932 to January 1933 sent out special brigades to confiscate absolutely all grain and other foodstuffs from the peasants. Meanwhile, Soviet Ukraine’s borders were sealed and guarded to prevent peasant flight to other republics. As a result, starvation occurred on a massive scale, resulting in a total death count of at least 4.6 million inhabitants of Soviet Ukraine and a drastic decline in Ukraine’s birth rate for many years to come. While this crime against humanity raged, the Soviet Union denied it existed, turned down all offers of food assistance from abroad, and sold great quantities of grain abroad to finance its industrialization drive throughout the USSR. In January 1933, during the height of the Bolshevik regime’s genocidal policies in Ukraine and other Soviet republics, Stalin appointed Pavel Postyshev second CP(B)U secretary and de facto dictator of Ukraine. His arrival marked the beginning of the Great Terror in Ukraine, during which Ukrainian cultural institutions were purged, remolded, or abolished altogether. Ukrainization was officially abolished on 22 November 1933, and Russification in all sectors of Ukrainian life was pursued. In this violent transformation of Ukrainian culture and society four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural and intellectual elite perished. Seeing their nation ravaged by famine and terror, both Mykola Khvylovy and , themselves persecuted, committed suicide in 1933. Throughout the 1930s the CP(B)U was extensively purged of ‘Ukrainizers’ and hundreds of thousands of its members disappeared. Pavel Postyshev himself was removed in 1937 during the Yezhov terror, and in 1938 Stanislav Kosior, the CP(B)U first secretary (1928–1938), was replaced: both were subsequently shot. In 1937, almost all the members of the CP(B)U Central Committee and Ukrainian government were liquidated, and the head of the government from 1934, Panas Liubchenko, committed suicide. By the end of the 1930s the Ukrainian population was decimated and leaderless, and its culture made to conform to all-Soviet patterns. In 1938, Joseph Stalinappointed and Demian Korotchenko to head the CP(B)U and the Ukrainian government.

17 Western Ukraine in the 1920s–1930s Western Ukraine under Poland. In the years 1919–1923 in Galicia, Podlachia, western Volhynia, western Polisia, and the Kholm region, Lemko region, and Sian region, the Poles pursued a policy of denationalization, persecution, and repression. In 1919–1920, 70,000 Ukrainians were imprisoned in concentration camps. The Galician Diet was abolished in 1920, as was Galician autonomy that had existed under Austrian rule since the late 1860s. The Ukrainian press was censored, and the Ukrainian chairs at Lviv University were closed down. The so-called Sokal border was created to prevent contact between the Galician organizations and institutions and their counterparts in the Northwestern Ukrainian lands (Volhynia, Polisia, Podlachia, and the Kholm region). The Ukrainians in Galicia responded by creating the Lviv (Underground) Ukrainian University and a nationalist underground – the Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO) – and by boycotting the census of 1920 and the elections of 1922. The Ukrainians in the northwestern regions did not boycott the elections, however, and sent 20 representatives to the Sejm and 5 to the Senate. In March 1923 the Conference of Ambassadors sanctioned Poland's annexation of Galicia and the government-in-exile of the Western Ukrainian National Republic was dissolved. Consequently the Galician political parties changed their strategy and began seeking accommodation with and participation in the new regime. In 1925 the centrist Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance (UNDO) was formed under Dmytro Levytsky; until the Second World War it was the most popular and influential legal political party. After the Ukrainian Radical party was joined by Socialist Revolutionaries from Volhynia in 1926, it was renamed the Ukrainian Socialist Radical party (USRP).

69 The Ukrainian Social Democratic party (USDP), which was banned as communistin 1924, was revived in December 1929; neither it nor the Ukrainian Catholic People's party, formed in 1930, had much influence or support. Sovietophile tendencies were represented by the Ukrainian Party of Labor (1927–1930) and the Ukrainian Peasants' and Workers' Socialist Alliance or Sel-Rob (1926–1932), the front organization of the clandestine Communist Party of Western Ukraine (1923– 1938). The Ukrainian Military Organization, led by Yevhen Konovalets, engaged in acts of sabotage throughout the 1920s against the Polish government and landowners, as well as against Ukrainian ‘collaborators’ with the regime and Sovietophiles. From the mid-1920s, new, younger members, who were not veterans of the Ukrainian Galician Army or Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, were recruited into the thinning ranks, and in 1929 the conspiratorial Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) was founded to take over its functions and to propagate a well-defined program and ideology of nationalism, much of it inspired by the writings of Dmytro Dontsov. Konovalets became the leader of the OUN. The Polish government maintained its anti-Ukrainian policies throughout the 1920s. In 1924 it banned the use of Ukrainian in state and self-government institutions and abolished unilingual Ukrainian schools. Throughout the 1920s it promoted the colonization of Western Ukraine by Poles. The influx of some 200,000 Poles into the villages and some 100,000 into the cities and towns heightened Ukrainian-Polish tensions. During the 1928 Polish elections, 46 Ukrainians were elected to the Sejm and 13 to the Senate. The deputies and senators from the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance and Ukrainian Socialist Radical party, in particular, defended Ukrainian interests, declaring that they stood for a pan-Ukrainian sovereign state. Despite the government's oppressive measures, Ukrainian cultural, scholarly, civic, and co-operative life continued to develop. In fall 1930 Józef Piásudski's government reacted to ongoing activity of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists with a harsh military and police campaign (the Pacification) in Galicia. Ukrainian political, civic, and cultural figures were brutally beaten and tortured, Ukrainian institutional and private property was destroyed, and mass arrests occurred. This terror and intimidation affected the outcome of the 1930 elections: only 27 Ukrainians were elected to the Sejm and 5 to the Senate. Polish oppression intensified in the 1930s. Municipal government was abolished in Galicia in 1933. Polisia and the Lemko region and Kholm region, in particular, were subjected to wholesale Polonization and forced conversion to Roman Catholicism. Hundreds of Ukrainian political prisoners were confined in the Bereza Kartuzka concentration camp established in 1934. In 1935 a new Polish constitution reduced the powers and composition of the Sejm and the Senate, and Poland became a virtual dictatorship. Attempts by the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance (led by Vasyl Mudry) at seeking a Ukrainian-Polish rapprochement proved unsuccessful because of Polish chauvinistic attitudes and discrimination, the regime's repressiveness, the revolutionary militancy of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, and the uncompromising attitude of the Front of National Unity, the Union of Ukrainian Women, and other Ukrainian organizations and political parties.

Ukrainian territories under Romanian rule From November 1918, the Ukrainians of Bukovyna, Bessarabia, and part of the Maramureú region came under Romanian rule. Opposition to the regime was manifested by the Khotyn uprising of 1919 and the Tatarbunary uprising of 1924. The greatest national persecution occurred in Bukovyna, where repressive military rule lasted until 1928. The Ukrainian chairs at University and most Ukrainian organizations were abolished, the Ukrainian press was forbidden, and Romanianization of the Ukrainian Orthodox church was systematically pursued. In 1922 instruction in Ukrainian was abolished in almost all schools. To facilitate the Romanianization of education, a 1924 law proclaimed Ukrainians to be Romanians who had forgotten their mother tongue.

70 Conditions improved somewhat in 1927, and the populist Ukrainian National party (UNP), headed by Volodymyr Zalozetsky-Sas, was founded to defend Ukrainian interests in parliament as best it could. Despite the regime's oppression, Ukrainian cultural, community, and student organizations in Bukovyna remained active and several periodicals were published, including the daily Chas (Chernivtsi) (1928–1940). Teaching in Ukrainian was allowed from 1931 to 1933. In the 1930s, the underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists gained a large following among Bukovyna's students and peasants. The Nationalists published the monthly Samostiina (1931–1937) and the weekly Samostiinist’ (1934–1937). In 1938 all Ukrainian political parties were outlawed, and thereafter all manifestations of Ukrainian organized life were persecuted by the royal dictatorship.

Ukrainian territories under Czechoslovak rule In 1919 the Ukrainians of Transcarpathia elected to be part of the new Czechoslovak Republic (see Central Ruthenian People's Council and American National Council of Uhro-Rusins), and the official region of Subcarpathian was created, leaving the Prešov region as part of Slovakia. It was governed by Jan Brejcha and a five-man Directory of Subcarpathian Ruthenia (1919–1920). The central government approved the use of the local language in education and other official activities. Consequently the struggle between the Russophile, Rusynophile, Ukrainophile, and Magyarone camps over the unresolved language question and national identity intensified. The Ukrainophiles, led by Rev Avhustyn Voloshyn, Mykhailo Brashchaiko and Yulii Brashchaiko, founded the Ruthenian Agrarian party and the Prosvita society, co-operatives, publishing houses, periodicals, and the Plast Ukrainian Youth Association. The Russophiles set up their own parties, the Dukhnovych Society, and other rival counterparts. Seeing that the ‘Ruthenians’ were divided and mistrusting the Russophiles and Magyarophiles in the 1920s and the Ukrainophiles in the 1930s, the central government did not move on the demands to create a provincial diet or institute autonomy in the region. Governor Antin Beskyd, a Russophile, purged the administration of Ukrainians, and he and Vice-governor Antonín. Rozsypal did much to discredit Ukrainians in the eyes of the central government. In 1928 Subcarpathian Ruthenia became the fourth province of the Czechoslovak republic with its capital in . In the 1930s many Ukrainians became Sovietophile Communists or radical nationalists in reaction to Prague's refusal to grant autonomy to the region and its support of the Russophiles, the policies of the chauvinistic Czech bureaucracy, and the effects of the depression (chronic unemployment, rural poverty, hunger). Under the influence of the Ukrainian movement, demands for autonomy grew, but the Czech government, preoccupied with the Sudeten German crisis, deferred its implementation. After the on 11 October 1938 Prague was forced to allow the creation of an autonomous Subcarpathian Ruthenian government headed by Andrii Brodii and, from 26 October, Avhustyn Voloshyn. The Ukrainian movement strove to form a Carpatho-Ukrainian state incorporating the Prešov region and federated with the Czechs and the Slovaks, while most of the Russophiles supported union with Hungary. On 2 November southern Transcarpathia (including Uzhhorod, , and ) was ceded to Hungary. Despite this loss, the Ukrainians took to building an autonomous Carpatho- Ukraine with the aid of Galician and Bukovynian émigrés and material support from the overseas emigration. The school system was Ukrainianized, and a paramilitary force – the Carpathian Sich – was created with assistance of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. Elections to the Diet of Carpatho-Ukraine were held on 12 February 1939 in which the Ukrainian National Alliance (Transcarpathia) of political parties received 86.1 percent of the vote. The new government had to contend with Polish and Hungarian border incursions and friction with Prague, culminating in a battle between the Carpathian Sich and Czech troops under Gen L. Prchala on 14 March. In Khuston 15 March the Diet of Carpatho-Ukraine proclaimed Carpatho-Ukrainian independence, ratified a constitution, elected Avhustyn Voloshyn president of

71 the state, and confirmed a new government under Premier Yuliian Revai. At that very moment Hungarian forces invaded Carpatho-Ukraine and the president and part of the government fled to Romania.

The Ukrainian political emigres in Europe After the demise of the Ukrainian National Republic, most of its government and army and many political and cultural figures sought refuge in Central and Western Europe. Prague, Warsaw, Vienna, , and Paris became the major émigré centers, and small communities were established in Geneva, London, Leuven, Rome, Zagreb, Bucharest, Sofia, and Helsinki. Several political parties remained active in the emigration: the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries, the Ukrainian Party of Socialists- Federalists (renamed the Ukrainian Radical Democratic party), and the Ukrainian Union of Agrarians-Statists. By the late 1920s the socialists, liberals, and conservatives had been largely eclipsed in the emigration, as in Galicia, by the radical nationalists of the Ukrainian Military Organizationand Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. The Government-in-exile of the Ukrainian National Republic was active throughout the interwar years. The heads of its Directory were Symon Petliura (1920–1926), Andrii Livytsky (1926–1939), and Viacheslav Prokopovych (1939–1940). Until the early 1920s the Government-in- exile relied on the diplomatic missions of the Ukrainian National Republic created in 1918–1919 to lobby the Western governments. emerged as a particularly dynamic center of émigré Ukrainian political, academic, and artistic life during this period.

18 Ukraine during the Second World War The secret Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 23 August 1939 divided Eastern Europe between and the USSR. On 1 September Germany invaded Poland, thereby beginning the Second World War, and soon it occupied Podlachia, the Kholm region and Lemko region, and Galicia west of the Sokal–Lviv– line. The Western Ukrainians offered a measured welcome to the Germans believing they would prove to be their liberators from Polish oppression. A 600-man unit consisting of members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Carpathian Sich served as the intermediary between the population and the advancing German army until the end of September 1939. In its occupied territories the Germans created the so-called Generalgouvernement (GG) of Poland. When the Soviet Army began occupying Western Ukraine east of the Sian River and Buh River, some 20,000 refugees fled to the GG; in 1940 they were joined by refugees from Bukovyna. There, between November 1939 and April 1940, leaders of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists organized a civic umbrella organization, and in June 1940 this Ukrainian Central Committee (UTsK), headed by Volodymyr Kubijovyþ, was sanctioned by the German authorities. Although most of the leaders of the Western Ukrainian parties had fled to the Generalgouvernement, conditions there prevented them from engaging openly in political activity. Only the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), headed by Roman Sushko, was tolerated initially by the Germans because of its prewar anti-Polish activity. In February 1940 the OUN split into two factions – one supporting the strategy and tactics of the emigre leadership, headed since August 1939 by Andrii Melnyk, and the other supporting the positions of those who had directed the revolutionary struggle against the Poles in Western Ukraine, headed by . In June 1941, on the eve of the German-Soviet War, both factions tried to consolidate the existing Ukrainian political forces in order to lead them in a war against the USSR and thereby establish an independent Ukraine. Between 17 and 23 September 1939 the Soviets occupied Western Volhynia and Galicia. Soviet-style elections to a People's Assembly of Western Ukraine were held on 22 October. After the assembly ‘requested the reunification of Western Ukraine with the Ukrainian SSR,’ a policy of wholesale Sovietization was introduced, accompanied by the mass arrests of Ukrainian leaders who had not managed to flee and the suppression of all Ukrainian national institutions and organizations.

72 With the Soviet occupation, Polish domination of state and administrative institutions ceased, and Ukrainians flooded into the towns and began Ukrainianizing them. These changes, however, did not compensate for the general anti-Ukrainian Soviet oppression and terror that ensued. The Soviet authorities also deported many Polish colonists and Jews to the east. The USSR occupied Romanian-held northern Bukovyna and Bessarabia on 28 June 1940, and on 2 August they were officially incorporated into the Soviet Union. The changes that ensued there were analogous to those in Western Ukraine, and the Ukrainian language replaced Romanian as the official language. The German invasion of the USSR on 22 June 1941 revealed Soviet weaknesses and the lack of popular support for the Soviet regime, especially in Ukraine. Many Soviet soldiers deserted, many more surrendered en masse, and the Germans rapidly advanced eastwards, occupying practically all of Ukraine by the end of 1941. Caught unprepared, the Soviets retreated in a disorganized beyond the Urals. The NKVD executed about 15,000 political prisoners in Lviv, Zolochiv, Rivne, , and elsewhere. Taking advantage of the German halt on the Dnipro River, Soviet authorities destroyed industrial and government buildings, food reserves, and railroads. Berdychiv, central Kyiv (including Khreshchatyk boulevard), most of Kharkiv, and the Dnipro Hydroelectric Station were blown up, mines in the Donbas were flooded, and Ukraine generally suffered considerably as a result of this scorched earth strategy. At the outset of the war, the government of the Ukrainian SSR and many institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR were evacuated to Ufa. For the next few years, in an attempt to gain popular support, some concessions were made to Ukrainian patriotism, including the publication of more objective accounts of Ukrainian history and more Ukrainian-language works in general. Galicia became a district of the Generalgouvernement on 1 ; most of Ukraine became part of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine on 20 August. Romania reoccupied northern Bukovyna, part of Bessarabia, and Transnistria on 19 August; and Transcarpathia remained under Hungarian rule. Before the invasion, the OUN (Bandera faction) had organized the Legion of Ukrainian Nationalists (Nachtigall and Roland) to fight against the Bolsheviks, and during the invasion both factions of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists sent OUN expeditionary groups composed of Western Ukrainians and émigrés into central and eastern Ukraine to rebuild Ukrainian political and cultural life there. On 30 June 1941, the OUN (Bandera faction) issued the Proclamation of Ukrainian statehood, 1941, in Lviv and formed the Ukrainian State Administration headed by . In early July, however, the Germansarrested the administration's members and proceeded to suppress the Bandera faction and to send its members to concentration camps. Some German jurisdictions, however, notably Rosenberg’s Ostministerium and the Abwehr, did not take such a hard line against the Banderites and protected some of its activists. Another Ukrainian national council – the Ukrainian National Council in Lviv, 1941 – had been created in July 1941 under the aegis of Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky and headed by Kost Levytsky; it represented the Ukrainians before the German authorities and strongly protested the incorporation of Galicia into the Generalgouvernement until it was banned in March 1942. In September 1941 the Germans allowed the Ukrainian Regional Committee, headed by Kost K. Pankivsky, to function as an umbrella body; in March 1942 its functions were taken over by the Ukrainian Central Committee in Cracow, and Pankivsky became Volodymyr Kubijovyþ's closest associate. On 19 September the Germans occupied Kyiv. In October Oleh Olzhych and other members of the OUN (Melnyk faction) formed a Ukrainian National Council (Kyiv) under Mykola Velychkivsky there as the Ukrainian political-civic center. In December the Germans suppressed the council, arrested the leading nationalists (including Olena Teliha, Mykhailo Teliha, Ivan Rohach, Ivan Irliavsky, and Orest Chemerynsky), whom they executed in February 1942, and forced the Melnyk faction to go underground.

73 The larger part of Ukraine – the Reichskommissariat Ukraine – was under the tyrannous rule of Erich Koch. Based in Rivne, he pursued a policy of terror and extreme exploitation of the population, which was deemed subhuman. The Germans retained the Soviet collective farm system there until 1943, forbade private trade (except for local markets and co-operatives), and generally took as much food and raw materials from Ukraine as they could. Most cultural institutions and organizations were soon suppressed, and only four-year elementary schools were allowed to function. The press (about 115 periodicals) was German-run or strictly controlled. Although some German circles had been crucial in launching the revived Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church, the administration of the Reichskommissariat did not support it and protected the existence of the Ukrainian Autonomous Orthodox church, which was nominally subordinated to the Moscow patriarch. During the German occupation, 6.8 million people were killed in Ukraine, of whom about 1.4 million were Jews and 1.4 million were Soviet military personnel killed at the front or starved to death in camps. From February 1942, more than 2 million Ukrainians were deported as slave laborers to Germany. Nazi destruction and terror in Ukraine provoked general hostility and gave rise to political and military resistance. Nationalist partisans in Volhynia had organized the so-called Polisian Sich, renamed the (UPA), under the command of Taras Borovets (Bulba) to fight the retreating Soviet Army after the invasion. From the spring of 1942 they were fighting both the Germans and Soviet partisans in Ukraine, 1941–1945. After the Germans' defeat at Stalingrad in , armed resistance in Ukraine increased significantly. The OUN (Bandera faction) became an important partisan force when thousands of Ukrainian auxiliary policemen deserted the Germans to join its resistance movement in the spring of 1943. The Banderites was able to disarm the partisans supporting Taras Borovets and the OUN (Melnyk faction), and took the name of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) for its own partisan units, which were under the command of Roman Shukhevych. Having forced the Germans to abandon the Volhynian countryside, in May 1943 the UPA expanded into Galicia to defeat the Soviet-partisan offensive under Sydir Kovpak and to continue fighting the Germans as well as the guerrillas of the Polish Home Army. In July 1944 the UPA commanders initiated the creation of the Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council as the political leadership of the pan-Ukrainian national underground, which continued its struggle against Communist rule and oppression until the 1950s and propagated a democratic program adopted by the OUN (Bandera faction) in 1943. By mid-1943, the Soviet offensive forced the Germans to begin their retreat from Ukraine. In Left-Bank Ukraine the Germans engaged in wholesale destruction, ruining Dnipropetrovsk, Poltava, , Kyiv, and other cities. By spring 1944 the front was in Western Ukraine, and in July the Division Galizien, a Ukrainian formation in the German armed forces created in 1943 and conceived by the Ukrainian organizers as the nucleus of the future army in an independent Ukraine, was largely destroyed at the Battle of . By the end of October 1944, all Ukrainian territory was again in Soviet hands. In autumn 1944, when almost all of Ukraine had been reoccupied by the USSR, the Germans began changing their attitude to the Ukrainian question and released political leaders, including Stepan Bandera, Andrii Melnyk, Yaroslav Stetsko, and Taras Borovets, from concentration camps. In March 1945 they recognized the Ukrainian National Committee (UNK) under the leadership of Gen Pavlo Shandruk, Volodymyr Kubijovyþ, and Oleksander Semenenko as the representative body of the Ukrainians in the Third Reich. The UNK, however, was unable to do much apart from saving the remnants of the Division Galizien and uniting them with other Ukrainian formations in the German military (eg, the Ukrainian Liberation Army) to create a Ukrainian National Army, which surrendered to the British after Germany capitulated.

74 19 Postwar Ukraine The Stalin period. Throughout the war, the Soviet propaganda machine used German excesses and atrocities to its advantage while propagating the idea of the ‘Great Patriotic War against fascist aggression.’ It also attracted sympathy for the Soviet cause among the Ukrainians by focusing on developments on the ‘Ukrainian fronts’ and fostered antipathy for the Ukrainian Insurgent Army and Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists by portraying them as Nazi collaborators. The Soviet constitution was modified in February 1944, granting Ukraine the right to have direct relations with other countries and its own republican military formations; and again in April 1945 after the Western powers acceded to Moscow's demand that Soviet Ukraine be recognized as an independent state and a founding member of the United Nations at the San Francisco Conference. Meanwhile Soviet terror mounted against the nationalist enemies of the USSR in Ukraine and in Soviet-occupied Europe, as well as against other ‘traitors’ – Soviet soldiers who had surrendered to the Germans and Soviet citizens who were Ostarbeiter. After the war, major territorial and population changes occurred in Ukraine. On 29 June 1945, Czechoslovakia ceded Carpatho-Ukraine to the USSR. On 16 August the Polish-Soviet border was established, leaving some Ukrainian ethnic territories in Poland. The Romanian-Soviet border was confirmed in the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 as the one created in June 1940. As a result of the war, the population of Ukraine had declined by some 10.5 million (25 percent): 6.8 million had been killed or died of hunger or disease, and the remainder consisted of those who had been evacuated or deported as political prisoners to Soviet Asia and remained there and those who had been slave laborers (Ostarbeiter) and emigres in the Third Reich and chose to remain in the West as displaced persons. The national composition of Ukraine's population changed radically during the war. Most Jewshad been annihilated during the Nazi Holocaust, and most Germans who had lived in Ukraine retreated with the German army. After the war, in 1945–1947 over 800,000 Poles living in Western Ukraine were resettled in Poland, and over 500,000 Ukrainians living in Poland's eastern borderlands were resettled in Ukraine. There also occurred a large in-migration of Russians into Ukrainian cities and towns, including those of Western Ukraine, and a new period of Russification began. In the immediate postwar years thousands of Ukrainians, mainly in Western Ukraine, were tried for their political or religious activity and sent to concentration camps. About 1.3 million slave laborers in Germany were subjected to forcible repatriation to Ukraine; because they had had contact with the non-Soviet world, 300,000 of them were deported to Siberia, while the rest underwent political re-education. The most pressing task faced by the Soviet regime was the reconstruction of the economy, which had been devastated during the war: 16,000 industrial enterprises, 2,000 railway stations, 28,000 collective farms, 872 state farms, 714 cities and towns, 28,000 villages, and 2 million buildings had been destroyed; 10 million people had been left homeless. More than 12 million t of agricultural products, over 14 million head of cattle and sheep, and a large amount of agricultural machinery had been taken to Germany. The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1946–1950) allotted 20 percent of Soviet capital investment for the reconstruction of Ukraine; over 2,000 plants and the electric power system were rebuilt and expanded, and the natural gas industry was developed in Western Ukraine. Agriculture was revived more slowly, because of the opposition to collectivization in Western Ukraine, the lack of farm machinery, population dislocation, and a drought in 1946. The refusal of Soviet authorities to lower agricultural procurement quotas in Ukraine at this time spurred the onset of the Famine of 1946– 1947. The Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR (CM) replaced the Council of People's Commissars as the government in March 1946, and the CP(B)U first secretary from 1938, Nikita Khrushchev, also became its first chairman. Moscow replaced him as first secretary in March 1947 with Lazar Kaganovich, who proceeded to purge ‘nationalists’ from the ranks of the Ukrainian cultural intelligentsia. In December 1947, however, Khrushchev was again appointed first secretary

75 only to be replaced in December 1949 by , who in 1949–1952 had 22,175 members (3 percent) of the CP(B)U expelled for ‘nationalism.’ From 1947 to 1954 the CM chairman was Demian Korotchenko. During the years that Andrei Zhdanov and his ideas dominated Soviet cultural policy (1946– 1953), the few Ukrainian cultural and scholarly achievements of the Second World War were condemned as ‘bourgeois nationalist’ and suppressed. Members of various scholarly institutes and journal editorial boards were removed; works by prominent writers (eg, Yurii Yanovskyi, , Andrii Malyshko, Oleksander Dovzhenko) who were praised for their national patriotism during the war were criticized; and books on Ukrainian history and literature published during the war were condemned and removed from circulation. Cultural and linguistic Russification was stepped up, particularly in newly annexed Western Ukraine. The greatest repression during the last years of the Stalin period took place in Western Ukraine and was directed against members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, Ukrainian Insurgent Army and Division Galizien, and Ukrainian Catholic church. At the Lviv Sobor of 1946, the Church Union of Berestia of 1596 was formally abolished against a background of terror directed at the Ukrainian Catholic hierarchy and clergy.

20 The postwar emigres After the war over 200,000 Ukrainian displaced persons in the Allied zones of Germany and Austria who had not been forcibly repatriated chose not to return to the USSR, most of them for political reasons. From 1947 to 1952 the vast majority immigrated to the United States, Canada, Australia, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Brazil, and Argentina. These new immigrants reactivated prewar émigré and prewar Western Ukrainian organizations, institutions, and parties and formed new political parties. Except for the Hetmanite movement, the parties co-operated from June 1948 in the new Ukrainian National Council of the Government-in-exile of the Ukrainian National Republic. The Foreign Representation of the Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council, founded in 1944, also promoted the Ukrainian national cause in the West. In 1967 a new body, the World Congress of Free Ukrainians, was established to co-ordinate the civic and cultural activities of the Ukrainian emigration.

De-Stalinization in Ukraine, 1953–1959 After Joseph Stalin died on 5 March 1953, a slow liberalization and decentralization process began in the USSR. The campaign against and Zionism subsided and in June 1953 Leonid Melnikov was accused of excessive Russification and replaced as CPU first secretary by Oleksii Kyrychenko, the first Ukrainian to occupy the post since 1922. On the occasion of the tricentenary of the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 and the subsequent ‘reunification’ of the Ukrainian and Russian peoples in 1954 Nikita Khrushchev arranged the transfer of the Crimea from the RSFSR to Ukraine. Ukrainian representation in leading Party and government positions was increased; thus by 1 June 1954, 72 percent of the CPU Central Committee, 75 percent of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR, and 51 percent of the directors of large industrial enterprises were Ukrainian. After the war, thousands of Western Ukrainian community leaders, members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and Ukrainian Insurgent Army, and Ukrainian Catholic clergy and faithful were sent to Soviet concentration camps, where they were subjected to arbitrarily harsh and inhumane treatment. They responded by organizing labor strikes, which were brutally and ruthlessly suppressed. Hundreds of Ukrainians were thus killed in the camps of Vorkuta and Norilsk in the Soviet Arctic in 1953 and Kingir, Kazakhstan, in 1954. The mass unrest, coupled with widespread expectations of change after Stalin's death, prompted the Soviet government to declare a political amnesty on 18 September 1955, and in 1956 many Ukrainians were released. From 1955, descriptions of and protests against the excesses of the Soviet regime, concerning especially the oppression of the Ukrainian nation, were circulated by way of unofficial,

76 uncensored documents and writings (samvydav). The first such document was the ‘Open Letter to the Ukrainian National Republic’ from Ukrainian political prisoners in the camps of Mordovia. The Ukrainian intelligentsia and students began demanding cultural and intellectual freedom and social change. At the same time the crimes of the Stalin ‘personality cult’ were officially condemned by Nikita Khrushchev at the 20th CPSU Congress in 1956, and the Party officially adopted a policy of de-Stalinization. During the cultural ‘thaw’ that followed and until 1959, the Ukrainian intelligentsia fought for and achieved a relaxation of censorship and educational, cultural, and language policy, and the ‘rehabilitation’ of many Ukrainian cultural figures and intellectuals banned or destroyed during the Terror. The regime made other concessions to the Ukrainians. It lowered taxes, allowed peasants more freedom in using their private plots of land, and improved food supplies in the cities. A republican Ministry of Higher Education, Academy of Construction and Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR, Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, and Union of Journalists of the Ukrainian SSR were established. Economic decentralization was carried out, and the Ukrainian government assumed control of 10,000 industrial enterprises. Official attitudes towards religion hardened, however, and by 1961 a renewed antireligious propaganda campaign had resulted in the liquidation of about half of all existing religious institutions: parishes, monasteries, seminaries. Hopes that the liberalization would continue were dashed in 1958, when Nikita Khrushchev made the teaching of non-Russian languages optional in Russian schools in Ukraine and propaganda in favor of the Russian language was stepped up. In 1957 Mykola Pidhirny had replaced Oleksii Kyrychenko as first secretary. In 1959 Andrii Skaba was given the task of tightening Party control over ideological work in Ukraine, and a new campaign against ‘bourgeois nationalism’ and ‘Zionism’ began.

Ukraine in the 1960s Despite the regime's efforts to the contrary, the ‘thaw’ radicalized an entire postwar generation and inspired it to continue demanding changes in cultural and nationality policy and criticizing Russification and the ‘fusion of nations’ concept in the 1961 CPSU program. The foremost representatives of this new generation – the writers, publicists, and artists known as ‘the ’ – called for a return to truth, which brought them into conflict with the older generation of writers and officials who had risen under Joseph Stalin. In 1962 the Party decided that dissent had to be stopped, and in 1963 the shistdesiatnykyand their ideas were publicly denounced. The intimidation and persecution silenced some of them, but others became more politicized and actively participated in the opposition campaign that erupted and continued throughout the 1960s. It was expressed in the form of petitions, protests, demonstrations, samvydav literature, workers' strikes, and even illegal political groups with secessionist programs. In 1965 the first wave of arrests of Ukrainian dissidents (Bohdan , , Ivan Hel, Opanas Zalyvakha, Sviatoslav Karavanskyi, Valentyn Moroz, Mykhailo Osadchy, Anatolii Shevchuk, and others) took place, and the first major analytical dissident document – 's Internationalism or Russification? – was written. distributed a commentary on the political trials of 20 dissidents, for which he himself was imprisoned in 1967– 1969. From 1963 to 1972 was the CPU first secretary. He defended the economic interests of Ukraine, and sided with the critics of Russification and the defenders of Ukrainian language and culture who spoke out at the Fifth Congress of the Writers' Union of Ukraine in 1966. Under Shelest a new variant of ‘Ukrainization’ was promoted: teaching in Ukrainian in institutions of higher education was expanded; more books in Ukrainian (including encyclopedias of Ukraine) were published; the study of Ukrainian history was encouraged and new historical journals appeared; and the press published many articles of a patriotic nature.

77 Ukraine in the 1970s and 1980s In 1964 replaced Nikita Khrushchev and reasserted Moscow's centralist and Russification policies. Under him the KGB resolutely persecuted the dissident movementthroughout the USSR. In Ukraine this persecution culminated in a second wave of arrests in 1972. That same year Petro Shelest was replaced by the more subservient . From that time Shcherbytsky remained firmly in control in Ukraine until 1989 and followed Moscow's directives, purging the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, and Institute of Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1973, suppressing the and any other manifestations of political or religious dissent, and implementing Russification policies in education and scholarship. Leadership changes in Moscow after Brezhnev's death in 1982 did not fundamentally alter this course until the period begun in mid-1980s. Under Leonid Brezhnev's aging successors Yurii Andropov (1982–1984) and Konstantin Chernenko (1984–1985) it became increasingly clear that the repressive, corrupt regime established by Brezhnev (whose tenure has been characterized as ‘the period of stagnation’) was leading the USSR into . After assuming power in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev tried to revive the ailing economy by a program of restructuring (Perestroika) at home and a reduction of armaments and tensions abroad. But economic reforms threatened the existing power structure and could succeed only if extensive political reforms were introduced. Furthermore, the Chornobyl nuclear accident (26 April 1986) and its mishandling by the authorities undermined public confidence not only in Soviet technology but also in the Party, the central government in Moscow, and the old guard led by Volodymyr Shcherbytsky in Kyiv. The disaster convinced even many members of the privileged Soviet elite that the existing political system and its corrupt leadership endangered the very survival of the people. Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of (openness) led to increasingly bolder criticism of the Communist Party, the government, and Soviet society and demands for faster and more radical reform. Nonofficial and uncensored publications began to circulate widely, and unofficial organizations sprang up to address cultural needs. National movements calling for greater local autonomy and less control from Moscow emerged in the Baltic and Caucasian republics and set an example for Ukraine. Recently released political prisoners reactivated the Ukrainian Helsinki Group at the end of 1987 and had reorganized it by mid-1988 into a broad political organization, the Ukrainian Helsinki Union, which spearheaded the national movement in Ukraine. The first unsanctioned public rallies were held in Kyiv and Lviv in the summer of 1988. Elections to the new USSR Congress of People's Deputies were held in March 1989. Although only a third of the deputies were elected by direct popular vote, some outspoken critics of the government won seats in the congress and turned it into a forum of debate over important issues. By September Volodymyr Ivashko replaced Volodymyr Shcherbytsky as first secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine (albeit for only a brief period). The Popular Movement of Ukraine (aka Rukh) was founded to unify the various streams of the national movement. In response to strong public protest the electoral law for the coming elections to the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR in March 1990 was changed to make the election of all deputies subject to direct voting. Although the democratic movement lacked financial means and was poorly organized, it captured over a fifth of the seats in the Supreme Soviet and overwhelming majorities on the oblast and city councils in the three western oblasts of Ukraine (, , and Ivano-Frankivsk oblast). Upon forming the National Council the 125 democratic deputies used the live radio and TV coverage of the parliamentary proceedings to raise the political consciousness of the Ukrainian people. A number of political parties appeared. On 16 July 1990 the parliament passed the Declaration on Ukraine's State Sovereignty, which asserted the precedence of Ukrainian laws over

78 Union laws and signaled Ukraine's intention to form its own army, create a banking system, and issue its own currency. A student hunger strike in October forced the resignation of Prime Minister Vitalii Masol. In November the chairmen of the Ukrainian and Russian parliaments, Leonid Kravchuk and Boris Yeltsin, signed a 10-year co-operation agreement between the two sovereign republics. To preserve the USSR, reactionary forces unleashed violence in the Baltic republics, which had declared their independence, and the Communist majority in the Ukrainian parliament passed undemocratic restrictions on political expression. In Ukraine there were protests in support of independent Lithuania and against Ukraine's signing of a new Union treaty. To build pressure for maintaining the Union, the central authorities held an all-Union referendum.

21 Independence In Ukraine 70 percent of the voters approved a new union of sovereign states, but at the same time 80 percent supported sovereignty as defined in the act of 16 July 1990. Negotiations between the central government and the sovereign republics continued until they were disrupted by the attempted coup of 19–21 August in Moscow. In the wake of that event the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR proclaimed Ukraine's independence on 24 August 1991, subject to a popular referendum to be held in December. Two days later the Supreme Soviet suspended the activities of the CPU, and shortly afterwards it banned the Communist party altogether. On December 1, 1991, a referendum took place in Ukraine, involving 84.8 percent of citizens, of which number 90.35 percent seconded the Independence Act of August 24. Winning 61.6 percent of the votes, L. Kravchuk was elected President of Ukraine. The nation supported L. Kravchuk's program aimed at the construction of a New Ukraine with a strong state system, genuine democracy, material well-being, elevated spiritual awareness. Ukraine was recognized immediately by Poland, Canada, Hungary, Russia, and the Baltic states. The referendum sealed the fate of the Soviet Union: without Ukraine a meaningful federation was not possible. On 8 December Ukraine, Belarus (formerly Belorussia), and Russia formed a Commonwealth of Independent States and declared the end of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In 1994 L. Kuchma won the Presidential elections and became the President of Ukraine. Over the years, during the presidency of , a corrupt and autocratic regime was gradually established. The mass media were bridled, initiative and free enterprise were stifled. Parliament was hardly less corrupt than the government. Those in power considered their personal interests and gain to be much above the interests of the state. Things came to a head during the long-awaited presidential election in the fall of 2004. A peaceful revolution ushered in a new era in the history of Ukraine. The was not only noticed as a major political event of 2004 in the world – it was hailed as a striving for democracy, freedom of speech and human rights in a nation that was shedding its soviet totalitarian past to join the community of democartic nations. The new President Victor Yuschenko pledged to pursue a political course aimed at integrating Ukraine in Europe and carrying out economic reforms. So, a new state, Ukraine, appeared on the world political map in 1991. It is a democratic state, ruled by the law. It includes 24 administrative regions and the Autonomous Republic of the Crimea. State power in Ukraine is based on the division of authority into legislative, executive and judicial. The President is the highest official of the Ukrainian state, vested with executive authority together with the Government, the Cabinet of Ministers, and through a system of central and local organs of state executive authority. The Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine is the sole legislative authority. Judicial power in Ukraine is vested in the courts of law. The courts are independent and in all their activities abide only by the rules of law. The National Emblem of Ukraine is a Golden (trident) on a blue shield. The of Ukraine is a rectangular cloth with two horizontal stripes of equal

79 width, the upper coloured blue and the lower golden . The National Anthem has been performed since January 1992 (music by Mykhailo Verbytskyi). The National Holiday, Independence Day, is celebrated on August 24. Ukraine is making strenuous efforts to create an effective economic system, along with advancing the institutions of democracy, and raising the country's prestige in the international arena. By voluntarily rejecting its recent status as the world's third nuclear power, Ukraine took the first historic step toward a nuclear-free, peaceful future, bringing mankind closer to the long-cherished goal, total nuclear disarmament.

Questions for self-learning The main task of a student during this course is independent work on following question with usage of experience, achieved on classes with the instructor. Student’s activities for questions for self-learning should include work with literature and sources and would be verified on credit. The main goal of the independent work is deepening of the student’s knowledge in the field of our discipline and investigation of the current case studies in history. It is organize on chronologically- problematic principle and gathered in groups of questions. 1. Political processes in Ukraine during the Ukrainian revolution and Civil war in Russian empire (1917–1921) - February revolution in Russia and its impact on Ukraine. Formation of the Ukrainian Central Rada, its social roots, party structure, program and activities. - The Ukrainian State of the Hetman P. Skoropadskiy, its home and foreign policy. - The Directory period. Its structure, social basis, and policies. The national statehood movement in the Western Ukraine. The proclamation of the WUPR and its historical significance. The defeat and the main lessons of the Ukrainian national-democratic revolution of 1917–1921. - Describe Mykhalo Hrushevskiy as an outstanding Ukrainian scholar and public figure. - Follow the revolutionary developments of 1918 on West-Ukrainian lands and establishment of the West-Ukrainian National Republic. Identify the content of the Act of unification of UNR and WUNR and its historical importance. - Provide information on the collapse of the Ukrainian National Republic. Characterize the reasons of the establishment of Soviet Ukraine. 2. The fate of Ukrainians during the interwar period (USSR, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia). - The fate of Ukrainians after the end of WWI under pressure of different governing authorities. - The formation of the USSR and the political and legal status of the Ukrainian SSR in the Soviet Union. - Early Soviet power in Ukraine (1920s). - Soviet transition to totalitarian state. - Military-industrial modernization and collectivization of agriculture. The Famine 1932– 1933. The establishment of the Stalinist totalitarian regime. - Discover the causes and consequences of the Famine 1921–1923 and insurgent movement of the Ukrainian peasantry. - Give the facts of mass repressions in the Soviet Ukraine in the interwar period. - Track the development of culture, education and science in the Soviet Ukraine in the interwar period. - Characterize the anti-Church policy of the Soviet power. - Provide information on the proclamation of the Carpatho-Ukraine's independence and discover the reasons of its tragic end. 3. Social and political orientations in Ukraine during the WWII. - Social situation in Western Ukraine during the first period of WWII (1939–1941). - Activities of Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists and its development. - Ukrainian Insurgent Army in fight versus Nazis and Soviet Union.

80 - Provide information on the main directions of Ukrainian nationalistic movement and its development during and after the WWII. - Analyze the features of fighting of Ukrainian Insurgent army versus Nazi and Soviet regimes. - Highlight the key events of Polish-Ukrainian national conflict during the 1940s. - The Nazi’s "New order" in Ukraine. - Communistic underground in Ukraine during WWII. - The development and activities of pro-communistic partisan movement in Ukraine. - Provide information on the Nazi occupation regime in Ukraine. Characterize the Resistance Movement in the occupied territories. - Using the facts, follow the process of Kyiv, Odesa, Sevastopol`s defense. - Highlight the key events of Ukraine`s liberation. Identify the causes and consequences of the union of the Ukrainian ethnographic territories into one political organism. 4. Development of Soviet totalitarian state during and after WWII. - "Sovietization" of Western Ukraine and its forced transition to totalitarian society (1939– 1941). - "Second sovietization" in Western Ukraine (1944–1950s). - The main features of Stalin’s totalitarism after the end of WWII. - Expand the content of the Soviet-German agreements of 1939 and the further fate of Western Ukrainian areas in the context of these documents. - Assess the process of administrative and political integration of Western Ukraine into Soviet Ukraine. Provide information on Stalin's policy in Western Ukraine. 5. Transition of the Soviet Union to post-totalitarian state and its crisis (1956–1991). - Destalinization and "Thaw" in the Soviet Union (1956–1964). - The main features of neostalinist Era of Stagnation (1964–1985). - Attempt to reform Soviet Union by Gorbachev and its influence on society (1985–1991). - Define the peculiarities of de-Stalinization and liberalization in Ukraine in social and administrative sphere during the Khrushchev "thaw". - Characterize the rise of the human rights protection and dissident movements in Ukraine. - Discover the content of the economic reform of 1950–1960’s in Ukraine: the achievements and difficulties. - Follow the growth of negative processes in economic, social and spiritual life in Ukraine in the 1970's – at the beginning 1980's. Discover the causes and essence of crisis in the Soviet society. - Give the examples of awakening of social and cultural life in Ukraine during the Gorbachev's perestroika (1985–1990) 6. Decommunization and creation of pluralistic political system in Ukraine. Transformation of political structure during 1991–2014. - Declaration of the Ukraine`s Independence in 1991. Historic features, main trends and processes of the construction of the Ukrainian independent state. - The main stages in formation of governing bodies and democratization of Ukraine. - Creation of the first political parties and formation of the main electoral sympathies of Ukrainian societies. - Analysis of the electoral process in Independent Ukraine. - Expand the content and determine the historical significance of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine passed by Verkhovna Rada, July, 16, 1990 as the first step to independence. - Characterize the activity of the Ukraine`s political parties and organizations during the national revival period. - The main features of the Constitutional process and the creation of a new system of the state administration and local government. - Economic reforms in Ukraine: transition to the market relations, entrepreneurship and privatization lines: their controversial character.

81 - The beginnings of the formation of the civil society. "The Orange Revolution" 2004–2005. The Maidan Protest Movement`s development in Ukraine. 7. Main stages in development of civil society in independent Ukraine. - The "Revolution on granite" 1990 and proclamation of Ukrainian independence 1991. - Social movements of 1990s: miner’s protests, religious conflict, "" action. - - The "Orange revolution", Global economic crisis of 2008 and further political processes in Ukraine during 2010–2013; - The "Revolution of dignity" and Russo-Ukrainian war 2013–2018. - Expand the problem of the repatriation and integration of the deported peoples into the Ukrainian society. - Give the facts that reveal the role of the in the development of independent Ukraine. - Analyze the choice of the modern Ukraine`s foreign policy vector by the Ukrainian youth. - Highlight causes, course and consequences of the Orange Revolution 2004–2005 in Ukraine and characterize the Yushchenko Presidency. - Analyze the causes and follow the course of events of The "Revolution of dignity" ("Euromaidan", "European revolution") in Ukraine in November 2013 – February 2014.

22 Interesting facts about Ukraine • In the 11th century Kyiv was the biggest city in Europe Bishop of Saxon Titmar of Merseburg, German clergyman of the 11th century, in his Chronicles characterized Kyiv as ''a big city with more than 400 churches, 8 marketplaces, and uncountable number of citizens''. It has been established that the then-population of today’s Ukraine capital was 50 thousand people while the population of London at that time was just 20 thousand. Adam of Bremen, medieval German chronicler called Kyiv ''the competitor of the scepter of Constantinople, the most charming gem of Greece''. • Before 1793 French kings swore allegiance on the Reims Gospel, brought from Kyiv This Slavonic-language Gospel was brought to France by Anna Yaroslavna (Anna de Russi) who was daughter of the Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise. In 1049, she married the French king Henri I and became Queen of France. She is known in history as grand-grandmother of 30 French kings. Her sculpture is the main adornment of the portal of St. Vincent Church in the town of Saint-Lys (France) that she founded in 1060. A mural of Anna can be also seen in St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. • Ukraine is among the world leaders in space exploration Ukraine stands among the five world leaders in space exploration along with the USA, Russia, France, and China. About 30 enterprises, construction bureaus and scientific institutes currently make up Ukraine's space industry. Ukrainian scholars are currently participating in 25 international scientific and commercial space projects. The Ukrainian rocket carrier Cyclone has been officially rated as the world's safest by international space experts. • Kozak hetmans Two Kozak hetmans are important in Ukrainian history. Both were great leaders and statesmen and fought to free Ukraine from foreign domination. Bohdan Khmelnytsky (1595–1657) headed the national uprising in 1648 that liberated a large part of Ukrainian territory from Poland. Khmelnytsky was recognized at home and abroad as the leader of a sovereign state. Under continual threat from Poland, in 1654 he entered a military pact with Muscovy for protection against the Polish. Ukrainians consider this a fatal turning point in their history. Moscow turned a military and political alliance into an act of Russian annexation of Ukraine, gradually subjugating Ukraine and instituting serfdom. Today Ukraine looks to Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709) as a more appropriate hero. Mazepa wanted to unite all Ukrainian territories into a unitary state modeled after existing European states with features of the traditional Kozak structure.

82 At first Mazepa was allied with Tsar Peter I against foreign powers, but when he realized Russia intended to abolish the Kozak order and end Ukrainian autonomy, he sided with Charles XII of Sweden against Peter. After a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, Kyiv lost much of its autonomy and Kozak rale came to an end. • Military journalism was born during the Crimean War The first military journalists and photo reporters appeared during the Crimean War. Reporters representing various London newspapers were sent to the peninsula to follow the British army. History remembers such names as William Howard, correspondent of The Times and other less well-known correspondents. Their works disturbed the European community, which previously had no idea of what was going on at the front line. This resulted in establishment of the International Red Cross, and in 1864 the drawing up of the Geneva Convention protecting the sick and wounded during armed conflicts. • Ukraine possesses more than 1/4 of the world's fertile black soil The word Chornozem, meaning ''black earth" has become internationally recognised and refers to Ukrainian soil, celebrated as the most fertile possible. Byzantine emperor Constantine VII, way back in the 10th century wrote, "The best soil is Chornozem. It is not afraid of rain or drought". Even the French writer Balzak, after visiting Ukraine, praised these lands in his writings. Ukraine's rich soil was probably one of the reasons why the first agricultural civilizations in Europe emerged and developed here in the 5–4th centuries B.C. • Where does the name "Ukraine" come from? Actually, there is no unambiguous answer to this question. Many scholars worldwide have long pondered the question. According to the version adhered to by the Russian empire and also within Ukraine when it was a republic within the Soviet Union, the name "Ukraine" originates from the word "okraina" meaning "borderland". This version was even put forward by Soviet officials during the lighter moments of top-level international negotiations. The very word "Ukraine", however, is much older than Russia itself. It was first used in the 12th century chronicles when the powerful Kyivan Rus state stretched over the territories of modern Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, Belorus and the Baltics. Impressive as that might sound, the name is said to appear even earlier. It's roots can be found in the modern Ukrainian language, which still retains the word "ukraity" meaning "to mark out". Scholars who adhere to this school of thought maintain that in ancient times "Ukraine" simply meant "the land singled out for us by God". • Ukraine’s original constitution was among the first in Europe The document "Pact and Constitution of the Rights and Freedoms of the Zaporizhyan Cossack Forces" prepared by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk in 1710 is considered the first Ukrainian constitution. Historians regard it as a progressive document far ahead of its time, since the first constitutions in European countries and in the USA only began to appear some 70 years later. The "Pylyp Orlyk" constitution had never came into force because it was written outside of the country while in exile and the authors could not get back into Ukraine at the time, but nevertheless it will always remain in history as an original legal document which for the first time in European history laid the groundwork for the possibility of democratic parliamentary rule. • How can a bridge connect to the same bank of the same river twice It sounds impossible but you will have to believe your eyes when you visit the spectacular Kamyanets-Podilsky castle in Khmenlitsky region. This old castle is located on a rocky island wrapped by the canyon of the Smotrich River, therefore both ends of the bridge that unites the fortification with the mainland connect to the right bank of the river. Moreover, this bridge is unique because it utilises no pillars except for existing rocks. The bridge is said to have been built by the Romans back in the second century during a vicious campaign against the Dacians. The Kamyanets-Podilsky fortifications have been recognized by UNESCO as "world heritage" site. • Tree of the six "Lavra" monasteries in the world today are located in Ukraine Lavra means a monastic society of the most influential men in the church. Ukraine's three Lavra monasteries are the Kyiv-Pechersk (Caves) Lavra which were accorded this status back in

83 1598; Pochaiv Lavra in Ternopil region, which was honoured in 1833; and Sviatohirska Lavra in Donetsk region, which is the latest holy place to join the ranks, gaining this elite status in 2004. • The inspiration for Italian neo-realism came from a movie filmed in a Ukrainian studio The film "Rainbow" was shot by Mark Donskoy in 1943 in a Kyiv film studio and later evacuated to central Asia during WWII. After watching the film US President Roosevelt sent a personal telegram of thanks to the film director, and the movie was praised by the US Cinema and Radio Association later in 1944. • The name of Alma Bridge in Paris is related to the events that took place in Ukraine 1853–1856 the Crimean peninsula in the south of Ukraine became the battlefield of the Crimean War. Here the interests of Russia clashed with a coalition of France, Britain and Turkey. In September 1854 a bloody battle at the Alma River ended with the victory of the British- led coalition army. After the battle, however, the commander of the British troops Duke of Cambridge noted, that ''another such battle and Britain will have no army''. The name of one of the bridges in Paris refers to this battle. • The country is flowing with a rich and colorful history – UNESCO UNESCO has entered over 200 of the most important monuments, architectural pearls and historical places in Ukraine onto the organisation's list of world cultural heritage spots. Ukraine is a historical and cultural treasure-trove that has been forged through the centuries both by the ancestors of the Ukrainian nation and by the dozens of minorities inhabiting these lands, and this is reflected in a diverse mosaic of landmarks, place names and locations. • Ukraine is currently designing and building transport aircraft Ukraine is one out of just nine countries worldwide currently designing and building transport aircraft as well as top-class civil aircraft. One plane, the Ukrainian An-225 Mriya (Dream) aircraft has been recognized by the International Aviation Federation as having scored 124 world records. Meanwhile, the nation's pride and joy is the An-124 Ruslan, which is world's most powerful aircraft. These iron birds constructed at the Antonov Aircraft Plant have revolutionised the market for heavy and superheavy weight carriers and are currently peerless. • The world’s longest wind instrument is the Ukrainian trembita The trembita is a conical tube without any side holes. Its length can reach up to 4 meters, and its diapason is two and a half octaves. They say that the sound of the trembita can be heard from over 10 kilometres. This has been tradition; used by the highlanders of the Ukrainian Carpathians to inform the whole of the mountain community about important events. If you occasionally visit one of the numerous festivals held Carpathians, you'll get a chance to see and hear a trembita in action for yourself. • Ukraine stands 4th among the most educated nations in the world According to the 2001 national census the number of people with higher education has grown by 34.9% in the last years. • Ukrainian science can trace its roots back to the 10th to 12th centuries The names of the scholars of the Kyivan Rus were well-known to medieval Europe. Among them, for instance, was philologist Meletiy Smotrytsky whose Slovenian Grammar laid down the foundations for the spelling of a great many Slavic languages. In the 18th century the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was a major centre of science and scholarship. • The 20th century was most fruitful for the development of Ukrainian research scholarships and brought with it world recognition: in geo-chemistry and natural history (V. Vernadsky), microbiology (I. Mechnikov, D. Zabolotny), biology (O. Bogomolets), chemistry (L. Pysarzhevsky), mechanics (S. Tymoshenko), electrical welding and bridge building (E. Paton), physics (M. Bogoliubov), cybernetics (S. Lebedev, V. Hlushkov), space engineering (M. Yangel) and many others. A range of inventions by Ukrainian scientists have laid the foundations for major developments in world science. Among these are such outstanding achievements as creating an artificial nuclear reaction to split a lithium nucleus; production of heavy water, new areas pioneered in metallurgy such as electric metallurgy; development of rockets and spacecraft that remain to this day unique.

84 • Sports in Ukraine, sporting nation Sports such as football and arm wrestling have been popular in Ukraine since the 19th century, when strongman Ukrainian wrestler Ivan Piddubny was a real legend throughout Europe. Legends of the 20th century include such names as pole vault champion Sergey Bubka (35 world records), and footballers like Oleg Blohin, twice European Footballer of the Year. Ukrainian gymnasts like Larisa Latynina and Iryna Deryugina both took a haul of Olympic medals in their time. Latynia won 9 gold, 5 silver and 4 bronze medals! Altogether Ukrainian sportsmen have won over 400 Olympic medals so far. Today Ukraine gives the international sports scene such names as boxers Vitaly and Vladimir Klichko, track and field athlete Zhanna Pintusevich, tennis player Andriy Medvedev, swimmer Yana Klochkova, gymnast Anna Bezsonova, and footballer Andriy Shevchenko, who is considered something of a national hero in Ukraine. • The first kidney transplant operation in the world was carried out in Ukraine It happened in Kharkiv in 1933. The surgery was performed by Dr. Y. Vorony. Documental evidence was published in the Italian publication ''Mɿnervɚ Chɿrurgɿca'' in 1934, representing international acknowledgement for this new page in medical history. •Four out of ten European transport corridors run through Ukrainian territory Throughout the centuries the territory of modern Ukraine has always been crossed by valuable trade routes and some of the most important transportation corridors of the Eurasian continent. Before even the emergence of the ancient Kyivan Rus civilisation the Dnieper River was the main artery linking the Vikings and the Greeks from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Ukraine was also a station post along the Silk Route connecting the towns of medieval Europe with central Asia, Mongolia and China. To date, 273,700km of highways, 22,510km of railway, 4,500km of waterways, 250,000 different flight paths and 42,900km of pipelines form Ukraine's transportation network. Ukraine is among the world's largest transporters of natural gas. • Ukraine was among the founders of the UNO Ukraine, with just 13 years of independent history to its name, actually participated in the foundation of the United Nations over half century ago. Ukrainian representatives participated in the drafting of the UN Statute adopted in 1945 thus qualifying as one of 51 countries to sign up as founders of the UN. • The first computer in continental Europe was built in Ukraine The first computer in continental Europe was built in Ukraine under the supervision of the scholar Sergey Lebedev and well-known scientist V. Hlushkov. It happened in 1950 in Kyiv. Sergey Lebedev created a smart machine, the first electronic computer in continental Europe. Following this 15 types of highly productive and complex computer were designed and built under his supervision. Lebedev's scientific school was the market leader in the former USSR and successfully competed with American giants IBM. •The first eastern Europe institute of higher education was in Kyiv, Kyiv-Mohyla Academy The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was founded in 1615 in Kyiv, and was the first in the region of its kind. In 1658 it was the first in eastern" Europe to earn the title "academy". Open to young men from all social strata, the Academy attracted students and scholars not only from Ukraine but from many European nations. Many of its graduates continued their studies in European universities. From among those who graduated from Kyiv-Mohyla Academy came forth renowned philosophers, economists, theologians, influential cultural personalities as well as important political leaders of Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Serbia, and other countries.

Complete the tasks 1. Explain the content of the expression "two branches of felled trees"on the fate of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks and their descendants in19th century. 2. Compare the life and ministry Black Sea and Host Danusian. Identify common and distinctive features.

85 3. Describe the Danube Cossack army. Indicating that it was used Russian government as a tool of imperial policy. 4. Expand the contents statements that Danube Cossack Host "arose as a result of convergence of interests Transdanubia Cossacks settlers on the one hand, and the Russian government on the other". 5. Identify similarities and particular situation of different regions of Ukrainian lands by the Russian empires. 6. Describe the system management in the Ukrainian lands within the Russian Empire. Identify primary goal of creating this system imperial government. 7. Make a plan for item "Religious struggle on the Right Bank and prepare a story behind it. 8. Identify the causes and consequences struggle for influence on the faithful, which unfolded on the Right Bank. 9. Discover the main features of policy Russian Empire on Ukraine in the first half of the nineteenth century. 10. Describe the most rural unrest, and military Cossack settlers in the first half of the nineteenth century. 11. Identify features that distinguish insurgency led Ustyma Karmelyuka among other social protests of the Ukrainian population of this age. 12. There is a saying: "Every epoch has his characters. Explain to him the example of figure Ustyma Karmelyuka. 13. Identify features social and political life Naddniprianshchyna first half of the nineteenth century. 14. Give facts that indicate the Western ideas of importance to form the foundations of belief Ukrainian national movement. 15. Make a plan for the story "Start Ukrainian national cultural renaissance in Slobozhanschyna and prepare the story behind it. 16. Compare activities Novgorod-Seversky patriotic society and "Little Russian secret society". Explain why last considered the first Ukrainian political organization. 17. Expand the features of Freemasonry in . 18. Describe policy Russian government after the Dnieper suppressing the Polish uprising 1830–1831 biennium. 19. Confirm that the activity of secret societies in schools was opposed to imperial politics. 20. Identify the features of Ukrainian national movement. 21. Describe the First stage of the Ukrainian national revival in bank Ukraine. 22. Describe the contribution of Shevchenko the development of Ukrainian national movement. 23. Identify the features of the church Life in Dnieper Ukraine and West Ukrainian lands in the first half nineteenth century. 24. Analyze the impact of reforms Maria Theresa and Joseph II in the development of Western lands. 25. Identify features economic development of western lands in the first half Nineteenth century. 26. Describe the most peasants rebellions that took place at Western. 27. Make a chronological chain events that took place at Western during the years 1848– 1849. 28. Describe Ukrainian participation in the First Slavic Congress. 29. Give facts that show effective participation in the Ukrainian General-Reichstag. 30. Identify the results and historical significance of the events of 1848–1849 years in West lands. 31. Describe the tasks set for a Home Ruthenian Council. 32. Define the role played trade in development Naddniprianshchyna in the first half of the nineteenth century.

86 33. Identify the features of socio-economic situation during the colonization of Southern Ukraine. 34. Prepare the story: Odesa new city in this new land. 35. How to promote South establish new economic ties between individual regions Naddniprianshchyna? Explain why trade considered main source of growth in well-being of the South. 36. Describe the main features of the new socio-economic model that prevailed in the South during the first half Nineteenth century. Expand the content of these features. 37. Give facts that Russo-Turkish War he 1806–1812 was a heavy burden for the population Naddniprianshchyna. 38. Describe contribution Ukrainian military formations in the victory of the Russian Empire at War in 1812. 39. Model the likely consequences the plans of Napoleon for the future of Ukrainian lands. Expand the role and place Ukrainian issues in European international politics of the second half Nineteenth century. 40. Compare the place and role Dnieper Ukraine in the international relations of the first and second half nineteenth century. Identify common features. 41. Find out the value of the journal "Osnova" ("The basis") for the deployment of the Ukrainian movement. 42. Open the main consequences Valuev Circular for further development of the Ukrainian movement. 43. Prepare a story about migration Ukrainian peasants in the eastern parts of the empire under the plan: a) the reasons for migration, b) policy Russian government to Ukrainian immigrants, c) features Resettlement, d) land, inhabited by Ukrainian settlers, and e) implications Ukrainian migration to the guise of Asia. 44. Tell us about a family of Ukrainian Tereschenko entrepreneurs. 45. Make a comparative description of life, interests and needs of different social strata Naddniprianshchyna in the second half of the nineteenth century. 46. Identify changes that have occurred in Naddniprianshchyna a bridge against the first half of the nineteenth century. 47. Give facts that reveal role of the Greek Catholic church in the Ukrainian national movement in Transcarpathia and Galicia. 48. Make a plan for item "Development agriculture and peasants "and prepare a story behind it. 49. Describe the process development of Ukrainian political parties give their classification. 50. Compare economic development Dnieper Ukraine and Western Ukraine. Identify the common and different features economic policies of governments of both empires to Ukrainian lands.

History Quiz 1. Who converted the people of Kyiv Rus to Christianity? 2. When were the citizens of Kyiv baptised? 3. During whose reign was the Church of Tithes built? 4. Where was Volodymyr the Great buried? 5. Under whose rule did Kyiv Rus reach its apex? 6. Whose son was Yaroslav the Wise? 7. How many sons did Yaroslav the Wise have? 8. Who initiated construction of the Sophia Cathedral? 9. Where was Yaroslav the Wise buried? 10. When did the Mongols invade? 11. Who built the Golden Gates of Kyiv? 12. What state grew in Western Ukraine after the fall of Kyiv Rus?

87 13. What does the word 'sich' mean? 14. Where is Khortytsia Island located? 15. When was the first fortress built on the island? 16. Which of the otamans is known as the folk hero Baida? 17. When did the title 'Hetman' become known? 18. Which of the hetmans was the head of the state? 19. What was the largest and the bloodiest uprising in Ukraine? 20. Who were the leaders of the national liberation movement in the 18th–19th centuries? 21. The right to own a certain region of the Ukrainian lands vested in the Constantinople Convention of Austria in 1775? 22. Host countries which took part in suppressing the Polish uprising led by Todeush Kosciuszko? 23. What were the special situation descendants of Zaporizhzhya Cossacks under imperial power? 24. As was established Azov Cossack army? 25. Why Karmelyuk called "Ukrainian Robin "? 26. As a result of the events of the Russian Empire entered the Black Sea-land between the Dniester and ? 27. When the bank Ukraine started the Industrial Revolution? 28. What was the basis of economic development of Ukrainian lands in the first half of the nineteenth century? 29. What document provided the Decembrists autonomous rights of Ukrainian lands? 30. What impact has "spring of nations" for the Western lands? 31. In what year was armed Decembrists speech in Ukraine? 32. As the Ukrainian won the first experience of parliamentary activity? 33. Who played a leading role in the Ukrainian national movement in Western Ukraine in the first half of the nineteenth century? 34. In what year was the king's government banned the activities of Masonic lodges, particularly in Ukraine? 35. What organization during the revolution of 1848–1849 served as a representative of the Ukrainian population of Galicia to the central government? 36. What was the situation Western population under the rule of the Habsburgs? 37. Explain why Mr. Podolynsky see figure who tried to draw new benchmarks in the Ukrainian national liberation movement? 38. As specified in the proclamation of national Galician Ruthenians belong? 39. As Ukrainian rozhortavsya national liberation movement in our region? 40. What shows the desire of the Supreme Ruthenian Council to act, keeping loyalty Habsburgs and the only constitutional means? 41. Discover the meaning of the notion national revival. What differed stage national revival? 42. What role was played in social and political life of Ukrainian intellectuals? 43. As influence policy development for the autocracy of the Russian economy in Ukraine 18th century? 44. What were the features Naddniprianshchyna economic development in the first half of the nineteenth century? 45. What are the processes taking place in agricultural development? 46. When and how began Industry Revolution? 47. How does the existence of feudal serfdom system prevented the establishment of an industrial society? 48. What changes have occurred in legal status of Ukrainian cities and devices? 49. What is the place occupied Ukrainian lands system of international relations in the 18th century?

88 50. What were the location and role Dnieper Ukraine in international relations the first half of the nineteenth century? 51. What were the results and consequences Russo-Turkish wars of the second half of 18th century? 52. What were the consequences Russo-Turkish wars that took place late in the first half of the nineteenth century? 53. Where was the decisive battle of the Russo-Turkish war of 1806–1812 years? 54. What are the Ukrainian lands were part of the Russian Empire after the Russian-Turkish war of 1806–1812 years? 55. What were the causes of the Franco-Russian war in 1812? 56. What has taken place in Ukraine military plans of the French and Russian emperors? 57. Why and how was created Ukrainian military units within the Russian army? 58. What led to another war The Russian empire against Turkey? 59. Describe the impact of war on situation in Dnieper Ukraine. 60. When was the Russian fleet first stationed in the port of Sevastopol on the Crimean peninsula? 61. The 1854 Battle of in Crimea, fought during the Crimean War, has been immortalized in what work of art? 62. What Cossack project Mykhaylo Tchaikovsky? What was its significance? 63. What were the features peasant movement "Kyiv Cossacks"? 64. What year Danusian Sich led by chieftain Joseph went smooth on the side of the Russians? 65. What event led to the elimination of the Turkish sultan Danusian Host? 66. Who was the initiator of war settlements in the Ukrainian lands? 67. What city connected first to the Ukrainian railway lands? 68. In which of these periods of economic development of Ukrainian lands happened largest growth? 69. In which provinces after the reform, some farmers lost land that they previously enjoyed? 70. What event gave an impetus to the abolition of serfdom in the Ukrainian lands within the Russian Empire? 71. What were the conditions of peasant reform in 1861? 72. What changes have occurred in circumstances state peasants? 73. Which reforms 1860–1870's was the most democratic? 74. What was due to rise Ukrainian movement in the late 1850 to early 1860's? 75. In what organizational forms Ukrainian movement existed and what are its features? 76. What are the consequences for the Ukrainian movement Valuev circular had? 77. What is the role played Southwestern Division of the Russian Geographical Society in Development Ukrainian movement? 78. Describe the politicization of community movement. What is All-organization no party affiliation? 79. What major changes have occurred in Russian Empire as a result of reforms 1860– 1870's? 80. What are the basic features of socio-political development Galicia in the first half of the nineteenth century? 81. What role was played by Jewish community in social and political life in Galicia? 82. What are the main achievements of the Ukrainian movement in the revolution he was 1848–1849? 83. What are the main features of the Ukrainian movement in left bank Ukraine in 1860– 1890's Nineteenth century? 84. What were the main reasons Ukraine-Polish Confrontation in Galicia? 85. What is the role the company "Education" in development of national life?

89 86. What is the relationship between the cooperative and national liberation movements? 87. What universities did Drahomanov lecture at? When and where was he born? 88.What was Drahomanov's field of scholarly work? 89.What were his political ideas? 90. Who was elected Chairman of the Central Rada? 91. Whose student and close assosiate was he? 92. What was M. Hrushevskyi's monumental work? 93. Who was the leader of the Ukrainian movement at the beginning of the 20th century? 94. When was Hrushevskyi elected president of the UNR? 95. When was Ukraine's independence proclaimed for the first time? 96. What partisan formations were known during WW II? 97. When was the Ukrainian Insurgent Army formed? 98. What battle marked the beginning of liberation of Ukrainian lands from the Nazi? 99. When was the entire territory of Ukraine cleared of the aggressor? 100. When was the Crimea given to Ukraine? 101. What declaration did the Verkhovna Rada pass on June, 16, 1990? 102. Why is August 24 a holiday in Ukraine? 103. What political event marks the year of 2004? 104. When did Ukraine, a new state, appear on the world political map? 105. What are the three branches of authority in Ukraine? 106. What is the legislative authority in Ukraine? 107.What is judicial power vested in? 108. Russia constantly repeats that Ukraine's Russian-speaking population (30% from the overall population) is discriminated by Ukrainian authorities. In 2014, what proportion of Ukraine's printed magazines were published in the Russian language? 109. Ukraine gained long-waited Independence from Soviet Union in which year? 110. Ukraine gained its independence from the Soviet Union in what year?

Theme 5 ɋonstitution. State symbols of Ukraine – 2 hours

Plan 1 Constitution - The Constitution of Ukraine: general information - From the Law of Rus to Constitution - Ruska Pravda and its descendants - Parliamentarism and its traditions - Regional self-governance - Civil law - Ukraine’s Constitution: a permanent battlefield for politics Constitution Quiz 2 State symbols of Ukraine - Trident - Flag National emblem and anthem Quiz

1 Constitution The Constitution of Ukraine: general information (Ukrainian: Ʉɨɧɫɬɢɬɭɰɿɹɍɤɪɚʀɧɢ) is the nation's fundamental law. The constitution was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada (parliament) of Ukraine on June 28, 1996. The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).

90 Other laws and other normative legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively with the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996 the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated June 28. In 2004 there were adopted amendments that significantly changed political system. Erroneously those changes are referred sometimes as the 2004 Constitution. In 2010 Viktor Yanukovych who served as President of Ukraine reverted those changes relying on decision of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Following the Euromaidan events, the 2004 amendments were reinstated. History Until June 8, 1995, Ukraine's supreme law was the Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Ukrainian SSR (adopted in 1978, with numerous later amendments). On June 8, 1995, President Leonid Kuchma and Speaker (acting on behalf of the parliament) signed the Constitutional Agreement for the period until a new constitution could be drafted. The first constitution since independence was adopted during an overnight parliamentary session after almost 24 hours of debate of June 27–28, 1996, unofficially known as "the constitutional night of 1996." The Law No. 254/96-BP ratifying the constitution, nullifying previous constitutions and the Agreement was ceremonially signed and promulgated in mid-July 1996. However, according to a ruling of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, the constitution took force at the moment when the results of the parliamentary vote were announced on June 28, 1996 at approx. 9 a.m. Kyiv local time. Ukraine was the last of the post-Soviet states that adopted its own constitution. On Constitution Day 2018 President remarked that the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk is the predecessor of Ukraine's current constitution. On February 7, 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining the European Union and NATO. Amendments In accordance with Chapter XIII: Ukraine's Constitution can only be amended with the consent of no less than two-thirds of the constitutional composition (the 450 Ukrainian lawmakers) of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. In addition amendments to Chapter I – "General Principles," Chapter III – "Elections. Referendum," and Chapter XIII – "Introducing Amendments to the Constitution of Ukraine," can only be amended by the parliament of Ukraine on the condition that it is also approved by an All-Ukrainian referendum designated by the President of Ukraine. In May 2012 President Viktor Yanukovych set up the Constitutional Assembly of Ukraine; a special auxiliary agency under the President for drawing up bills of amendments to the Constitution, the president then will introduce them in parliament. 2004 and 2010 amendments and 2014 return to 2004 amendments. On December 8, 2004, the parliament passed Law No. 2222-IV amending the constitution. The law was approved with a 90 percent majority (402 ayes, 21 nays, and 19 abstentions; 300 ayes required for passage) simultaneously with other legislative measures aimed at resolving the 2004 presidential election crisis. It was signed almost immediately in the parliamentary chamber by the outgoing President Leonid Kuchma and promulgated on the same day. These amendments weakened the power of the President of Ukraine; he/she lost the power to nominate the Prime Minister of Ukraine and this became the task of the parliament solely. The President could only appoint the Minister of Defence and Foreign Minister. The President also lost the right to dismiss members of the Cabinet of Ukraine but gained the right to dissolve parliament. If no coalition in parliament could be formed to appoint a Prime Minister, the President would have no choice but to call new parliamentary elections. The 2004 constitutional amendments were passed in the Parliament only with limited consultation and discussion between political forces, in the context of the Orange Revolution. They therefore attracted criticism from several internal (Ukrainian political parties) and external bodies (the Council of Europe, the European Parliament and the Venice Commission).

91 The amendments took force unconditionally on January 1, 2006.The remaining amendments took force on May 25, 2006, when the new parliament assembled after the 2006 elections. On October 1, 2010, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine overturned the 2004 amendments, considering them unconstitutional. The Court had started to consider the case on the political reform in 2004 under a motion from 252 coalition lawmakers regarding the constitutionality of this reform of July 14, 2010. The 2010 nullification decision was highly controversial. The Council of Europe's Human Rights Commissioner received several reports alleging that the resignation of four judges in the run-up to the decision occurred as a result of extensive pressure by the executive. On November 18, 2010 The Venice Commission published its report titled The Opinion of the Constitutional Situation in Ukraine in Review of the Judgement of Ukraine's Constitutional Court, in which it stated "It also considers highly unusual that far-reaching constitutional amendments, including the change of the political system of the country – from a parliamentary system to a parliamentary presidential one – are declared unconstitutional by a decision of the Constitutional Court after a period of 6 years. ... As Constitutional Courts are bound by the Constitution and do not stand above it, such decisions raise important questions of democratic legitimacy and the rule of law". On February 21, 2014 the parliament passed a law that reinstated the December 8, 2004 amendments of the constitution. This was passed under simplified procedure without any decision of the relevant committee and was passed in the first and the second reading in one voting by 386 deputies. The law was approved by 140 MPs of the , 89 MPs of Batkivshchyna, 40 MPs of UDAR, 32 of the Communist Party, and 50 independent lawmakers. According to Radio Free Europe, however, the measure was not signed by the then-President Viktor Yanukovych, who was subsequently removed from office.

From the Law of Rus to Constitution Law and self-governance in Ukraine’s territory from the 14th through the 18th century If you look at contemporary sociological surveys and identify the key issues bothering an average Ukrainian, the rule of law and construction or restoration of justice will be on top of the list. In fact, these have been priority concerns ever since humans began to unite in communities and conduct their affairs together. That was probably when the first need of certain norms of conduct appeared, which later evolved into the first legal codes known as customary law. In parallel, those who had to control it, take decisions and receive justice appeared. Our traditional perception of medieval society builds on a number of stereotypes full of impunity of feudal lords, people in power and with weapons, thieves, attacks against homesteads, and robbery, but no norms, laws or courts. A nuanced look at these clichés in Ukrainian history shows a whole different picture. We have similar stereotypes about ways to restore justice in the past. Even today, most professional historians in Ukraine have little notion of what the legal system was like in the Ukrainian territory in ancient times. But medieval and early modern history presents a quite capable legal system for its time, complete with various institutions and, most importantly, the ability of people to use these tools to meet their needs. The main thing for them was respect for what the modern world knows as the rule of law. I had a chance to see how dominant such stereotypes are back in the 1990s when I was a student at the Pedagogic Institute in Kamianets-Podilsky, Western Ukraine. At one of the conferences there, a student of history spoke about the system of lawyers in courts across Ukrainian land in the 16–17th centuries. Aprofessor who had studied history in Leningrad in the early 1930s and had huge academic and teaching experience was very sceptical about the topic. "What lawyers could Ukraine possibly have in the 16th and 17th centuries?" was his reaction. After listening to the report, however, he had no choice but to accept its main points backed by references to the publicly available documents.

92 Ruska Pravda and its descendants Given by Yaroslav the Wise to the Novgorod people in 1016, Ruska Pravda or the Law of Rus is conventionally believed to be the first written code of customary laws.Yaroslav’s descendants further completed it with Pravda Yaroslavovychiv, the Law of the Yaroslavychi, and an expanded version of Ruska Pravda. This relatively small code of legal norms ranging from 43 articles in its shorter version to 121 in the expanded one primarily described personal security and property rights. At that time, the evolution of legal thought in Ukrainian land walked hand in hand with that in its neighbors, the newly Christianized countries of Central Europe. The late Middle Ages were the next stage when written codes spread across the territory, as a dynasty crisis erased from the political map of Europe the Kingdom of Halychyna-Volyn otherwise known as the Kingdom of Ruthenia, and part of the Ukrainian land, including Halychyna Rus and Western Podillia which ended up in the Kingdom of Poland, while Volyn, Kyiv region and Eastern Podillia found themselves in the Grand Dutchy of Lithuania. Each of these parts lived both by the indigenous legal norms, and by those imported from the West – primarily through the German-speaking residents of their cities. Quite a few educated people were there to enforce these norms after getting their degrees in well-known European universities of the time, including the University of Padua, a major center of legal education. The old Rus tradition led to the borrowing of norms from Ruska Pravda in the part of Ukraine’s land within the Grand Dutchy of Lithuania for Casimir’s Code adopted in 1468 and the subsequent three Lithuanian Statutes of 1529, 1566 and 1588. The Statutes were based on the preceding legal acts but were enriched with the accomplishments of legal thought from the Renaissance Europe. They eventually became a foundation for legal relations in part of Ukrainian territory up until the 1840s when the Russian Empire abolished them. The Ukrainian lands that were integrated into the Kingdom of Poland fell under the jurisdiction of the crown law in 1434. To make it work in that territory, a network of courts was established. City courts led by a , the king’s representative, thus dealt with criminal cases in the given territory. The land court dealt with the cases of the noblemen and others, other than criminals, settled in its jurisdiction. The nobility court solved the eternal problem of separating land between the noblemen. All posts in these courts were elected. Only were appointed and dismissed by the king. While only the nobility could be elected as court judges, candidates still had to meet certain requirements. They had to be settled in the territory covered by the court’s jurisdiction, have integrity and authority in society. Clearly, that epoch did not have universal equality. But people saw election out of several candidates as a sufficient safeguard against corruption at that time. Ukrainian cities started obtaining self-governance rights back in the early 14th century. These rights were given to them by supreme rulers. That approach to city governance was based on the 13th-century German models, initially granting Magdeburg and its residents the right to conduct their affairs independently. It was thus referred to as German or Magdeburg privilege. Historians still argue about which city in Ukrainian land was first to obtain it, listing Volodymyr, Sianok and Lviv, all in Western Ukraine, as options. This happened in the mid-14th century, the period of the Kingdom of Halychyna-Volyn. Therefore, most old Ukrainian cities have at least 500 years of local self- governance experience. Which is not too bad compared to the history of the land east of Poltava which is considered the easternmost city in Europe with a magistrate, a council, a burgomaster, municipal commissioners and jury panels – all the attributes a city needs to solve its affairs autonomously. The language used by most legal institutions in Ukrainian land within the Kingdom of Poland was Latin. The few written documents preserved since that time and originating from the public chancellery, including international treaties and correspondence, were also in Latin. Polish failed to oust it even throughout the Age of Enlightenment.

93 The rest of Ukrainian land that was part of the Grand Dutchy of Lithuania used Ruthenian in recordkeeping. This privilege was cemented with the resolutions of the 1569 Union of Lublin whereby Volyn, Kyiv and Breslau voievodships went to the Kingdom of Poland. Courts used the Second Statute of Lithuanian with Ruthenian as the language of recordkeeping on this territory. Unfortunately, Polish began to slowly but firmly oust Ruthenian in recordkeeping in the 17th century, leaving titles of court cases as the only place for Ruthenian.

Parliamentarism and its traditions In 1493, King Jan Oblracht convened the noblemen from all provinces of the Kingdom of Poland, including representatives of Ruthenian, and Belz voievodships aristocracy, to initiate regular conventions of the Sejm, a parliament. It had two chambers. The upper chamber known as the Senate included voievods, castellans and Catholic bishops. The lower chamber, the Polish Izba, was comprised of elected deputies, i.e. the envoys elected in local of the nobility. Having an active legislature allowed the noblemen to eventually organize into groups somewhat alike modern political factions. They tried to express the ideas they believed necessary for the country or their region in debates and speeches. Any decisions taken at the conventions of parliament chambers had to be unanimously approved by all those present. Disagreement of one representative was a reason to close the convention and stop the work of the Sejm. At first glance, this unrealistic instrument in the democratic institution was an essential guarantee against corruption in which the king was always the main suspect. Interestingly, the first liberum veto, the voice of disagreement, came in 1652, over 150 eyars after the two-chamber parliamentstarted working on a regular basis.Further on, magnates and oligarchs took that effective instrument to often apply it in practice through dependant envoys. This led to a situation where most Sejm conventions never reached any logical conclusions or decisions because of the liberum veto abuse. That’s how democracy ended up ruining itself. The crisis of the Jagiellonian dynasty in 1572 provoked a unique situation in Rzeczpospolita of which almost all Ukrainian lands were part by then. The Warsaw emergency Sejm in 1573 decided that every new king was to be elected by the general convention, the electoral sejm, comprised of all nobility in Rzeczpospolita. Europe of that time offers no examples of similar direct democracy, even if practised by the nobility only. Another important aspect of electing the new king was his personal pledge of allegiance to the people. Again, the people stood for the nobility. This simple procedure in Rzeczpospolita's political culture turned into an unbeatable barrier for Ukraine in Pereyaslav in 1654 when Moscow's ambassador Vasili Buturlin sharply refused to pledge allegiance to the Zaporizhian Army on behalf of the Russian tsar. The Cossacks were deeply familiar with the tradition of elected ruler and his personal allegiance to his subjects as a guarantee of their privileges. The Russian side did not understand or wish to understand this. Mid-17th century developments provoked political separation of part of Ukrainian land from Rzeczpospolita. But they failed to make Ukrainians forget habits from back then – they were practised in many fields of life in the newly-established Hetmanate. It continued to use legal norms of the Second Lithuanian Statute and granted self-governance and Magdeburg-modelled to cities of the Left Bank Ukraine. Most offices in local administrations remained elected. An 18th-century attempt to codify laws in the Hetmanate to harmonise them with the laws of the Russian Empire was based on the Lithuanian Statutes, Sachsenspiegel and Kulm Law, another variation of rights for local self-governance in then-Central Europe. The legal culture of the part of Ukrainian land which formed the Hetmanate after mid-17th century until the end of the 18th century was a mix of traditions from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with its Second Lithuanian Statute, Rzezcpospolita with its elected officials and for cities, and Ukraine’s own traditions. A combination of these factors in the Left Bank Ukraine in the second half of the 17th century and throughout the 18th century shaped the Ukrainian notion of law which was rooted in the West through its concepts and traditions, but was implemented in practice in the East.

94 The clash of different cultures in practicing law manifested itself in the conflict between the Left Bank Hetman Ivan Briukhovetsky and Moscow ambassadors on the punishment for one of the Hetman's opponents. When they offered Briukhovetsky to punish the opponent for the second time, he referred to a basic norm of the Roman law which did not allow double punishment for the same crime. The legal thought peaked in the Cossack Ukraine with the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk passed in Bendery in 1710. The text is full of fragments pointing to attempts of distancing from the legacy of Rzeczpospolita and finding an own place backed by the treaties from Bohdan Khmelnytsky's time. It also takes into account the sad experience of the Hetmanate in the late 17th and early 18th century. One example of this critical self-reflection is in a provision of the Constitution's Section 6: "… some Hetmans of the Zaporizhian Host took unlimited power, clamping down on equality and customs, and establishing the 'I rule how I wish' law. The atypical arbitrary rule in the Homeland and Zaporizhian Host resulted in divisions, distortion of rights and freedoms, oppression of people and forced unbalanced distribution of military posts. This fuelled disrespect for the general commanders, colonels and significant part of the community". It is now difficult to speak about the likelihood of enforcing Orlyk’s Constitution in real life. But the mere fact of the Cossack leadership producing such a political legal document complete with the analysis of recent history deservers praise. The only thing is that this was not the first Constitution in the world or Europe, as many in Ukraine believe. Every successful Sejm convention in the Kingdom of Poland and Rzezcpospolita ended with the adoption of a constitution. In the late 18th century, the leadership began to "recollect" its origins in order to receive full aristocracy status in the Russian Empire. It took many families years to complete the process. However, the majority of coats of arms used by the Cossack nobility originated from Rzeczpospolita coat-of-arms associations with typical names, such as Lubicz, Leliwa, JastrzĊbiec and many others rooted in the of the Kingdom of Poland since the 14th century. The sources for the heraldic symbols they adopted were in "…the Polish book Herbariusz which shows the coat of arms of the ancestor, and his entire family uses this coat of arms at its stamps till this day…". This is a quote of an 1833 case to prove the noble ancestry of descendants of Fedor Mankovsky, a senior official with the Zaporizhian Host. Published in 1914 in St. Petersburg, the Armorial of Little Russiaby Vladislav Lukomsky and Vadim Modzalewsky features an exact copy of the nomenclature of coat of arms that senior dynasties in the Cossack state had used.

Regional self-governance 1572 marks the beginning of a triumph for democracy of the nobility on the regional scale. Local sejms become the place where all important affairs of the region – a voievodship, land or county – are solved. They present a platform for discussing state matters, including taxes, international politics, election of the next ruler and more; solving tax matters within the administrative region; and electing representatives of each territory in the central Sejm and judges of the Crown Tribunal, the supreme court of appeals based in Lublin since 1578. Also, they organize locally-funded territorial military units. The elected nature of authorities, including the royal authority, made the life of Rzeczpospolita along with the Ukrainian land that was then part of it quite lively. It was difficult to forecast the outcome of elections which often turned into something close to battlefields where each party was willing to defend its interests to the very end. This seemingly perfect setup began to rot in the late as some families grew to dominate regionally, then on the nationwide scale, and to use any tools in their political activity to spread and strengthen their influence. Historians described this period the era of oligarchy. It led to the collapse of Rzeczpospolita. One of the widespread stereotypes is to overstate the role of forays, the illegal ways to solve conflicts. But a closer look at the actual forays shows that the modern notion of the number of

95 participants and victims in them is exaggerated. Forays were rather a gesture or a call of reconciliation or dialogue to the other side. Nobody in their sound mind wanted to shed blood for no reason. Even some powerful actors, such as Kostanty Ostrogski with his unlimited financial and human resources to implement his interests, had to respond to the numerous lawsuits in courts like any average person. More importantly, they did not always win those lawsuits. Even an average individual had a chance to win a case and get justice, although the path to that justice was very long and difficult. Given this long-standing tradition of justice done in courts and regulated by a written code, the Russian Empire was forced to preserve that old system and traditions in justice on the Ukrainian land for many years after the 1793 and 1795 divides of Rzeczpospolita. Regional courts in the Right Bank gubernias were a continuation of sorts of land and city courts from before where anyone could file a lawsuit about their case. These courts also issued a huge number of documents. In this case, court records were a notarial and legitimizing institution while every document with a copy included in the court records was equal to the original act in status.

Civil law This widespread network of institutions encouraged the evolution of a tradition to use them. As a result, regional and city courts were stormed with numerous lawsuits after the Hetmanate was abolished in the Left Bank Ukraine and the Right Bank Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire in the late 18th century. The tradition of solving matters in courts went back to the 15th century in Ukrainian land. A typical case in point was the testaments not only for the richest nobility, but for the average residents in Ukrainian cities. Kyivites recorded their last will with eyewitnesses and appointed those responsible for implementing the testament since the late 16th century, even if Kyiv was in the far east of Rzeczpospolita. In Lviv, this practice was so widespread that the testament and after-death inventory records from Lviv residents in the 17th –18th centuries were comprised of many hundreds of documents. As several ethnic communities lived side by side in then-Lviv or Kamianets, they shaped solid criteria for different jurisdictions. For example, any violation involving a person belonging to different jurisdictions – as in a fight between a Ruthenian and a Pole in an Armenian pub – required the establishment of a joint commission to determine the guilty and the punishment. The rule of law and multiple legal institutions in Ukrainian land made a system of viable legal norms for all citizens established on this territory through a fusion of local traditions and legal norms from the Old Rus time, and the practices borrowed from the West. These norms were effective on this territory for almost 500 years. The soviet authorities wiped out the notion of getting justice through legal and parliamentary instruments in the 20th century. At present, state power is not always able to guarantee to its citizens the protection of constitutional rights.

Read the text and answer the questions The first constitutional document in Ukrainian history was the Constitution of Bendery, adopted in 1710 by the emigre followers of Hetman I. Mazepa. The Ukrainian state that arose in 1917–1921 had several constitutions. The structure of the Ukrainian National Republic (UNR) was defined by several legislative acts of the Ukrainian Central Rada before the Central Rada adopted the Constitution of the Ukrainian National Republic on 29 April 1918. The constitution, however, could not be implemented because of Hetman P. Skoropadsky's coup. The constitution of Skoropadsky's Hetman government can be found in the hetman's edict (hramota) and in the Law on the Provisional State Structure of Ukraine. Under the Directory the constitutional acts of the UNR consisted of separate declarations and laws. In the Western Ukrainian National Republic a series of legislative acts constitutes the contents of the constitution. In the Ukrainian SSR four constitutions were adopted (1919, 1929, 1937, 1978). They were closely modeled on the Constitution of the Russian SFSR and then of the USSR.

96 Questions 1. What was the first constitutional document in Ukrainian history? 2. When was it adopted? 3. When was the second constitution of Ukraine adopted? 4. Where can the constitution of Skoropadsky's Hetman government be found? 5. What was the UNR governed by under the Directory? 6. How many constitutions were adopted in the UkSSR?

Ukraine’s Constitution: a permanent battlefield for politics MPs managed to adopt the Supreme Law in long-standing discussions during the presidency of Leonid Kuchma. It happened on the legendary "Constitutional night" of June 28, 1996. Since then Ukrainians got to live through many changes that the Constitution incurred. Nearly each president was trying to amend it to his benefit in the standoff with the Parliament, the most persistent in this regard turned to be Viktor Yanukovych. The Supreme Law has always been slightly inconvenient for the state leaders, and they were thus trying to rewrite it in this or that way in order to change the balance of powers in the country. A parliamentary or presidential republic? One of the biggest collisions of the Ukrainian Constitution is the balance of power between the President and the Parliament. It is this balance that has seen the biggest battles unfold around it over the past two decades. For ten years – between 1996 and 2006, Ukrainians lived in a parliamentary-presidential republic where the President enjoyed wide powers. Then between 2006 and 2010 – Ukraine turned into a presidential-parliamentary republic with the strong Parliament. Afterwards there was a switch back to the presidential model that lasted four years until 2014. Finally, after Euromaidan the Parliament regained more powers once again. The return to the parliamentary-presidential model occurred in February 2014 after the presidential powers of Viktor Yanukovych were suspended. The political reform of 2004–2006: power to the Parliament. Starting from 2003 political forces of Viktor Yanukovych and Leonid Kuchma initiated the constitutional reform that sought to weaken the President’s powers and to pass to the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine’s Parliament) the right to form the . Their motivation was quite simple: they realized they were not going to win the presidential elections. The "Orange" forces of the opposition of Yushchenko and Tymoshenko were ardently protesting against the reform as they were confident in the victory of their candidate at the presidential elections of 2004. The Law amending the Constitution (on the political reform) foresaw the transition from the presidential-parliamentary to the parliamentary-presidential governance form as well as empowered the coalition of parliamentary factions to form the government and extended the term in the office for MPs to five years. The changes came into force in 2006 after the victory of the Orange Revolution and boasted support from the then-President Yushchenko who then made a decision to unite with the political force of his former opponent Yanukovych joining forces against Yuliya Tymoshenko. The year 2010: reinforcement of the Presidential office. It comes as a paradox but after Viktor Yanukovych and his Party of Regions acceded to power the party’s position as to the state system made a 180-degree turn. At the post of the President Yanukovych was in try to reinforce his power. On September 30, 2010 Ukraine’s Constitutional Court, under the evident pressure by Yanukovych, ruled previous constitutional changes that he himself had initiated several years before being not in line with the Constitution of Ukraine. The Ukraine’s Constitutional Court restored in power the Constitution of 1996 and Ukraine became a presidential-parliamentary republic again. 2014: the role of the Parliament bolstered. Last time the Constitution was subject to change following the Revolution of Dignity. On February 21, 2014 the then-president Viktor Yanukovych and the leaders of the opposition signed an agreement that foresaw the return to the Constitution of 2004 balancing the powers of the Cabinet of Ministers (the government), the President and the

97 Parliament. The Verkhovna Rada voted in the draft on the same day. The President Poroshenko elected several months after, has not been changing the balance of power since then. Main changes after the Maidan: regional governance, judges and parliamentary immunity. Throughout Poroshenko’s presidency the balance of power has not been subject to change. Instead the President initiated and implemented several important changes to the Constitution. Decentralization. Several months after Petro Poroshenko was elected President, a draft law on decentralization introducing amendments to the Constitution was submitted to the Parliament. The main novelties that the draft law brought were financial decentralization of the regions and posts of prefects, it also granted to the President the right to dismiss local councils and a possibility for specific local self-governance in the defined regions of Donetsk and Luhansk regions. The draft law in question passed the first reading only. Judicial reform. On June 2, 2016 the Verkhovna Rada adopted the changes to the Constitution in the justice part to re-launch the judicial system and set the judiciary free from corruptionists. The main principles of the judicial reform became the return to the three-layer judicial system, establishing of the Supreme Council of Justice, mandatory re-attestation of all Ukraine’s judges, mandatory asset declaration for judges and their family members as well as stripping them off the immunity. Parliamentary immunity. In mid-June the Constitutional Court of Ukraine ruled constitutional the presidential draft law amending the Constitution’s Article 80 (revoking the immunity of MPs) that is to revoke the parliamentary immunity starting from early 2020. The document is still a draft law and is subject to the parliamentary voting. Future amendments to the Constitution: towards the EU and NATO. On the Constitution Day the President insisted that European integration should be affirmed by the Supreme Law. Petro Poroshenko said he would soon submit a proposal to the Parliament to amend the Constitution respectively. The amendments are supposed to affirm Ukraine’s aspirations to become a member of the EU and NATO. Why the actual Constitution is being criticized today? The numerous amendments made to the Supreme Law in course of all the political battles of the past decades are not the only problem of Ukraine’s Constitution. Other drawbacks include imperfect text and, in particular, the contradictory definition of economic rights that may become an obstacle on the way to reforms. So that the voices of those aiming for the new Constitution will be becoming louder each time. Economic rights The Constitution contains a series of economic rights that the state cannot provide for. "This Constitution has served its term for a series of reasons. Firstly, it is unrealistic. When the Constitution is lying, so does everyone else. The Constitution contains a whole block of rights, the so-called economic rights that only the countries having the GDP per capita of USD 30 thousand per year may afford. (…) When they talk about affordable accommodation, free healthcare and education here, they are actually killing the healthcare, doctors, patients and higher education – neither of our universities entered the world’s top 100 ranking", lawyer and activist Hennadiy Druzenko said during the forum "The Country’s New Plan" (Novyi kurs krayiny). The healthcare reform that kick-started this year has already come across the criticism: the aspirations of the healthcare reformers to clearly define free and paid services, introduce insurance- based healthcare system have already come across a populist argument that the Constitution stipulates the right to "free healthcare". Eclecticism Moreover the Constitution is being often criticized for being eclectic – comprising the provisions from the Soviet Union times and the current European ones. From the very beginning it was a transitional document requiring change. One may clearly sense the conflict between the then- left forces (the Socialist Party) and the then-reformers (Leonid Kuchma’s party) in the text of the Supreme Law. These contradictions do not come to a compromise, instead they lead to eclecticism and result in contradictory provisions.

98 Is the new Constitution needed and possible? The complexity of the situation lies in the fact that despite the imperfection of the actual text of the Constitution, it does not allow for adoption of a brand new Supreme Law. Even its biggest critics admit it. "Since the Constitution’s adoption in 1996 it has been changed several times to an extent when it is not clear what is functioning in the state and in what way. So, that the only way out of this situation is to adopt a new Supreme ", the first president of Ukraine Leonid Kravchuk said. At the same time he claims that the actual Constitution contains an article prohibiting the adoption of a new Supreme Law. The article suggests that the document can only be amended not changed entirely. Whether these will be amendments to the law or a new constitution – the main problem stays in the attempts to politicize the Supreme Law as well as the respective crisis of trust to it in the wider society. If the Constitution stipulates what is not actually there in practice and what cannot ever happen, if every political force is rewriting the law to its benefit, it undermines the citizens’ trust to the state. Restoring this trust would be the priority task for the Ukrainian political class. Complete the task 1. Read the text and write a short essay on the topic: My attitude to the constitution. 2. Write your answers to the questions: - A parliamentary or presidential republic? - Why the actual Constitution is being criticized today?

Constitution Quiz 1. When did the modern idea of a constitution emerge? 2. Is the constitution of a state always a specific written document? 3. What constitutional documents in Ukrainian history do you know? 4. When were the Ukrainian constitutions adopted? 5. What is Pylyp Orlyk known for? 6. In 1710, the Cossack nobleman Pylyp Orlyk signed a pact in Ukraine that is often considered to have been the first document of its kind. What sort of document was it? 7. When was the Constitution of Independent Ukraine adopted? 8. What are the state symbols of Ukraine? 9. What are the principal government bodies according to the Constitution? 10. What does Chapter II deal with? 11. What principles of elections are defined in Chapter III?

The judicial system of Ukraine The judicial system of Ukraine is outlined in the 1996 Constitution of Ukraine. Before this there was neither notion of judicial review nor any Supreme Court since 1991's Ukrainian independence. Although judicial independence exists in principle, in practice there is little separation of juridical and political powers. Judges are subjected to pressure by political and business interest. Ukraine's court system is widely regarded as corrupt. A Ukrainian Justice Ministry 2009 survey revealed that only 10 percent of respondents trusted the nation’s court system. Less than 30 percent believed that it was still possible to get a fair trial. Ukrainian politicians and analyst have described the system of justice in Ukraine as "rotten to the core" and have complained about political pressure put on judges and corruption. Ukrainian judges have been arrested while taking bribe. Court judges maintained a 99.5 percent conviction rate from 2005 till 2008, equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union. Suspects are often incarcerated for long periods before trial. The court system, until 2001, remained similar to that which existed under the former Soviet regime. In July 2001, a series of laws was passed designed to bring existing legislation regarding the judiciary and the administration of justice more in line with the requirements for an independent judiciary. The three levels of courts are rayon (also known as regional or people's courts), oblast (provincial) courts, and the Supreme Court.

99 All three levels serve as courts of first instance, the choice of level varying with the severity of the crime. A case heard in first instance at the rayon level can be appealed through the next two higher stages. A case heard in first instance in the Supreme Court is not subject to appeal or review. A 1992 law added a Constitutional Court to the existing system. The Constitutional Court consists of 18 members appointed for 9-year terms. It is the final interpreter of legislation and the constitution, and it determines the constitutionality of legislation, presidential edicts, cabinet acts, and acts of the Crimean autonomous republic. The Rada (Supreme Council) selects judges on recommendation from the Ministry of Justice based partly upon government test results. Oblast and Supreme Court judges must have five years of experience in order to be appointed and may not be members of political parties. The constitution, adopted in 1996, provides that the judiciary is funded separately from the Ministry of Justice to ensure an independent judiciary. Because the courts are funded by the Ministry of Justice, however, they have been subject to executive influence, and have suffered from corruption and inefficiency. The Constitution of 1996 changed a little bit the judicial system of the state. A case heard in first instance in the Supreme Court can’t be appealed or reviewed. The Constitution of Ukraine provides that the judiciary is funded on the basis of the Ministry of Justice. In juridical practice there is quite strict separation of juridical and political powers. The Soviet Union’s judicial system had no influence on the Ukrainian one after its independence. The Supreme Council selects judges on recommendation from the Ministry of Justice. From 2005 till 2008 court judges maintained a 99.5 percent conviction rate, equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union. Ukrainian judges are never arrested while taking bribes. Ukrainian courts are funded by the Ministry of Justice. Till 2009 Ukrainian politicians have complained about political pressure put on judges and corruption.

Fill in the gaps: 1. Judicial power in Ukraine is based on the ______. 2. It is an ______branch of state power. 3. The decisions of courts are obligatory for _____ on the entire territory of Ukraine. 4. The court system provides ______of justice for every person. 5. Courts of general jurisdiction are set up according to the principles of ______and specialization. 6. ______is administered by professional judges. 7. The judges are guaranteed the independence and ______. 8. The appellate courts hear ______from the local ones.

Read the statements. Are they true or false? Correct the false ones. 1. The highest judicial body of Ukraine – Supreme Court of USSR started since March 11, 1993. 2. The history of the activity of judicial bodies of Ukraine as well as the Supreme Court of Ukraine was a difficult one. 3. Previously the courts carried out functions determined by government but proclamation of the Ukrainian sovereign, legal democratic state has fundamentally changed the status of courts and judges. 4. To reform the judicial system and judicature – is a difficult and slow process particularly taking into account existing problems in the state. 5. The Supreme Court of Ukraine is the highest judicial body in the system of general courts and on this basis abolishes by its activity the law, right and justice prevalence in the society. 6. The Supreme Court of Ukraine consists of the Chairman, three Deputies of the Chairman, members of the Supreme Court and assessors. 7. The Constitution of Ukraine restricts the number of judges in the Supreme Court. 8. The Chairman of the Court and his deputies are elected to office by Plenary of the Supreme Court of Ukraine from among its judges for a five-year term by direct vote.

100 Read the text and complete the sentences using the information from the text: 1) Previously the courts carried out functions determined by ______. 2) The Supreme Court of Ukraine is the highest judicial body in the system of ______courts. 3) The Supreme Court provides by its activity the law, right and justice ______in the society. 4) ______permanently elects judges of the Supreme Court of Ukraine. 5) The Chairman of the Court and his deputies are elected to office for a five-year term by ______.

2 State symbols of Ukraine Trident The trident (ɬɪɢɡɭɛ, tryzub), the official , consists of a gold trident against an azure background. Archeological findings of the trident date back to the 1st century CE when it was apparently a mark of authority and a symbol of one or several of the various early tribes which inhabited Ukrainian territory and later became part of the Ukrainian people. As a state emblem, the trident dates back to the ninth century, when the dynasty adopted it as their coat of arms. Prince Volodymyr the Great inherited the symbol. The design was engraved on gold and silver coins called hryvni, as well as imprinted on official seals, the portals of old Ukrainian , palaces, and tombs of nobility. Some historians interpret the trident design as an abbreviation of a compounded Old Slavonic word, "ȼɨɥɨɞɢɦɢɪɫɬɨɜ" (Volodymyrstov), which means "Volodymyr on the throne". Or perhaps the design is an amalgam of the letters ə, ȼ, and O, from the names of the prominent Kyivan rulers Emperor Yaroslav the Wise, Prince Volodymyr, and Queen Olha. Others suggest the symbol comes from a stylistic rendition of the Cyrillic letters ȼ, Ɉ, Ʌ, and ə, which spell the word volya, meaning "freedom." Or even more simply, the design may derive from the initial character "B" from ȼɨɥɹ, written forwards and back. For continuity with the past, Ukrainians adopted the trident as the official state symbol when they declared independence in 1917. Obviously, as a symbol of the straggle for Ukrainian sovereignty, the trident was forbidden under Soviet rule for being "nationalistic." Not surprisingly, it was reprised as the national emblem when Ukraine finally achieved independence in 1991.

Flag Many different flags have flown over Ukraine through the centuries; some represented foreign ruling powers, others were the choice of Ukrainian ruling groups, such as the flags of the Kozak period. Independent Ukraine's official flag is a rectangle composed of two stripes, one blue and one yellow. It was designed by Ukrainian leaders under the Austro-Hungarian Empire and first flown on June 2, 1848 by the Ukrainian delegation to a pan-Slavic congress in Prague. It was used during the struggle for independence in 1917–1921. The color on top varied, and some of the earlier flags included a coat of arms such as a lion or trident. On January 28, 1992, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of Ukraine adopted an unadorned blue-on-top and yellow-on-bottom version as the official national flag. Why blue and yellow are the Ukrainian colors is not clear. The popular interpretation is that blue represents the sky and the yellow is for golden wheat or sunflowers, while others say that the colors represent fire and water. The shades of blue and yellow are exactly the same as those used in the Swedish flag, but the link between the two is not exactly known.

National emblem and anthem Quiz 1. What is one of the most ancient emblems of Ukraine? 2. What emblems ornated the flags of medieval Ukraine? 3. When was the light blue and yellow flag first accepted as a symbol of Ukraine?

101 4. Who were the authors of the present-day anthem? 5. When was the Ukrainian anthem officially adopted? 6. The yellow and blue colors of the Ukrainian national flag are meant to invoke which of the following? 7. What are the colours of the Ukrainian flag? 8. The Ukrainian flag has two colours on it, blue and yellow. Which country does not have only two colours on its flag?

Theme 6 Regions, cities and towns of Ukraine – 4 hours

Plan 1. Kyiv is the capital of Ukraine - Khreshchatyk - Vasylkiv 2 Chernihiv - Nizhyn 3 Kolomyia 4 Kamianets-Podilskyi 5 Kropyvnytskyi 6 Lviv 7 Poltava region. Village of Velyky Sorochintsy 8 Rivne region. Ostroh 9 Ternopil region. Kremenets 10 Mariupol: History, Settlement, The war in Donbass, Geography, Ecology, City administration and local politics, Coat of arms, Ethnic structure Economy, Culture, Tourism and attractions, Architecture and Construction, Education 11 Simferopol: History, Russian annexation, Climate, Politics and administrative divisions, Transportation, Economy, Education, Sports Regions, cities and towns of Ukraine Quiz

1 Kyiv is the capital of Ukraine Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine, is one of the oldest cities of Eastern Europe. It is situated on the hilly right bank and on the low left bank of the Dnipro River. Inimitable in the beauty and variety of its green landscape, a garden city, a city of museums, Kyiv is the historic, political, religious, scientific, and cultural centre of Ukraine. It is also the largest city (2,6 mln.) of the country, and one of the largest industrial centres, and an important transport and communications hub. Land The oldest part of Kyiv lies along the high right bank of the Dnipro and its adjacent lower terrace among the picturesque hills between the Dnipro and the valley of its right-bank tributary, the Lybid. The upper city was divided by the Khreschatyi ravine; to the northwest was Old Kyiv and the newer city to its west; to the southeast was the settlement of Pechersk. The main street of Kyiv – Khreschatyk – runs along this ravine. The plateau on which the old city stands gradually drops towards the west and northwest into the wide Lybid Valley. On the other side of the valley, hills (up to 100 m high) again rise; there the settlements of Batyiva Hora, Solomianka, Chokolivka, Sovky, and Holosiieve arose. The most western and northwestern parts of Kyiv (, Puscha-Vodytsia) lie on a sandy plain amid pine forests. Northeastern Kyiv is situated on a plain of the Dnipro Lowland with sandy soil and remnants of pine forests. The Dnipro River serves as the city's main water source. The natural vegetation in Kyiv's 66 parks is both coniferous (pine) and deciduous (oak and hornbeam).

102 History The oldest human traces on the territory of Kyiv date from the late Paleolithic period. Traces of Neolithic Trypillian culture settlements are numerous, as are those of the Iron and Bronze ages. Excavated Roman coins and burial grounds of the 2nd–4th centuries AD show that Kyiv was already a large settlement and important trading locus at that time. According to the Rus Primary Chronicle, the founders of Kyiv were the brothers Kyi, Schek, Khoryv and their sister Lybid. leaders of the Slavonic Polianian tribe, and the city was named after the eldest, Kyi. The memory of the other two brothers has been preserved in the names of two hills – Schekavytsia and Khorevytsia – and in the names of the streets. A monument to the founders was erected at the Dnieper embankment in our days. The town’s place was chosen succesfully, the high Dnieper’s slopes were perfect protection against the raids of nomad tribes. Kyiv was founded in the latter half of the 5th, or the early 6th century, and in 1982 its 1,500th anniversary was officially celebrated. During the reign of Volodymyr the Great Kyiv consisted of two parts – the fortified Upper City and Podil, the lower part. In the upper part of the city lived the prince and his retainers – the boyars and the prince's bodyguard. Podil was inhabited by artisans, fishermen and merchants. At this time the construction of brick buildings decorated with wall painting and mosaics was begun in Kyiv. Among these buildings was the brick Desiatynna (Tithe) Church, so called because Prince Volodymyr contributed one-tenth of his income to the construction and maintenance of this church. During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise three gates led to the city; the remains of only one of them, the brick Golden Gate, have come down to us. In 1037 the foundation was laid for the magnificent Sophia Cathedral, which formed the architectural centre of the new "Yaroslav's City". At that time Kyiv was surrounded by dense forests and the site of present-day Khreschatyk was a wooded valley. Beyond the Khreschatyi ravine was the prince's suburban village of Berestove, in the vicinity of which the Kyiv-Pechersk arose in the 11th century. Considerable progress was noted in the development of Rus culture the centre of which was Kyiv. It was during this period that the first schools were built; literacy began to spread among the princes, boyars, clergy and rich citizens: original literature appeared; the composition of chronicles began. During the 11–12th cc. remarkable models of ancient architecture were created in Kyiv, mostly churches and monasteries. The prosperity of Kyiv was broken off by the process of feudal dismemberment of Rus, greatly weakening the country and resulting in the decay of the city. A severe trial was the Tatar invasion. In 1240 Kyiv was captured by Baty's hordes, devastated and plundered. The city was subjected to the Tatar yoke for over a hundred years. In the 14th c. it was captured by Lithuanian grand dukes, and became part of the Lithuanian and later of the Polish- Lithuanian state over the course of almost 300 years. At the turn of the 15–16th cc. craftsmen's guilds of tailors, furriers, shoemakers, blacksmiths, bakers, goldsmiths and others appeared. The commerce of the city revived during this period and developed greatly. This was to some extent due to the fact that in the 15th c. Kyiv was granted a partial Magdeburg charter, which freed the citizentry from the power of the voivode. During the 17–18th cc. the architectural aspect of the city took shape gradually, the predominant style being baroque. The tsar's palace and St. Andrew's Church were built after the design of V. Rastrelli. The city at that time extended along the Dnipro in the form of three separate settlements – Podil, the Upper City and the Pechersk, which sprang up in the 17th c. around the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery. During the 19th c. all the separate parts merged into a single city. Khreschatyk and the Palace district were built up. The principal thoroughfares of the city were marked out – Bibikovskyi Boulevard (now T. Shevchenko Boulevard), , etc. The development of the city was helped by the annual contract fair, established in Kyiv in 1798, which acquired a great economic importance. The first Theatre in Kyiv was opened in Khreschatyk Street at the reginning of the 19th c. The founding of the Kyiv and a number of schools dates back from this time. Kyiv University was founded in 1834, and the first Kyiv newspaper started publication in 1838.

103 In the 19th c. the predominating style became that of classicism. Street lighting, stone-paved roads and pavements appeared, tree-lined boulevards were laid. Trees were planted on the slopes of the Dnipro. A riverside highway was built. A number of enterprises grew up; steamships appeared on the Dnipro; in 1870 railway communication with Moscow was opened. Water supply mains appeared, and two years later gas lighting was introduced superseded in 1890 by electricity. The first tramline was laid down in 1892. Great damage was done to Kyiv during the years of the Civil War and foreign military intervention. In 1934 Kyiv became the capital of Ukraine, which triggered a period of extensive construction. It, however, was interrupted by the German-Soviet War (1941–1945). Immeasurable destruction was caused to Kyiv by the Nazi occupation forces. More than 195 thousand people were either brutally murdered at Babyn Yar or tortured in the concentration camps at and . Over two thousand factories, public buildings and houses, and many outstanding architectural monuments were destroyed. The magnificent eleventh-century Cathedral of the Dormition was blown up, and nearly thirty other buildings of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra were turned into rubble. The main building of the University was set afire. Khreschatyk and other central streets lay in ruins. After liberation of the city in November 1943, Kyiv rose from the ruins anew. Architecture of the post-war decade is typified by a very decorative style and by wide use of forms of baroque and . Then this tendency changed toward simplicity. Greater attention was given to modern trends in the design of houses. Since the war Kyiv has steadily expanded, annexing villages to its west, east, and north. New residential districts were created in the suburbs, and new industries were established. Today Kyiv is one of the most verdant cities in Ukraine. Its 'green zone' of parks, suburban forested areas, and chestnut-, poplar-, and linden-lined boulevards and squares has a total area of about 400,000 ha. Economy and culture. A large part of Ukraine's industrial output is produced by Kyiv's enterprises: motorcycles, tape recorders, excavators, chemical fibers, industrial , precision tools and instruments, electrical equipment, audio and video equipment, furniture, , foodstuffs, etc. Kyiv is the major transportation hub of Ukraine. It has five railway stations; a domestic airport near and an international one near and an important river port. Six major bridges join Left- and Right-Bank Kyiv: Paton and Moscow automobile bridges, the Podil and Darnytsia railway bridges, the Metro Bridge, and the pedestrian Park Bridge. Kyiv is the cultural and academic centre of Ukraine. Research institutes, the National Scientific Library, the Central Botanical Garden and the Main Astronomical Observatory are located there. There is a great number of post-secondary schools (universities, institutes, colleges), secondary specialised schools, and elementary schools in Kyiv. Kyiv's libraries include Ukraine's largest – the National Scientific Library (over 10 million volumes), the National Parliamentary Library, the Medical, Agricultural, and Technical Libraries, libraries at post-secondary schools, and city central libraries for adults, youth, and children. There are government-funded museums in Kyiv: the Natural History Museum; the Historical Museum; the museums of art: National Art, Ukrainian Decorative Folk Art, the Museum of Bohdan and Varvara Khanenko, Western and Eastern Art, Theatre, Music, and Cinema Arts; the Kyiv Cave Historical-Cultural Preserve; the St. Sophia Museum; the Museum of Kyiv's History; the Museum of Ukraine's Literature; the Shevchenko Museum; the Museums of Historical Treasures, Sports Fame, Pedagogy, Book and Book Printing, and Folk Architecture and Folkways; some literary- museums; the Kosyi Kaponir Museum (a former tsarist prison); and the Memorial Complex of the Great Patriotic War. There are also museums organised and run by private individuals. The main professional theatres in Kyiv are: the National Opera, Ukrainian Drama Theatre, Russian Drama Theatre, Operetta Theatre, House of Organ and Chamber Music, Puppet Theatre, Theatre of Comedy and Drama, Young People's Theatre. Professional musical ensembles include

104 the National Philharmonic, Dumka Chorus, State Banduryst Kapelle, Chamber Orchestra, Chamber Choir, Veriovka State Choir, Symphony Orchestra, Revutskyi Men's Chorus, Virskyi State Dance Ensemble, Orchestra, and others. Kyiv has been the centre of Ukrainian film and mass media. In 1928 the Dovzhenko Artistic Film Studio was founded there. Also located in Kyiv are the Studio of Chronicle and Documentary Films, the Studio of Popular Science Films, etc. Kyiv has had radio stations since 1927. TV programs are broadcast daily from a TV center. Many monuments have been erected in Kyiv's squares, parks, and other public places. The oldest are the monuments to the Magdeburg law on the right bank of the Dnipro (by A. Melenskyi, 1802–1808), St. Volodymyr in Volodymyr Hill park (by P. Klodt and V. Demut-Malynovskyi, 1853), and B. Khmelnytskyi in St. Sophia Square (by M. Mikeshin, 1888). Most have been erected to honour Ukrainian cultural, political and scholarly figures, and the heroes and victims of the wars and the Chornobyl accident. They include monuments to T. Shevchenko (1939), I. Franko (1956), O. Dovzhenko (1964), M. Lysenko (1965), L. Ukrainka (1965, 1973), M. Rylskyi (1968), M. Zankovetska (1974), H. Skovoroda (1976), etc. There are also commemorative plates on hundreds of buildings where prominent individuals lived.

Khreshchatyk The main street of Kyiv is certainly Khreshchatyk and you’d better start your sightseeing there. The street is not very long but very impressive. Khreshchatyk looks especially beautiful in spring when chestnut trees are in blossom. The building of this street began at the end of the 18th century. The first houses were wooden. The forming of Khreshchatyk as a street began in the 1830s-40s. Three-storied buildings with shops, offices and banks were built at this time. In 1892 the first electric tram in the country connected Khreshchatyk with Podil. At the beginning of the 20th century Khreshchatyk became the shopping centre of the city. During the Second World War Khreshchatyk was destroyed. While being reconstructed the street was twice widened and a lot of new multistoried buildings appeared. All the buildings are built after the same architectural design. Beside government offices and administrative buildings, one can see cinemas, restaurants and cafes in this street. A lot of people go to Khreshchatyk every day. Some of them go shopping because there are many good shops and big markets there. Other people go to the cinema, look at the fountains or sit on the benches. People like the main street of Kyiv. It is one of the places of interest in Kyiv.

Vasylkiv Vasylkiv is a town (pop. 36,000) on the Stuhna River and a district centre in Kyiv province. According to the chronicles it was founded fan 988 by Volodymyr the Great – who, it is believed, was christened there – and was named Vasyliv after his new Christian name. In the 11th century a fort was built there, and the town became an important defense and trade centre. In 1240 it was destroyed by the Mongols, and declined to village size. In 1796 it was promoted to town status and made a county centre of Kyiv gubernia. In 1825 the local units of the Cherkasy regiment took part in the Decembrist revolt. By the mid-19th century the town was an active manufacturing and trading centre with a population of 11,000. Today it is an industrial town with ɚ refrigerator plant, an electrical-appliance factory and a leather factory. Its architectural monuments include the baroque St. Anthony and Theodosius Church and bell tower (1756–1759) and St. Nickolas's Church (1729).

2 Chernihiv The first written mention of Chernihiv dates to 907, but conclusive archaeological evidence points to much earlier date of its foundation. Chorna Mohyla, the tomb of the legendary founder of the city of Chernihiv, Prince Chorny, right in the centre of town is a visual reminder of the antique roots of Chernihiv. After the death of Grand Prince Volodymyr in 1015, the struggle for supremacy began between Yaroslav of Novgorod and later of Kyiv (the one who was later called "The Wise") and

105 Mstyslav of Tmutarakan and of Chernihiv (the one who was later called "The Brave"). This struggle ended with the lands of Rus-Ukraine being divided between Yaroslav and Mstyslav, the latter proving himself a better warrior. Mstyslav was not a superior war lord – he was also ahead of Yaroslav in starting the construction of stone churches. These magnificent architectural creations asserted the power and might of his Chernihiv Principality. In 1033, right in the centre of the Dytynets (fortified part of town) on a hill above the Desna River, Mstyslav began building a church, Spaska (Saviour's), which at the time of his death three years later "stood as high as the head of a rider on a horse". When finished, the Spasky Sobor (later, it was renamed Spaso-Preobrazhensky, or The Transfiguration of the Saviour's Cathedral), became an architectural landmark, and now it is the oldest church among those that have been preserved to our days from the eleventh century in the lands of Rus-Ukraine. It was the first church in Eastern Europe to be devoted to the Saviour. The to be seen in the church is of much later times and dates from the eighteenth century (Yaroslav. Grand Prince of Kyiv began building a major church, Holy Sophia, in Kyiv later, in 1037 to commemorate his victory over the pernicious nomads, the Pechenehi). The three underground churches to be found in the Illinskyi (Elijah's) Monastery which is situated on the slope of Boldyny Hory. also date from the eleventh century. The monastery was founded in 1069 by St. Antony, the same who founded a cave monastery in Kyiv. The caves in the Illinskyi Monastery in Chernihiv were widened and linked with a system of underground passages; the three underground churches in the caves are the biggest of their kind in Ukraine. They have a unique feature too – the acoustics inside them are such that the sounds reverberate for several seconds before dying. So far it has not been established how this acoustical effect was created by the ancient builders of the underground churches. There are five churches in Chernihiv that date from the "pre-Mongolian times", that is from the centuries before the thirteenth when the Mongols invaded Rus-Ukraine and laid waste to its lands. This alone makes Chernihiv unique among other cities situated in the area devastated by the invaders. Construction of churches and secular buildings flourished in the Land of Chernihivschyna in the twelfth century. The Borysohlibskyi (St. Borys and St. Hleb's) Church of the twelfth century is famous for its "white stone" decorations made in the style known as "animalistic." The church treasures "the Czar Gate" (central gate) to the iconostasis which was made with the money donated by Hetman Mazepa (late seventeenth-early eighteenth century) from the silver idol of pagan times that had been discovered in the vicinity of the church. The Piatnytska Church in the Dytynets, a small one-dome building, set the model for construction of similar churches in Novgorod and in Moscow in Russia. The Yeletsky Monastery of the twelfth century is located opposite the Chorna Mohyla Tomb. It stands at the place where St. Antony Pecherskyi saw an of the Virgin that miraculously appeared in front of him. The white church of the monastery of exquisitely balanced proportions looked as though it was about to soar heavenward, but in the late sixteenth century the exterior of the church was redone in the nascent Ukrainian Baroque style which completely changed the appearance of the church but luckily did not disfigure it. There are quite a few churches of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to be found in Chernihiv. Among the more impressive ones are the majestic Troyitsky Sobor (Holy Trinity Cathedral) with wonderful frescos of the eighteenth century and the Voskresenska (Resurrection) Church which was designed by the Ukrainian architect of a great artistic talent Ivan Hryhorovych- Barskyi.

Nizhyn Nizhyn is a town (pop. 81,300) on the River and a district centre in . It is first mentioned as Unenizh under the year 1147 in the Chronicle. The town was destroyed by

106 the Tatars in 1239, and it recovered slowly. In the mid-14th century it came under Lithuanian rule, and in 1514 it was renamed Nizhyn. In 1618 it was taken by Poland. In the Hetman state it was a regiment centre (1648–1782) and then a county centre of Chernihiv gubernia (1802–1917). Situated in the junction of several major trade routes, Nizhyn developed into an important manufacturing and trade centre in the 17th and 18th centuries. A large Greek merchant colony sprang up in the second half of the 17th century and received special privileges from Hetman B. Khmelnytskyi. In 1820 a gymnasium was opened, which in 1832 was reorganised into the Nizhyn Lyceum (now the Nizhyn Pedagogical Institute). In the mid-19th century the town became a railway junction. Today Nizhyn's plants build farm machinery, household chemicals, rubber products, clothes, and building materials. The city is known for its vegetable trade. Nizhyn has three museums – the Gogol Memorial Museum, a rare books museum, and a regional museum – and an art gallery. There are over 20 architectural monuments in the town, including the cathedrals of St. Nicholas (1668), the Annunciation (1702), and the Presentation at the Temple (1778), the churches of St. John Chrysostom (1752), the Holy Trinity (1733), and the Transfiguration (1757), the Greek churches of All Saints (1780s) and St. (1731), the lyceum building (1807–1820), and the 18th-century residential buildings. Nizhyn Lyceum is one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Ukraine. Founded as the Bezborodko Gymnasium of Higher Education in 1820 with an endowment of 210,000 from Count I. Bezborodko, it emphasised humanities and was initially a gymnasium for the sons of the gentry. Its nine-year program offered a classical education with instruction in religion, classical and modern languages, geography, history, physics and , political economy, military science, and the arts. The first director was V. Kukolnyk. By 1832 the gymnasium had graduated over 100 students, including the writers M. Gogol and Ye. Hrebinka and the ethnographer V. Tarnovskyi. In 1832 the gymnasium transformed into a technical (physico-mathematical) lyceum for the training of military officers, and in 1840 it became a law school preparing officials for the juridical bureaucracy. In this period the lyceum graduated over 1,000 students, including O. Lazarevskyi and L. Hlibov. In 1875 it was reorganised as the Prince Oleksander Bezborodko Historical-Philological Institute, named after the brother of its founder. The institute taught classical languages, Russian language, and history and prepared teachers for the secondary school system. After the revolution the institute was transformed into the Nizhyn Institute of People's Education (1922), the Nizhyn Pedagogical Institute in 1934, now it is the Nizhyn State Pedagogical University. In 1939 it was named after M. Gogol, who had studied at the lyceum during the 1820s. It consists of five main faculties: philology, natural sciences, physics-mathematics, instrumental and vocal music, and English and German. It has a library of over 500,000 volumes and a museum devoted to Gogol. Among its alumni are writers (eg, Ye. Hutsalo, Yu. Zbanatskyi) and scholars (P. Bohach).

3 Kolomyia Kolomyia is a pleasant small town on the Prut river. It was founded in the 13th century. First Kolomyia was an important station on the salt-trade routes between Galicia and the Black Sea. The town was often ruined by Tatars. Kolomyia is a traditional centre of the Hutzuls, ethnic Ukrainians from the Carpathian Mountains. The centre of the town, with its market-place, shops and cafes lies around the Renaissance Square. The highlight of the town is the Museum of Hutzul Folk Art. Opened in 1935, the museum has more than 20 exhibition halls, carved wooden tools, boxes and furniture, traditional folk-embroidered clothes and ceramic tableware are exhibited.

4 Kamianets-Podilskyi Kamianets-Podilskyi is one of the oldest cities of Podillia, Ukraine and Europe. The city stands out on the high banks of the River and is fortified by high stone walls, old towers

107 and bastions. Every historic period changed the topography and architecture of the Old Town. Here we can see Orthodox and Catholic temples. The Turks even built their own church during their 27 years reign of Kamianets-Podilskyi. But in spite of this strange mixture of buildings of different ages and styles the architecture of the city is an example of historic development and unity. And there are more than 60 historic architectural relics in Kamianets-Podilskyi among which the fortress with its numerous towers and a stone (Turkish) bridge which connects the fortress with the Old Town and takes a particular place. It connects years and centuries. Of course, every city, every village merits a separate detailed story. Yet the world knows little about them. In spite of all different historical circumstances, natural culture, literature and the spirit of the nation have not died.

5 Kropyvnytskyi City and oblast capital in the southeastern on the River, at the confluence of the Suhokma and the Bianka rivers. Two big reservoirs were created there, and there are a lot of parks there. The total area of the city is 105 km2 and it consists of two districts.It is divided into two city . Kropyvnytskyi is comparatively young. It was founded in 1754. It became a town in 1765. In 1775 the town was named Yelysavethrad and belonged to Kherson gubernia. In 1924 it was renamed Zinovivske, Kirov in 1934, Kirovohrad in 1939, Kropyvnytskyi in 2016. The city was founded in 1754 on Zaporozhian Cossack territory as the Saint Elizabeth Fortress, which was built to protect the Russian Empire’s southern frontier and the Balkan colonists of New Serbia from raids of Turks and Crimean Tatars. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768– 1774 the fortress was the operational base of the Russian army. In 1775 the town that grew up around the fortress was named Yelysavethrad; it had a population of 4,750 in 1787 and 9,300 in 1823. The town became a county center in New Russia gubernia (1764–1783, 1797–1801), Katerynoslav vicegerency and vicegerency (1784– 1797), and Kherson gubernia (1802–1828, 1865–1925). Until the First World War it was an important center of trade in grain, wool, lard, flour, timber, cattle, and horses, much of which was exported via Odesa and Mykolaiv. From 1828 to 1860 Yelysavethrad was a major garrison city under strict martial law and the center of military settlements in Southern Ukraine. During that time it declined economically. It experienced growth only after a railway link was established with Odesa, Mykolaiv, Kremenchuk, and Fastiv in the late 1860s and the British-owned Ellworthy agricultural-machinery plant was founded in 1874. By the 1890s there were eight such plants; they employed 58 percent of the city's workers. Many flour mills and distilleries were located in the city, and each year it was visited by thousands of migrant workers seeking work during the harvest in Southern Ukraine. Its population grew from 15,000 in 1850 to 23,700 in 1861 and 61,500 in 1897 despite recurrent fires, river floods, and epidemics. Until the late 19th century public utilities were sorely lacking. There were few elementary schools (only 12 in the 1890s); consequently there was a high illiteracy rate. A waterworks was built only in 1892, an electric tramway in 1897, and a power station in 1908. The first newspaper in the city, Elizavetgradskii gorodskoi listok, was published in 1874– 1876. Others followed: Elizavetgradskii vestnik (1876 – mid-1890s), Vedomosti Elizavetgradskago gorodskago upravleniia (1892–1917), Golos iuga (1905–1914), and several short-lived papers. There were few physicians and public health care was poor; between 1902 and 1912 the mortality rate from infectious diseases was 21–29 percent of the population in general and 51 percent of the non-adult population. From the 1870s the city was a regional center of cultural and revolutionary activity. Ukrainian theatrical productions were performed on an ongoing basis; such prominent figures as Ivan Karpenko-Kary, Mykola Sadovskyi, Panas Saksahanskyi, , Mariia Zankovetska, and Petro Nishchynskyi were instrumental in their mounting.

108 Populist and, later, Marxist cells sprang up; their members were instrumental in educating and politicizing the local population. From the late 19th century, workers' unrest was a recurring phenomenon. In 1913 the city had 64 factories employing 4,300 workers; 2,300 of them worked at the Ellworthy plant, which produced a 10th of the empire's agricultural machines. The turmoil of the Revolution of 1917 and subsequent strife did not bypass the city. It was occupied by units of the Free Cossacks in 1917 and by the Sich Riflemen in 1918. Prolonged fighting took place there between the insurgent forces of Otaman Nykyfor Hryhoriv and the Red Army in spring 1919. After Soviet rule was established the population declined from 77,100 in 1920 to 50,300 in 1923; it then grew to 66,500 by 1926, of which 44.5 percent was Ukrainian, 27.6 percent was Jewish, and 25 percent was Russian. By 1925 the city and its industries had been rebuilt. It was renamed Zinovivske in 1924, Kirove in 1934, and Kirovohrad in 1939. It was an okruha center from 1923 and a raion center from 1930. Industrial growth intensified in the 1930s, and the population grew to 100,000 by 1939. In 1939 the city became the capital of a new . From August 1941 to January 1944 it was occupied by the German army. Much of its population fled, but much of it was also killed, and the city's buildings and industries were largely destroyed. Postwar reconstruction ended in late 1948, after which industrial expansion occurred. In the postwar period Kirovohrad has been an important industrial city. Its output consists of agricultural machines (40 percent of all USSR seeders in the 1960s), parts, radio components, typewriters, food products, pig iron, filtering kieselguhr, clothing, , furniture, and building materials. Its population has grown steadily, reaching 132,000 in 1959 (75 percent Ukrainian, 19 percent Russian), 189,000 in 1970, and 266,000 in 1986. In 2016 the city was renamed in honor of the dramatist and theater director Marko Kropyvnytskyi. The population of Kropyvnytskyi is 274200. Many of them work on the city’s enterprises, such as the joint-stock company "Chervona Zirka", the industrial enterprises "Radyi", "Drukmachina", the "Hydrosyla" plant, the foundry and others. The production of these enterprises is sent to many cities of Ukraine and abroad. There are also many private firms. Light industry, the clothing industry, and food processing are also developed in the city. Kropyvnytskyi is a very important transport junction. There is a railway station, two bus stations and an airport there. Today Kropyvnytskyi has 42 secondary-specialized schools, including 15 vocational- technical schools, and 6 post-secondary schools, including the Kirovohrad State Pedagogical University, Kirovohrad National Technical University, and State Civil-Aviation Academy of Ukraine – in the city. Several institutes that plan and design agricultural machines and tractors, the Kirovohrad Academic Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater, a puppet theater, an oblast philharmonic, and several museums, including the Kirovohrad Regional Studies Museum and Kirovohrad Oblast Art Museum, are also located there. Buildings and walls of the fortress, the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Mother of God (aka the Greek church) (1812), the Transfiguration Cathedral (1813), the Church of the Holy Protectress (1850s), the Great Choral (1853), and several 19th-century buildings have been preserved.

6 Lviv Lviv, the historical capital of Galicia and Western Ukraine, and after Kyiv, the second cultural, political, and religious centre of Ukraine. By population it is the seventh-largest city in Ukraine. Lviv was founded in the mid-13th century by Prince Danylo Romanovych near Zvenyhorod which had been named after his son Lev. In 1260s, Lviv became the capital of the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. It consisted of three parts: the ditynets on Lysa Hill, the inner town, and the outer town, stretching as far as the Poltva River. Today Lviv has an area of 155 sq km. The core is the city of the 14th to 18th centuries. It has the rectangular and the city hall stands at the centre of the street grid, which is encircled by broad green boulevards at the site of the old walls. The core is densely built up with

109 tall stone buildings, many of them in their original style. The most imposing part of Lviv includes Shevchenko avenue, Micklewicz square, and Horodetska street, with many public buildings, hotels, cafes, stores and banks in 19th – and 20th century styles. Lviv is a very scenic city with a varied vegetation. There are a lot of picturesque parks in the city. The Lychakiv Cemetery, which contains some famous monuments to noted Ukrainian and Polish residents of Lviv, and the Yaniv Cemetery with other 200 graves of fighters for Ukraine's independence, resemble parks. The oldest monument in Lviv consists of the foundation and walls of St. Nickolas's Church, built by Prince Lev Danylovych in the 13th century. The remnants of Vysoky Zamok date back to the 13th century. There is a great number of the medieval churches built in the Byzantine Romanesque style in Lviv. Lviv is the only city in Ukraine that still has some original Renaissance architecture. The finest examples of the style are the Dormition Church and the Chapel of Three Saints and some other buildings. The main monuments in the city are to A. Mickiewicz, I. Franko, V. Stefanyk, I. Fedorovych. Lviv is the leading scientific and cultural centre of western Ukraine. It has a number of research institutes with high reputation, higher educational establishments, theatres and libraries. Among the cities of Ukraine Lviv stands out as a place of impressive architectural landmarks of many architectural styles and epochs. But it is not so much the architecture that makes it special – it is the atmosphere, the aura of the city that distinguishes it from any other place. It would be hard to give a rational explanation of what creates this atmosphere, even if all the possible contributions to it are enumerated. You have to take a walk through the narrow and twisting streets of Lviv, to feel the old cobble stones beneath your feet, to breathe the air of the city, to see what in the medieval and Renaissance times used to be the quarters of Italian, Jewish and Armenian traders and merchants, to start feeling that special charm that Lviv exudes. To add to the first impressions, it would be worthwhile to spend some time in the quiet of an old Polish church, to listen to the choir singing in an old Ukrainian Orthodox church, to have a cup of excellent coffee in one of the Lviv coffee-houses, famous for the excellence of coffee, to visit the Lychakiv cemetery famous for its tombs and monuments which are veritable works of art, to talk to and socialise with people, and witness their gallantry, and civility.

7 Poltava region. Village of Velyky Sorochintsy There is an old and very good tradition among the people in the Poltava Region to have a fair in the village of Velyky Sorochintsy. This Sorochinsky fair usually takes place at the end of summer. The village of Sorochintsy is widely known in the whole world because of this fair. M. Gogol, an outstanding writer, described it in his famous works. The people of Sorochintsy organized this incredible fair very well. The people from the nearest and the distant villages come to the fair and sell their products and buy consumer goods. Many guests from different parts of Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Bulgaria and from many other countries come to Sorochintsy to take part in this fair. The representatives from many plants and factories bring their products to advertise and sell them. They make agreements on co-operation between different enterprises and try to do their best to cooperate with each other. At the Sorochintsy fair one can meet many interesting and talented people, one can listen to folk songs. Different exhibitions will show you the works of famous Ukrainian artists and ancient folk crafts. You may visit videosaloon and take part in different entertainments. You are all welcome to Sorotchintsy fair during the last decade in August.

8 Rivne region. Ostroh The small town of Ostroh is one of the oldest settlements in Ukraine. It was founded in 1100. In the 16th century a Greek-Latin-Slavonic collegium and printing centre were established here. Today this little town has a small but impressive fortress and two nice museums. The fortress, known as "Castle Hill", was built on the place of an older settlement in the 14th century.

110 Inside the fortress is the regional Eth-nography and History Museum. Its displays confirm documentally the town’s rich history. In the museum you can see a model of the town as it looked 900 years ago. The other well-known place of interest is the History of Books and Printing Museum. Among many books is a little Slavonic alphabet book written in 1578 and a copy of the famous "Ostroh Bible" written in 1581. It is the first Bible, printed in the old Slavic language by Ivan Fedorov. The museum also presents the 17th century "Ostroh Chronicles", a history book of Volyn and Galicia between the 16th and 17th centuries.

9 Ternopil region. Kremenets Kremenets is one of the nicest small towns in Ukraine, with an ancient history. It lies not far from the famous Pochayiv Monastery. It makes Kremenets a pleasant and relaxing place. The fortress offers beautiful views over the town and countryside. Ever since a stone castle was built in the 12th century, it was a place of many battles. After a long period of Polish rule, Cossacks stormed the castle in 1648. In1795 the town became a part of Russia. The main road passing the town is Shevchenko street. Across it you can see St Nicholas Cathedral, built in 1636. The Kremenets Regional Museum tells about the town’s history from the Cossack and Polish battles to the Nazi massacre in the village of Shypkolisy on the 14th of July, 1943. About 300 men, women and children were killed and 240 houses burnt on that tragic day.

10 Mariupol Mariupol is a city of regional significance in south eastern Ukraine, situated on the north coast of the Sea of Azov at the mouth of the Kalmius river, in the Pryazovia region. It is the tenth- largest city in Ukraine, and the second largest in the Donetsk Oblast with a population of 449,498ௗ(2017 est.). The city is largely and traditionally Russophone, while ethnically the population is divided about evenly between Russians and Ukrainians. Mariupol was founded on the site of a former Cossack encampment named Kalmius and granted city rights in 1778. It has been a centre for the grain trade, metallurgy, and heavy engineering, including the Illich Steel & Iron Works and Azovstal. Mariupol has played a key role in the industrialization of Ukraine. Due to the Soviet authorities frequently renaming cities after Communist leaders, the city was known as Zhdanov, after the Soviet functionary Andrei Zhdanov, between 1948 and 1989. Today, Mariupol remains a centre for industry, as well as higher education and business. Following the Russian intervention in Ukraine and the capture of Donetsk city by pro- Russian insurgents associated with the Donetsk People's Republic in 2014, Mariupol was made the provisional administrative centre of the Donetsk Oblast. The city was secured on June 13, 2014 by Ukrainian troops, and has come under attack several times since.

History Pre-settlement During the late Middle Ages through the , here taken from the 12th through the 16th century, Mariupol lay within a broader region that was largely devastated and depopulated by the intense conflict among the surrounding peoples, including the Crimean Tatars, the Nogai Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Muscovy. By the middle of the 15th century much of the region north of the Black Sea and Azov Sea was annexed to the Crimean Khanate and became a dependency of the Ottoman Empire. East of the Dnieper river marked a desolate steppe, stretching to the sea of Azov, where the lack of water made early settlement precarious. Moreover, lying near the Kalmius trail, the region was subject to frequent raids and plundering by the Tatar tribes which prevented the area's permanent settlement, keeping it sparsely populated or an entirely uninhabited no-man's land under Tatar rule. Hence it was known as the Wild Fields or the 'Deserted Plains. In this region of the Eurasian steppes, the Cossacks emerged as a distinct people in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Below the Dnieper Rapids were the Zaporozhian Cossacks,

111 composed of freebooters organized into small, loosely-knit, and highly mobile groups that practised both pastoral and nomadic living. The Cossacks would regularly penetrate the steppe for fishing and hunting, as well as for migratory farming and herding of livestock. Their independence from governmental and landowner authority attracted and enlisted large numbers of fugitive peasants and serfs fleeing the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. The isolation of the region was increased further by the Treaty of Constantinople (1700), which provided that there should be no settlements or fortifications on the coast of the Azov Sea to the mouth of the Mius River. Moreover, in 1709 in response to a Cossack alliance with Sweden against Russia, Tsar ordered the destruction of the Zaporozhian central stockade (Sich) and their complete expulsion from the area, without allowance for their return. In 1733, however, Russia was preparing for a new military campaign against the Ottoman Empire so it allowed the return of the Zaporozhians, although the territory officially belonged to Turkey. Under the terms of the Agreement of of 1734, the Zaporozhians regained all their former lands and, in return, they were to serve in the Russian army during wartime. They were also permitted to build a new stockade on the Dnieper River (called New Sich), though the terms prohibited them from erecting fortifications, allowing only for living quarters (kureni). Upon their return, the Zaporozhian population in these lands was extremely sparse, and in an effort to establish a measure of control, they introduced a structure of districts (palankas). The nearest to modern Mariupol was the Kalmiusskya district, but its border did not extend to the mouth of the Kalmius River, although this area had been part of its migratory territory. After 1736, the Zaporozhian and the Don Cossacks (whose capital was at nearby Novoazovsk) came into conflict over the area, resulting in Tsarina Elizabeth issuing a decree in 1746 marking the Kalmius River as the divide between the two Cossack hosts. Sometime after 1738, the treaties of Belgrade (1739), Niš (1739), and the Russian-Turkish convention of 1741, and likely concurrent or following the land survey of 1743–1746 (resulting in the demarcation decree of 1746), the Zaporzhian Cassocks established a military outpost on "the high promontory right [west] bank of the Kalmius river." Though the details of its construction and history are obscure, excavations revealed Cossack and other artifacts within the enclosure of approximately 120m by 120m. The outpost was likely a modest structure in that it lay within the territory of the Ottoman Empire, and the constructions of fortifications on the Sea of Azov were prohibited by the Treaty of Niš. The last Tatar raid, launched in 1769, covered a vast area, overrunning the New Russia province with a huge army in severe winter weather. It destroyed the Kalmius fortifications and burned all the Cassock winter lodgings. In 1770, the Russian government, not waiting for the end of the war with Turkey, moved its border with the Crimean Khanate southwest by more than two hundred kilometres, initiating the Dnieper fortified line (running from the today's locations of Zaporozhye to Novopetrovka), thereby laying claim to the region, including the site of the future Mariupol, from the Ottoman Empire. Following the victory of the Russian forces in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca eliminated the endemic threat from the Crimea and thereby terminated the historical justification of the Ukraine as a borderland (okraina). In 1775, Zaporizhia was incorporated into the New Russia Governorate, and part of the land claimed by the establishment of the Dnieper fortified line (including modern Mariupol) was incorporated in the newly reestablished Azov Governorate. Settlement After the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), the governor of the Azov Governorate, Vasily A. Chertkov, reported to on 23 February 1776 that at this location existed the ruins of ancient domakha (homes), and in 1778 he planned the new town of Pavlovsk. However, on 29 September 1779, the city of MarianȠpol (Greek: ȂĮȡȚĮȞȩʌȠȜȘ) of Kalmius County was founded on the site.

112 For the Russian authorities the city was named after the Russian Empress Maria Feodorovna; but the city was named de facto after the Greek settlement of Mariampol, a suburb of Bakhchisaray. The name was derived from the Hodegetria icon of the Holy Theotokos and Virgin Mary. Subsequently, in 1780 Russian authorities forcefully relocated great number of Orthodox Greeks from Crimea to the Mariupol area. In 1782 it was an administrative seat of the county in the Azov Governorate of the Russian Empire, with a population of 2,948 inhabitants. In the early 19th century the customs house, a church-parish school, the port authorities building, a county religious school, and two privately founded girls' schools appeared in the city. In the 1850s the population grew to 4,600 and the city had 120 shops and 15 wine cellars. in 1869 Consuls and Vice-Consuls of Prussia, Sweden and Norway, Austria-Hungary, the Roman state, Italy, and France had their representative offices in Mariupol. After construction of the railway line from Yuzovka in 1882, much of the wheat grown in the Yekaterinoslav Governorate and coal from the Donets Basin were exported via the port of Mariupol (the second largest after Odesa in the South Russian Empire), which served as a key funding source for opening a hospital, public library, electric power station and urban water supply system. Mariupol remained a local trading centre until 1898, when the Belgian subsidiary SA Providence Russe opened a steelworks in Sartana near Mariupol (now the Ilyich Steel & Iron Works). The company incurred heavy losses and by 1902 went into bankruptcy, owing 6 million francs to the Providence company and needing to be re-financed by the Banque de l'Union Parisienne. The mills brought cultural diversity to Mariupol as immigrants, mostly peasants from all over the empire, moved to the city looking for a job and a better life. The number of workers employed increased to 5,400 persons. In 1914 the population of Mariupol reached 58,000. However, the period from 1917 onwards saw a continuous decline in population and industry due to the February Revolution and the Civil War. In 1933 a new steelworks (Azovstal) was built along the Kalmius river. During World War II, the city was occupied by Nazi Germany from 8 October 1941 to 10 September 1943. During this time there was tremendous damage to the city and many people were killed. The Jewish population was wiped out by two operations specifically aimed at murdering them. In 1948 Mariupol was renamed Zhdanov after Soviet politician Andrei Zhdanov who had been born there in 1896, but with the collapse of the USSR, the name reverted to Mariupol in 1989. The war in Donbass Following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, pro-Russian and anti-revolution protests erupted across eastern Ukraine. This unrest later evolved into a war between the Ukrainian government and the separatist forces of the Donetsk People's Republic (DPR). In May of that year, a battle between the two sides broke out in Mariupol after it briefly came under DPR control. The city was eventually recaptured by government forces, and on 13 June Mariupol was proclaimed the temporary capital of Donetsk Oblast until the city of Donetsk could be recaptured. The city remained peaceful until the end of August, when an offensive by pro-Russian forces from the east came within 16 kilometres (10 mi) of it. A ceasefire between the two sides was agreed to on 5 September, halting that offensive. Despite this ceasefire, minor skirmishes continued on the outskirts of Mariupol in the following months. To protect the city, government forces established three defence lines on its outskirts, deployed heavy artillery, and large amounts of army and national guard troops. An assault on Mariupol was launched on 24 January 2015 by the Donetsk People's Republic rebel forces. The city was defended by the Ukrainian government forces. According to OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine, on January 24 Grad rockets fired from positions occupied by rebel forces dropped on populated areas of Mariupol killing 30 people. "...the Grad rockets originated from a northeasterly direction... and the Uragan rockets from an easterly direction, both controlled by the 'Donetsk People's Republic'..."

113 On 1 January 2017, Russian News Agency TASS reported that the separatists claimed that Ukrainian forces had launched a massive artillery barrage at the "Donetsk People's Republic" amid the trip of Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko and US Senator John McCain to Mariupol. Following the May 2018 opening of the Crimean Bridge, cargo ships bound for Mariupol found themselves subject to inspections by the Russian authorities resulting in lengthy delays would sometimes stretch to a week. Hence, its port workers were put on a four-day week. On 26 October 2018, The Globe and Mail reported that the bridge had reduced Ukrainian shipping from its Sea of Azov ports (what Mariupol is) by about 25%.Late September 2018, two vessels departed from the Black Sea port , passed the Crimean Bridge and arrived in Mariupol. On 25 November 2018, three Ukrainian navy vessels who attempted to do the same were captured by the Russian FSB security service during the 2018 incident. Geography Mariupol is located to the south of the Donetsk Oblast, on the coast of Sea of Azov and at the mouth of Kalmius River. It is located in an area of Azov Lowland that is extension of the Ukrainian Black Sea Lowland. To the east of Mariupol is located the Khomutov Steppe which is also part of the Azov Lowland located on the border with the Russian Federation. The city occupies an area of 166.0² (64 mi²) [with suburbs, i.e., the territories subordinated to the Mariupol city council, 244.0 km² (94.2 mi²)]. The downtown area is 106.0 km² (40.9 mi²), while the area of parks and gardens is 80.6 km² (31.1 mi²). The city is mainly built on land that is made of solonetzic (sodium enriched) chernozems, with a significant amount of underground subsoil water that frequently leads to landslides. Climate Mariupol has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) with warm summers and cold winters. The average annual precipitation is 511 millimetres (20 in). Agroclimatic conditions allow the cultivation in the suburbs of Mariupol thermophilic agricultural crops having long vegetative periods (sunflower, melons, grapes, etc.). However water resources in the region are insufficient, and consequently ponds and water basins are used for the needs of the population and industry. In the winter, the wind direction is mainly east, while in the summer, the wind is from the north. Ecology Mariupol leads Ukraine in the volume of emissions of harmful substances by industrial enterprises. Recently, the city's leading enterprises have begun to address the ecological problems. Thus, over the last 15 years industrial emissions have fallen nearly in half. Due to stable production by the majority of the large industrial enterprises, the city constantly experiences environmental problems. At the end of the 1970s, Zhdanov (Mariupol) ranked third in the USSR (after Novokuznetsk and Magnitogorsk) in the quantity of industrial emissions. In 1989, including all enterprises, the city had 5,215 sources of atmospheric pollution producing 752,900 tons of harmful substances a year (about 98% from metallurgical enterprises and "Markokhim"). Even given some easing of the maximum-permissible concentrations (maximum concentration limit) in the state's industrial activity (in the mid-1990s), many pollution limits were still exceeded. In the residential areas adjoining the industrial giants, concentrations of benzapiren reach 6– 9 times the maximum concentration limits; fluoric hydrogen, ammonia, and formaldehyde reach 2– 3 to 5 times the maximum concentration limits; dust and oxides of carbon, and hydrogen sulphide are 6-8 times the maximum concentration limits; and dioxides of nitrogen are 2–3 times the maximum concentration limits. The maximum concentration limit has been exceed on phenol by 17x, and on benzapiren by 13–14x. Ill-considered arrangements of the construction platforms of Azovstal and Markokhim (an economy in transport charges was assumed, both during construction in the 1930s and during the subsequent operation) have led to extensive wind-borne emissions into the central areas of

114 Mariupol. Wind intensity and geographical "flatness" offer relief from the accumulation of long- standing pollutants, somewhat easing the problem. The nearby Sea of Azov is in distress. The catch of fish in the area has been reduced by orders of magnitude over the last 30–40 years. The environmental protection activity of the leading industrial enterprises in Mariupol costs millions of hrivnas, but it appears to have little effect on the city's long-standing environmental problems. Administrative division Mariupol is divided into four neighborhoods or "raions". - Kalmiuskyi Raion (until June 2016 named Illichivsk Raion after Vladimir Ilyich Lenin) is the northern part of the city, the largest and most industrialized neighborhood in the city. It is commonly known as the Zavod ("Factory") of Ilyich. - Livoberezhnyi Raion (until June 2016 named after Sergo Ordzhonikidze) is the eastern part of the city, on the left bank of the river Kalmius. Its name means the "Left Bank". - Prymorsky Raion is the southern area of the city, on the coast of the Azov Sea. The everyday name of the central part this neighbourhood is simply "the Port". - Tsentralnyi Raion is the central city raion. Its everyday name is simply "the Centre" or "the City". Formerly it was known as Zhovtnevyi Raion (October Raion) commemorating the 1917 Bolshevik coup-d'état. The Kalmius river separates the Livoberezhnyi Raion from the remaining three raions. The population is mostly concentrated in the Tsentralnyi and Prymorsky Raions. The Kalmiuskyi Raion houses the large Illich Steel and Iron Works and the Azovmash manufacturing plant. The Livoberezhnyi (Left Bank) is home to the Azovstal metallurgic combine and the Koksokhim (Coke and Chemical) factory. The settlements of Stary Krym and Sartana are located in close proximity to the city limits of Mariupol. Coat of arms The modern coat of arms of Mariupol was confirmed in 1989. It is described in heraldic terms as: Per fess wavy argent and azure, on an anchor or, accompanied by the figure 1778 of the last. The gold anchorhas a ring on top. The number 1778 indicates the year of the city's founding. The argent represents steel; the azure, the sea; the anchor, the port; and the ring, metallurgy. Demographics As of December 1, 2014, the city's population was 477,992. Over the last century the population has grown nearly twelvefold. The city is populated by Ukrainians, Russians, Pontic Greeks (including Caucasus Greeksand Tatar- and Turkish-speaking but Greek Orthodox Christian Urums), Belarusians, Armenians, Jews, etc. The main language is Russian. The average annual population decline of city from 2010 to 2014 is 0.6%. Ethnic structure In 2002, ethnic Ukrainians made up the largest percentage (48.7%) but less than half of the population; the second greatest ethnicity was Russian (44.4%). A June-July 2017 survey indicated that Ukrainians had grown to 59% of Mariupol's population and the Russian share had dropped to 33%.The city is home to the largest population of Pontic Greeks in Ukraine ("Greeks of Priazovye") at 21,900, with 31,400 more in the six nearby rural areas, totaling about 70% of the Pontic Greek population of the area and 60% for the country. The city is predominantly Russian speaking. From 60% to 80% of Ukrainian-language dwellers communicate through so-called Surzhyk, due to the large influence of . Most Greek-speaking villages in the region speak a dialect called Rumeíka, that is, a branch of Pontic Greek. There are also a number of settlements of other ethnic communities, including Germans, Bulgarians, and Albanians. Economy Employment. About 59% of the people whose occupation is in the national economy work in industry and 11% of them in transportation. As of July 1, 2009, the official rate of unemployment in the city stood at 2% The figure, however, only includes people registered as "unemployed" in the local job centre. The real unemployment rate is therefore higher.

115 Industry. There are 56 industrial enterprises in Mariupol under various plans of ownership. The city's industry is diverse, with heavy industry dominant. Mariupol is home to major steel mills (including some of global importance) and chemical plants; there is also an important seaport and a railroad junction. The largest enterprises are Ilyich Iron and Steel Works, Azovstal, Azovmash Holding, and the Mariupol Sea Trading Port. There are also shipyards, fish canneries, and various educational institutions with studies in metallurgy and science. The leading business of the city is ferrous metallurgy, which makes up 93.5% of the city's income from industrial production. Culture Theatres: Donetsk Regional Drama Theatre. In 2003 the oldest theater in the region celebrated its 125th anniversary. For its contribution to the spiritual education of theater, in 2000 it was awarded the laureate in the competition "Gold Scythian". Cinemas: Pobeda ("Victory"), Savona, Multiplex. Palaces of Culture (Recreation centres) (together with so-called clubs). In the surrounding environs of city, on the shore of Sea of Azov, archaeology monuments were excavated from neolithic burial grounds dating from the end of the third millennium B.C. During excavations over 120 skeletons were discovered. Found near them were stone and bone instruments, beads, shell-works from shellfishes, and animal teeth. Art and literature. Creative Organisations of Artists, Union of Journalists of Mariupol, the Literary Union "Azovye" (from 1924, about 100 members), and others. Tourism and attractions Tourist interest are mainly on the coast of the Sea of Azov. Around the city the strip of resort settlements was pulled: Melekino, Urzuf, Yalta, Sedovo, Bezymennoye, Sopino, Belosaray Kosa, etc. The first resorts were opened in the city in 1926. Along a sea here during 16 the narrow bar of sandy beaches stretches for one km. Water temperature in the summer ranges from 22 to 24 C (72–75 F). The duration of the bathing season is 120 days. Monuments Mariupol has monuments to Taras Shevchenko, Vladimir Vysotsky, Arkhip Kuindzhi, and many other famous persons. Monuments in honour of the liberation of Donbass, the metallurgists, and others can also be found in the city. There are also monuments to Makar Maza, Hryhoriy Yuriyovych Horban, K.P. Apatov, and Tolya Balabukha, to seamen-commandos, to pilots V.G. Semenyshyn and N.E. Lavytsky, to soldiers of the Soviet 9th Aviation Division, to victims of political repressions of 1930–1950, etc. During the Soviet period the central square of the city featured a monument to Andrei Zhdanov, after whom the city was named from 1948–1990. The artists V. Konstantynov and L. Kuzminkov are the sculptors of some of the monuments, including the monument to Metropolitan Ignatiy, the founder of Mariupol. Sports Mariupol is the hometown of the nationally famous swimmer Oleksandr Sydorenko who lives in the city. FC Mariupol is a football club, with a great sport traditions and a history of participation at the European level competitions. The water polo team, the "Ilyichevets", is the undisputed champion of Ukraine. It has won the Ukrainian championship 11 times. Every year it plays in the European Champion Cup and Russian championship. Azovstal' Canoeing Club on the river Kalmius. Vitaly Yepishkin – 3rd place in the World Cup in the 200m K-2. Azovmash Basketball Club, similarly to the "Ilichevets" Water-polo Club, has numerous national championship titles. Significant successes were obtained as well by the Mariupol schools of boxing, Greco-Roman wrestling, artistic gymnastics, and other types of sport. Architecture and Construction Old Mariupol is an area defined by the coast of the Sea of Azov to the south, by the Kalmius River to the east, to the north by Shevchenko Boulevard, and to the west by Metalurhiv Avenue. It

116 is built up mainly of a few storey houses and has kept its pre-revolutionary architecture. Only Artem Street and Miru Avenue were built after World War II and are considered modern constructions. The central area of Mariupol (from Metalurhiv Avenue up to Budivelnykiv Avenue) is made up almost entirely of administrative and commercial buildings, including a city council building, post office, the Lukov cinema, Mariupol Humanitarian University, Priazov State Technical University, the Korolenko central city library, and many large shops. The architecture of other residential areas ("Zakhidny", "Skhidny", "Kirov", "Cheremushky", 5th, 17th catchment area, etc.) is not particularly distinct or original and consists of typical 5- or 9-storey houses. The term "Cheremushki" carries a special meaning in Russian culture and now also in Ukrainian; it usually refers to the newly settled parts of a city. Industrial construction prevails. The mass building of habitable quarters within the city ended in the 1980s. Mainly under construction now are comfortable habitations. City transport Mariupol has transportation including bus transportation, trolley-buses, trams, and fixed- route taxis. The city is connected by railways, a seaport and the airport to other countries and cities. Communications In the city all leading Ukrainian mobile communications carriers are operational. During Soviet times in the city, ten automatic telephone exchanges were operational; six digital automatic telephone exchanges were recently added. Education 81 general educational establishment are operational, including: 67 comprehensive schools (48,500 students), 2 grammar schools, 3 , 4 evening replaceable schools, 3 boarding schools, 2 private schools, 11 professional educational institutions (6,274 students), and 94 children's preschool establishments (12,700 children). Three higher education establishments: Priazovsky State Technical University, Mariupol State University, Azovsky Institute of Marine Transport.

11 Simferopol Simferopol is a city on the Crimean Peninsula which is, since the 2014 annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, the de facto of the within the Russian Federation. De jure, it remains the capital city of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within Ukraine. The status of Crimea is disputed between Russia and Ukraine as a result of the 2014 vote to join Russia, which was held during Russian military intervention, and the subsequent annexation. Simferopol is an important political, economic and transport hub of the peninsula, and serves as the administrative centre of both Simferopol and Simferopol District, though it does not belong to the district. Population: 332,317 (2014 Census). Archaeological evidence in Simferopol indicates the existence of an ancient Scythian city, collectively known as the Scythian Neapolis. The location was also home to a Crimean Tatar town, Aqmescit. After the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire, the city's name was changed to its present Simferopol. Etymologies The name comes from the Greek Sympheropolis (Greek: Symferópolis), meaning city of common good. In Crimean Tatar, the name of the city is Aqmescit, which means The white mosque (Aq-white, and mescit-mosque). History Early history Archaeological evidence in the Chokurcha cave shows the presence of ancient people living in the territory of modern Simferopol. The Scythian Neapolis, known by its Greek name, is also located in the city, which is the remnants of an ancient capital of the Crimean Scythians who lived on the territory from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.

117 Later, the Crimean Tatars founded the town of Aqmescit. For some time, Aqmescit served as the residence of the Qal÷a-Sultan, the second most important position in the Crimean Khanate after the Khan himself. Russian Empire The city was renamed Simferopol in 1784 after the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire by Catherine II of Russia. The name Simferopol is in Greek, ȈȣȝijİȡȩʌȠȜȚȢ (Simferopolis), and literally means "the city of usefulness." The tradition to give Greek names to places in newly acquired southern territories was carried out by Empress as part of her Greek Plan. In 1802, Simferopol became the administrative centre of the . During the Crimean War of 1854–1856, the Russian Imperial Army reserves and a hospital were stationed in the city. After the war, more than 30,000 Russian soldiers were buried in the city's vicinity. 20th-century wars In the 20th century, Simferopol was once again affected by wars and conflicts in the region. At the end of the , the headquarters of General Pyotr Wrangel, leader of the anti- Bolshevik White Army, were located there. On 13 November 1920, the Red Army captured the city and on 18 October 1921, Simferopol became the capital of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. During World War II, Simferopol was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1 November 1941 to 13 April 1944. Retreating NKVD police shot a number of prisoners on 31 October 1941 in the NKVD building and the city's prison. Germans perpetrated one of the largest war-time massacres in Simferopol, killing in total over 22,000 locals-mostly Jews, Russians, , and Gypsies. On one occasion, starting 9 December 1941, the D under Otto Ohlendorf's command killed an estimated 14,300 Simferopol residents; most of them were Jews. In April 1944 the Red Army liberated Simferopol. On 18 May 1944 the Crimean Tatar population of the city, along with the whole Crimean Tatar nation of Crimea, was forcibly deported to Central Asia in a form of collective punishment. Within Ukraine On 26 April 1954 Simferopol, together with the rest of the , was transferred from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. An asteroid, discovered in 1970 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova, is named after the city (2141 Simferopol). Following a referendum on 20 January 1991, the Crimean Oblast was upgraded an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on 12 February 1991 by the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR. Simferopol became the capital of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Simferopol became the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea within newly independent Ukraine. Today, the city has a population of 340,600 (2006) most of whom are ethnic Russians, with the rest being Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar minorities. After the Crimean Tatars were allowed to return from exile in the 1990s, several new Crimean Tatar suburbs were constructed, as many more Tatars returned to the city compared to number exiled in 1944. Land ownership between the current residents and returning Crimean Tatars is a major area of conflict today with the Tatars requesting the return of lands seized after their deportation. Russian annexation On 16 March 2014, a referendum was held whose results showed that a majority of Crimeans voted in favour of independence of Crimea from Ukraine and joining Russia as a federal subject. The legitimacy of the referendum's results has been questioned by several nations and independent news organizations. On 21 March, Simferopol officially became the capital of a new federal subject of the Russian Federation. The referendum was not recognized internationally, and the event was viewed by many as an annexation of the Crimean land by the Russian Federation. On 14 September 2014, municipal elections was held as part of the Russian Federation, the first elections since the Crimean status referendum of 16 March 2014.

118 Location Simferopol is located in the south-central portion of the Crimean Peninsula. The city lies on the Salhir River and near the artificial Simferopol Reservoir, which provides the city with clean drinking water. The Simferopol Reservoir's earth dam is the biggest in Europe. Transportation Simferopol has a major railway station. In December 2014 Ukraine cut the railway line to Crimea at the border. Currently, the station serves only a commuter (regional) passenger and the Moscow – Simferopol train every day. The city is also connected via the Simferopol International Airport, which was constructed in 1936. Zavodskoye Airport is situated southwest of Simferopol. The city has several main bus stations, with routes towards many cities, including Sevastopol, Kerch, Yalta, and Yevpatoriya. The Crimean connects Simferopol to the city of Yalta on Crimean Black Sea coast. The line is the longest trolleybus line in the world with a total length of 86 kilometres (53 mi) (since 2014 again 96 kilometres (60 mi)). Economy When it existed, Crimea Air had its head office on the grounds of Simferopol Airport. Simferopol hosts some industries, such as 'Zavod 'Phiolent' JSC producing Marine automation control systems; Precise electrical micro machines of low input power; Power tools, for both professional and household usage. Education The largest collection of higher education institutions in Crimea is located in Simferopol. Among them is the largest university in Simferopol and Crimea, the Taurida V.Vernadsky National University, which was founded in 1917. Crimea State Medical University named after S. I. Georgievskyi, also located in Simferopol, is one of the most prominent medical schools of Ukraine. The Crimean Medical University is situated on the plot, where in 1855 a nursery garden was planted by the founder of the Nikita Botanical Gardens Ch.Ch.Steven (1781–1863). In 1863– 1866 a school for girls was built here and in 1931 a medical institute was opened. On the same plot P. Krzhizhanovskyi built a three-storey hostel for medical students after the design in 1934. The building with clear geometric masses was completed in 1938. Sports Simferopol is home to the football club FC TSK Simferopol which plays in the Crimean Premier League. It was formed as a Russian club in 2014, following the 2014 Crimean Conflict, to replace the Ukrainian club Tavriya Simferopol.

Regions, cities and towns of Ukraine Quiz 1. What is the main street of Kyiv? 2. How long is it? 3. When did the building of Khreshchatyk begin? 4. When does Khreshchatyk look especially beautiful? Why? 5. Why do people like to go to Khreshchatyk? 6. When did Kyiv become the capital of Ukraine? 7. When was Kyiv liberated from the Nazi occupation? 8. What oldest monuments of Kyiv do you know? 9. This river services the capital city of Ukraine and many small villages and cities along it? 10. How many subway lines service the city of Kyiv? 11. What century was Kyiv founded in? 12. Why was the Tithe Church called "Desiatynna"? 13. What did Khreschatyk look like in the 11th century? 14. During whose reign was the apex of prosperity of ancient Kyiv? 15. How long was Kyiv subjected to the Tatar yoke? 16. When was Kyiv granted the Magdeburg charter? 17. After whose design were the tsar's palace and St. Andrew's Church built?

119 18. What were the main thoroughfares of Kyiv in the 19th c? 19. When was electricity lighting introduced? 20 How many bridges join Left- and Right-Bank Kyiv? 21 What are the noted professional Theatres in Kyiv? 22 What museum is located on the grounds of the Kyiv Cave Historical-Cultural Preserve? 23 In what style was St. Sophia's Cathedral ensemble designed? 24 What works are of unique value in the cathedral? 25 Who was the Mariinskyi Palace designed for? 26 Whose name does it bear? 27 When was Lviv founded? 28 What monuments of the 13th c. are there in Lviv? 29. What Lviv's monuments are examples of Renaissance architecture? 30. What is Nizhyn known for? 31. When was the Nizhyn Lyceum founded? 32. Who is the Nizhyn State Pedagogical University named after? 33. Why is Vasylkiv named after Volodymyr the Great? 34. How many towns and cities are there in Ukraine? 35. What are the largest cities? 36. What is a Ukrainian village like? 37. What churches of Chernihiv date from the 11th century? 38. What river does Kolomyia stand on? Who often ruined the town? 39. What ethnic group of Ukrainians lives in Kolomyia? 40. Which museum is the highlight of the Kolomyia? 41. What is exhibited in the Museum of Hutzul Folk Art? 42. What is one of the oldest cities of Podillia? 43. Where does this Kamianets-Podilskyi stand? 44. Every historic period changed the architecture of the Kamianets-Podilskyi, didn’t it? 45. What did Turks build there? 46. What name did the Kropyvnytskyi get in 1775? 47. Who is Marko Kropyvnytsky? 48. What is a good and old tradition in the Poltava Region? 49. Where does the fair take place in the Poltava Region? 50. How old is Ostroh? 51. When was a printing centre established in Ostroh? 52. Where is Kremenets situated? 53. When did Kremenets become a part of Russia?

Theme 7 Culture of Ukraine: main periods – 2 hours

Plan 1 Introduction to "History of Ukrainian Culture" - Subject and tasks of "History of Ukrainian Culture". - Culture and society. - Ukrainian culture in context of world culture. 2 Archaic ɋultures at the Territory of Ukraine. Sources of Ukrainian Culture - Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, and Greeks. - Early Slavic culture. 3 Culture of Kyivan Rus and Galiɫia-Volhynia Principality - Kyivan Rus' as a new period of Slavic cultural development. - Christianization like an impulse of new cultural process. - Education and verbal arts in Rus.

120 4 Ukrainian Culture of Lithuanian and Polish Period (14th – the first half of 17th centuries) - Social, political and historical situation. - Development of education and scientific knowledge. - Literature and arts. Printing. 5 Ukraine and West-European Cultural Influences. Enlightenment (the second half of 17th – 18th centuries) - Historical conditions of Ukrainian cultural development. - Education and science. - Literature and arts. 6 Culture of Ukraine in 19th – early 20th centuries - Periods of Ukrainian cultural revival. - Social and cultural unities of Ukrainian intellectuals. - Ukrainian cultural movement of early 20th century. 7 Culture of Ukraine in 20th – early 21st centuries - Culture of Ukraine (early 20th century – before 1917). - Culture of independent Ukraine (1991– nowadays). Culture of Ukraine Quiz

1 Introduction to "History of Ukrainian Culture" History of mankind is the history of cultural development. Any nation has the most interesting point it is its culture. Culture is a qualitative characteristic of social life. Nations are strong if they had the developed culture. History of culture is the treasure of wisdom and experience received by the mankind from previous generations. People should keep, generalize, occupy and adopt this experience. Without this social progress and self-perfection are impossible.

Subject and tasks of "History of Ukrainian Culture". Subject of history of culture is a complex study of big variety of spheres: history of science and technique, household activities, education and social thought, folklore and literature studies, history of arts. History of culture generalizes all these knowledge and investigates culture like system of different branches. What does "culture" mean? Term "culture" has Latin origin and it etymologically is connected with the word "cult" (this word originates from Latin "cultus", which means adoration of Gods and ancestors). So, we could give such kind of interpretation: it is something that provides us to the top, makes our level higher. From the very beginning this term meant "till, cultivation of land according to people's needs". Later, it was used for defining of upbringing process, education, and development. The first man, who put the definition of "culture" to scientific circulation, was Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 years B.C.) and was connected with the culture of mind, cultivation of thoughts. Since 17th century "culture" had been understood like a level of mental abilities of some nations. Contemporary understanding of this term started to use in European social thought only from the second half of 18th century. At that time "culture" meant the achievements of spiritual culture, scientific knowledge, arts, moral perfection, and all things related to the education. Nowadays, there are about thousand definitions of culture. World conference in cultural politics under the aegis of UNESCO in 1982 adopted the Declaration. In this document we could find interesting definition of "culture": "Culture is a complex of material, spiritual, intellectual and emotional characteristics of society that includes not only big variety of arts, but also way of life, the main rules of human being, system of values, traditions and beliefs". Culture represents qualitative estimation of society and each individual. All cultural things are created by human being. Sometimes you can find the specific term "artifacts" for non-material, synthetic things created by man.

121 Culture and society So, culture is transformed by the nature. Nature is a root, basis of culture. It has an organic unity with culture. Because of that care of nature (lands, water, air, flora and fauna) means at the same time care of culture. If we ruined the nature we limited our chances for future life. Biosphere could exist without people, but people could not exist without biosphere. We should remember that culture could not develop in opposition to nature. The first president of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences V.I. Vernads'ky (1863–1945) underlined we should live in harmony with nature and keep the balance between culture and nature. According to two main spheres of human activity there are two important definitions of culture: material and spiritual. To the material culture belongs transportation, communication, houses, domestic appliances, clothes – everything, which is the result of productive, material activity of people. Spiritual culture includes the cognition, morality, upbringing and education, law, philosophy, ethic, aesthetic, science, arts, literature, mythology, religion – all things related to the consciousness and spiritual production. But you can understand that this division is conditional. Criteria of division of culture: according to the mean of according to subject of according to the direction expression cultural creativity – material; – world; – elitist (high); – spiritual – national; – folk; – ethnic – mass

Scientists also subdivide culture on social (culture of definite society or region) and individual (this kind of culture we can see in the level of upbringing, education, worldview and way of life). Culture is a product of human creativity. Thank to culture we could change not only the world, but our souls and behaviour. Culture includes people's memory. Each new generation inherited previous culture of its nation. Culture is a mechanism of transmission of social experience from one generation to another, from one epoch to the next one, from one country to another. Culture has no borders. High level of civilization is characterized by active cultural exchange. In each culture there are specific features and similar points, which we could find in all cultures. Russian artist Nickolas Roerich (1874–1947) underlined that "culture is a weapon of Light and salvation". According to his interpretation of culture "cult" means "respect" and "ur" means "light". Culture is a passport of nation. Thanks to culture we are realized like human beings, not like animals. Mankind exists like variety of national-cultural unities. So, world culture is a mosaic of national cultures. All of them are unique. Variety of cultures is the characteristic peculiarity of contemporary civilization. Famous Ukrainian philosopher Myroslav Popovych investigated different levels of culture's realization: outlook, state-building and household. So, he subdivides culture onto spiritual, political and household culture. Foreign cultural scientists use the term "culture" approximately in four main meanings: 1. To define the process of intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual development; 2. To describe a society that is based on law, order, and morality. In this sense, culture is identified with "civilization"; 3. The "culture" is used for the description of lifestyle of people, exposed to a particular community (youth culture, professional culture, etc.), nation (Japanese, Ukrainian, German, etc.), historical period (Antique, Medieval, etc.); 4. The term "culture" is used as an abstract generalized name for a variety of ways, forms and consequences of intellectual and artistic activity of people in literature, music, painting, theater, and cinema. The effectiveness of cultural processes can be defined by identifying the main social functions inherent to culture. They are all interrelated and add each other.

122 Functions of culture Humanistic: with a help of it the highest spiritual values are realized through the cultivation of human dignity; Outlook: means of culture form human outlook, through the synthesis of cognitive, emotional, sensory, estimative and volitional characteristics of individual; Cognitive: understanding of the world through empirical generalization of aquired knowledge and scientific cognition; Predictive: formation of ideas about the future; Integrative: bringing people together around certain ideas, beliefs, ideals, etc.; Communicative: development and perfection of individual through the communication; Value-orientation: provides value orientation of people in society; Educative: learning of knowledge, norms, values, social roles and normative behaviour; Emotional-aesthetic: artworks direct us on the understanding of surrounding world, it causes experience, dreams, good mood and inspires us for active realization of our plans, and forms aesthetic feelings; Social memory: provides a link between the past, present and future of human history; Normative function: includes a big number of requirements for spiritual world of human- being, his/her knowledge, outlook and morality.

Material culture Spiritual culture – culture of labour (means of labour: – values in sphere of social consciousness instruments, machine tools, etc. and (outlook, moral and aesthetic culture, scientific- abilities, skills, knowledge that are used technical creativity, language, thinking, etc.); in material production); – social institutes and organizations that realize – way of life (means of individual and spiritual production, regulate and direct cultural social consumption; historical process; – food, clothes, houses, domestic – material-technical basis that is used for things (utensil). production and spread of achievements of spiritual culture in society.

So, we could say that: material production spiritual production is directed on satisfaction of material is the production of ideas, conceptions, needs of people, on creation of experiences, scientific systems, norms and "material body of culture", material traditions of human existence things

World culture is a totality of world cultures, synthesis of the best achievements of all national cultures. It defines the system of human values.

Ukrainian culture in context of world culture Ukrainian culture is the part of world culture. Our culture has both Oriental and Occidental elements, but in spite of all influences it is deep, original and folk culture. You can find in the scientific literature two definitions: Ukrainian culture and culture of Ukraine. They are not identical. Ukrainian culture is the result of creativity of all Ukrainians (even that groups and communities where live abroad). Culture of Ukraine includes masterpieces of representatives of other nations and cultures, but they existed and created on the territory of our state (Ukraine) or the Crimean peninsula. For example, the mosk (Djuma-djami) in Evpatoria was designed by Hoca Mimar Sinan (? – 1588), the famous Ottoman architect.

123 So, Ukrainian culture is a totality of cultural achievements, way of perceiving the world, system of thinking and creativity of Ukrainians. It is a system that reflects spiritual world of Ukrainian people, like social and ethnic formation. Ukrainian culture as a system includes: – Material and spiritual culture created by Ukrainians (both at the territory of a country and abroad); – Cultural epochs, trends and directions of development and functioning of cultural phenomena; – Interconnection of kinds, fields and trends of culture; – Continuity of culture. Culture of Ukrainian people is difficult to understand out of the logic of historical process. For many years ethnic Ukrainian lands had been existed under the influence of other state formations: Golden Horde, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland, Russian and Austrian-Hungarian empires. Traces of all these influences we can find in Ukrainian national culture. History of Ukrainian culture is divided into some periods: 1. Culture of East Slavs of pre-Christian period (from the first people at this territory in Palaeolith 35–40 thousand years ago – up to the baptizing of Kyivan Rus' (988)). 2. Culture of Kyivan Rus' and Galiɫia-Volhynia Principality (9th – 13th centuries). 3. Ukrainian culture in 15th – 17th centuries. 4. Culture of Ukrainian people in the second half of the 17th – end of the 18th c. Ukrainian Baroque. 5. Development of Ukrainian culture in late 18th – first half of the 19th c. 6. Formation of modern Ukrainian culture of the second half of the 19th c. 7. Development of Ukrainian culture in 1917–1921. 8. Culture of Soviet Ukraine (1920–1991). 9. Peculiarities of Ukrainian formation in the second half of the 20th c. 10.Culture of independent Ukraine. There is a big variety of sources for learning of history of Ukrainian culture. We can group them conditionally in such way: 1. Oral folk creativity – fairy-tales, legends, myths, bylyny, songs, dumy, etc.; 2. Objects of material culture: archaeological (Cucuteni-Trypillian, Zarubyntsi culture, Scythian, etc.); irrigation systems, urban centers, business, cult and household architecture, home design, furniture, clothes, agricultural and handicraft tools, technologies of producing, etc.; 3. Written sources – chronicles, different kinds and genres of literature, laws and state documents; 4. Painting as symbiosis of material and spiritual culture. So, sources for learning of culture are the evidence that the subject of history of culture covers the wide field of human activity, connected with spiritual and material heritage. Values of Ukrainian culture coincide with universal human values. Answer the questions 1. What does "culture" mean? 2. What are the functions of culture? 3. Which kinds of historical sources do you know? 4. When did the phenomenon of "mass culture" appear? 5. What was the reason for the formation of mass culture? 6. Which characteristic features of mass culture do you know? 7. Which kinds of culture do you know? 8. Which historical periods of Ukrainian culture do you know?

2 Archaic ɋultures at the Territory of Ukraine. Sources of Ukrainian Culture Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, and Greeks Trypillians were the earliest agricultural tribes at the territory of Ukraine. This culture integrated in the Right-Bank Ukraine and developed in 5th – 3rd millennia B.C. Vikentii Khvoika (1850–1914), a famous Ukrainian archaeologist.

124 Czech by origin he was the first scientist, who investigated this culture. V. Khvoika was a teacher. He started archaeological excavations not far from the village Trypillia (Kyiv region, 50 km to the South from Kyiv) in 1893. Scientists name this archeological culture "culture of painted ceramics". Archaeologists found more than 1000 settlements of this culture. Trypillian population was about 1 million people. Trypillians cultivated land with the help of stone and bone hoes. Later they started to use primitive plough. Trypillian tribes cultivated wheat, barley, millet, beans, and flax. In gardening they have grown apricots, plums and cherry-plums. Each 50–100 years people should change place of living because the land became exhausted. Stock-raising was also developed (cows, pigs, and horses). Trypillian people knew the wheel. Hunting and fishing were also important for this culture. Trypillians were skillful in handicrafts. They made nice clothes not only from fur (skin of animals), but also from linen. High level of development had ceramic production. Trypillian people made ceramics by hands (they did not know the potter's wheel). Beautiful ornaments, original small plastic, wonderful ceramic forms are the evidence of high level of spirituality of Trypillians. Trypillian people lived in big settlements that are usually named proto-cities (first cities). Territory of some settlements occupied hundred hectares, and the population was 10–15 thousand people. It points on high level of social organization of Trypillian tribes. Typical Trypillian settlement consisted of houses, placed on a circle with a special square in the middle. Houses were 2 or 3 storied. They were divided into some living rooms and depositories. Each room had a stove and big ceramic pots that used like grain tanks. The clay was the main material for building. Trypillians worshipped to their own gods, carried on astronomic observations, had their own calendar, original imagination about the Universe. They had relations with Eastern Mediterranean and Danube regions (by the way, they received copper from Danube region). Social-economic level of Trypillians was similar to Mesopotamians. But in full understanding it was not developed civilization because Trypillians had no State, developed cities, and written language. Nomadic tribes caused the transformation of this culture and in 3rd millennium B.C. it disappeared. Modern science has not found ethno-genetic connection of Trypillian tribes with newcoming ones. Direct genetic continuation Trypillian culture had no here. So, we could not say that Trypillians were Ukrainian ancestors. Ukrainian people was formed and integrated later, in the Middle Ages. But culture has its own laws of development. Culture likes heredity. We could find some elements of their culture in our life: household system, decoration of houses, and specific ceramic decoration. Among autochtonus (aboriginal) sources of Ukrainian culture we could mention Cimmerian- Scythian-Sarmatian cultural symbiosis of 2nd – 1st millennia B.C. Cimmerians were the most ancient people at Ukrainian territory. They lived between the Tir (Dnister) and Tanais (Don) Rivers and also Crimean and Taman peninsulas. Historical sources related to 9th – first half of 7th century B.C. Cimmerians had nomadic stock-raising, high culture of bronze and ceramics with colourful inlays. Cimmerians started to smelt the iron. Succeeding development was interrupted by Scythian invasion of nomadic tribes from Iranian territory. The oldest mention about Scythians we could find in Assyrian cuneiforms related to the 7th century B.C. in the middle-second half of 6th century B.C. steppe Crimea became the center of Scythian State. Scythian culture was syncretic (it combined traditional Scythian and antique cultures) and had some characteristic features: ceramics with geometrical ornaments; in painting there was specific style (animalistic one). Among main animals that Scythian artists presented there were: deer, sheep, horse, wild cat, fantastic gryphon, rock he-goat. There is not unanimous point of view on the basis of animalistic style. Some of scientists consider that Scythians wanted to get quickness, strength, and beauty by using animalistic symbols in handicraft. Others explain that Scythians had specific mythology full of zoomorphic signs which characterized the Universe.

125 Ukrainians inherited from Scythian culture: white blouse, boots, acute-top Cossack , some details of armament (sagaidak, pirnach), and many words, such as "sobaka" (dog), "" (axe, in Ukrainian "sokyra"), "chara" (goblet), "zvaty" (call), "boyatysya" (afraid of), "horonyty" (tumulate), "slovo" (word), "zlo" (evil), "vyna" (guilty), "mohyla" (grave), etc. Sarmatic tribes occupied and assimilated Scythian ones. Sarmatian people accepted some Scythian traditions. Both these Asiatic nomads were from Iranian territory. Greek-Roman ethnographers corresponded to the Western areas of Scythian state. Sarmatians declined in the 4th century with the incursions connected to the Migration period (Huns, ). The descendants of the Sarmatians became known as the Alans during the . They became an ethnic material for Ukrainians. In the middle of 7th century B.C. Greek colonization of Northern seaside of the Black Sea started. Greeks founded at this region many city-states: Tira, Olbia, Chersonese (Hersonissos), Panticapaeum, and Feodosia. These city-states had been existed for about 1 millennium. Spread of Greek culture accompanied by using of written language. Literature, theatre, music, painting and sculpture played an important role in cultural life of Greek settlers. Up to nowadays came antique , wall decoration, jewelry, graveside reliefs, and marmoreal carved sarcophaguses. From the 1st century B.C. – 3rd century A.D. Greek city-states submitted Rome, because of that we could find the influence of Roman antiquity for Ukrainian culture.

Early Slavic culture At this period Slavic tribes started to form ethnic community. First written information about them (Veneds or Veneths) we could find in Roman sources. Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, and Ptolemy gave the information about them. Later, Byzantium historians Jordan, Procopius Caesarean, and Johann Ephesian also mentioned of Slavic tribes. Tacitus underlined that Veneds were people with high level of culture, they built nice houses, knew military order and discipline, they were well-equipped and brave in the struggle with enemies. Procopii Caesarean told about culture of Antes (tribes that lived between the Bug and the Dniester). He was sure that Sklavens and Antes were the parts of one people. From the 3rd century B.C. up to the 2nd century A.D. pre-Slavic culture was formed. Archaeologists had found one of the settlements of this culture not far from the village Zarubyntsi (Pereyaslav region). Zarubyntsi culture accepted a lot of achievements of Eastern people. Settlements and burial grounds were the main categories of this culture: - settlements had no precise plan of building; wooden houses were clayed, sometimes houses were rebuilt; - people of this culture were settled as a peasants and had domestic animals; they were skillful in handicrafts; they knew fusing of iron and blacksmith's affair; - had loom and produced linen and woolen clothes; they made ceramics with the help of potter's wheel. In the 2nd century A.D. Zarubyntsi culture stopped to exist. It was changed by a new one, so called Chernyakhiv culture (it received the name from the village Chernyakhiv, which is not far from Kyiv). Famous archaeologist Vikentii Khvoika in 1899 investigated this culture. It existed up to the 5th century. Representatives of Chernyakhiv culture also were peasants, stock-raising and handicrafts were among their everyday activities. Before burial ceremony they usually cremated (burned) died person. Agricultural character of their economic affected Slavic way of life, and their calendar is the evidence of this (I mean names of months): "sichen" (January) was connected with the specific activity for preparing the land for cultivation, cleaning it from trees and bushes; "berezen" or "berezozol" (March), month, when Slavs burnt trees for fertilization of soil, "kviten’" (April), month, when all fruit trees are blossoming; "traven" (May), month of grass; "serpen’" (August) season of harvest.

126 "Serp" means sickle, one of the main tools of peasants. In the second half of 1st millennium in different regions of Ukraine have been existed Volhynska (7–8th centuries), Luka-Raikovetska (8–9th centuries), Romenska (8–10th centuries) and other cultures. People here united in tribal unities. According to old chronicle here there were: Dulebes, Volhynyans, Drevlans, Polans, White Croats, Severians, etc. Early Slavic people knew the nature of their region well. Agriculture needed knowledge of flora and fauna, basic elements of and astronomy. But people could not explain different phenomena because of that they have a lot of Gods, who "patronized" different sides of their life. The main God of Eastern Slavs was (God of thunder and lightning), – solar god, cared of the harvest, Strybog – god of wind and weather, – was blackmith's god, god of animals, Yarylo and Kolyada were also respected by Eastern Slavs. Old Slavs worshiped female deities Lado was the mother of the world, Lado-Zhyvo was her partner. Baby, full spike, grapes or apple were symbols of continuation of life. Cults of Mother- Earth (godess Beregynya) and Golden Plow (Svarog gave it for people). The main pantheon of Slavic Gods added kind deities of lower level: Lel', Lelya, Divaniya, Divoniya, Dana, mermaids, goblins, water inhabitants, and sprites. With the help of gods Slavs cognized the world, understood changes of seasons, and relations with nature. People believed that gods and goddesses patronized definite activities, clans and families. The basis of heathen beliefs was worshipping to nature, the Sun accepted like a source of life, land like wet-nurse of all alive organisms. At that time children should bow touching the ground – it meant that they wish the person, who they have met – health, strength and generosity of mother-nature. Slavs cultivated in children sensitive attitude to the environment from the childhood. It was forbidden to hit the ground by stick. In culture of that period we can find traces of totemism. worshipped birds and trees, and believed that their clans originated or patronized by definite kind of bird or tree. Among holy trees of Slavs we should mention oak – symbol of power and wisdom, ash tree – symbol of Perun (god of thunder and lightning), maple and basswood – were symbols of couple, birch tree is a symbol of purity of Mother Nature. Among sacred birds there were cuckoo as a harbinger of the future, pigeon was a symbol of love, swallow represented the destiny of person, owl was considered a symbol of death and darkness. Slavic tradition presented tree floors of the world: upper part, middle and ground. It followed Indo-European symbolic character of elements: air, earth, and water united by fire. The universe had the order according to seven coordinates: top, middle, ground, East South, North, and West. So, sacral number was 7. The world tree archetype traces we can find in national culture. Stylized egg decoration (), traditional embroidery (tree with birds, bunches of flowers). Didukh ("Kolyada", "Kolyadnyk") was Ukrainian Christmas decoration from wheat. So, religious beliefs were closely related to vital reality and in mythological form reflected the striving of Slavs for unity with nature and surrounding world. We can understand that in culture of Early Slavs there were two groups of beliefs: worship to nature and cult of clan (adoration of ancestors). Early Slavs did not have special buildings for praying. In pre-Christian period Slavs had special places for that. They had a name "kapyshche". Magicians were mediators between people and gods. Anthropocentrism was the main feature of Slavic outlook. It means that all spheres of human, divine and natural understanding of the world are closely connected and parts of the Universe. Religious beliefs and mythology of Early Slavs were the cultural basis for adoption of new religion. Before the baptizing of Rus' the monumental architecture developed. Heathen cut wooden churches were built. In Kyiv there was a Prince's stone palace. Archaeologists proved that this palace was decorated by frescoes, mosaic, inlays. Heathen religion like Christian one worked out specific culture and values. Christianity was spread slowly,

127 painfully, and violently for the majority of people. May be because of that heathen beliefs were strong and people did not forget them absolutely. For a long time people worshipped to their heathen gods and Christianity here should be adapted to this situation. Many heathen celebrations left in our culture (Maslyana (end of winter), Ivan Kupala (top of summer), etc.). Actually, it was syncretic faith and a result of adaptation of Christianity to aboriginal beliefs. It was very original variant of Christianity. Answer the questions 1. Who was the first archaeologist investigated Trypillian culture? 2. Which nomadic tribes came to these lands after Trypillians? 3. What does "anthropocentrism" mean? 4. Which kinds of primitive beliefs do you know?

3 Culture of Kyivan Rus' and Galiɫia-Volhynia Principality Kyivan Rus' as a new period of Slavic cultural development History of Kyivan Rus we can conditionally subdivide into two cultural epochs: pre-Christian and Christian (after baptizing of Rus' in 988). Ukrainian nationhood begins with the Kyivan Rus realm which arose from a unification of Antian tribes between the 6th and 9th centuries. Rus was mentioned for the first time by European chroniclers in 839 A.D. In pre-Christian period Rus had own way of writing and people were literate. We can find the evidence of that in assigning of treaties with foreign rulers, inscriptions on applied crafts, notes from Byzantine and Roman chronicles. Bulgarian writer monk Khrabr, at early 10th century in his work "About writing" mentioned that Slavs did not have books, but could read and write. Pannonian legend of Slavic educators Cyril and Methodius told about Cyril's trip to (860) found in Chersonesus (Hersonissos) (not far from Sevastopol) Gospel and Psalter, had written by , and spoken with a man in that language. In the wall of Mykhailiv Altar of Sophian Cathedral in Kyiv archaeologist, researcher Serhii Vysots'ky (1923–1998) had found "Sofian ABC". It had 27 letters – 23 Greek ones, and 4 Slavic (Ȼ, ɀ, ɒ, ɓ) (so called Glagolitic writing). Some scientists discussed the point of transitional period of Eas-Slavic writing, started with the addition of letters for the interpretation of phonetic peculiarities of Slavic language. Kyivan State experienced a cultural and commercial flourishing from the 9th to the 11th centuries under the rulers Volodymyr I (Saint Vladimir), his son Yaroslav the Wise and Volodymyr (Vladimir) Monomakh. Kyivan Rus' had the population from 3 up to 12 million people and occupied the territory about 800 thousand square kilometers (about half of it was in frames of modern Ukraine). Kyivan Rus' was not isolated from the world. It was the part of all-European historical- cultural space. History and geographical position between Europe and Asia, existence of transit ways from the East to the West and from the North to the South gave the chance for cultural exchange between different cultures. Migration of population at that time also helped to the development. Culture of this period was not homogeneous. It included different subcultures. Famous Ukrainian philosopher and cultural scientist Myroslav Popovych in his book "Essays on the History of Ukrainian Culture" underlined, that culture of that period was presented by four "social worlds" – rural and urban areas, prince palace and church. They were different according to the system of values, main activities, household realities (house, clothes, tools or weapons), and burial rituals. Foreign influences were very important in the process of cultural formation of Kyivan Rus, because they encouraged internal creative impulses. Traces of Khazars' artistic culture (in 8th – 9th centuries) we can mention especially on the Left-Bank Ukraine. Among such elements there were details of clothes, earrings, hemispherical plaques, bells, buckles, bracelets with thickened ends, which Khazar merchants brought to this territory. It is the evidence of active trade relations. Influence of Arabic East we could find in the household of nobility: luxury, gifting of silk, belt decoration, expensive crockery, and silver. Ties of Rus and Scandinavia developed like

128 exchange. In Scandinavian handicrafts there were many features of old-Russian style, and in centers of Dnieper area craftsmen accepted Northern style. Rus was on the transit trade ways and in diadems of nobility we can find both Russian and runic inscriptions. Relations with the , got regularity after assignment of international treaties in 9th – 10th centuries, and stabilization of internal situation in Byzantium. After baptizing of Rus, craftsmen of different specializations appeared in Kyiv. Export and import of art craft products increased. Kyiv, Chernihiv, Pereyaslav, Galich, Kholm were outstanding and important centers of old-Russian culture. Kyiv during the time of Yaroslav the Wise had been transformed into the big cultural center, center of handicraft and trade. In 1019 Yaroslav became the leader of this state. There were 8 markets and 400 churches in Kyiv (according to Thitmar's Chronicler). By the end of 11th century Kyiv was at the same level like Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria. Before Mongol-Tatar invasion the number of population in Kyiv was about 50 thousand people. London reached 20 thousand people one hundred years later. Ruthenian culture was influenced by Central and Western Europe, the Balkans. We also can mention Moravian influences. The most active cultural interaction started in the second half of the 12th century with the intensification of political, commercial, educational and artistic relations with leading centers in France, Italy and Germany. In the first half of 10th century the authentic culture of new type had been formed. It was oriented onto the cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire and the baptizing of Rus' encouraged this.

Christianization like an impulse of new cultural process Christianization became the hegemonic impulse for cultural process here. Social and political causes were the main points of baptizing the Rus'. By the end of 10th century there was a need in formation of ideology. At that time religion could be such kind of ideology. It could integrate East Slavic tribes in one state and help to develop political, commercial and cultural relations with Christian states. Religion is one of the basic elements of any culture. It is not only the faith into divine things or system of rituals. It is a way of life, definite system of ideas, beliefs, images about human being and his place in the Universe. Heathen religious beliefs became a barrier for internal and external policy of Kyivan Rus. Prince Volodymyr tried to reform polytheistic paganism, tried to transform it into monotheistic, with the cult of supreme god Perun. In 980 the new pagan holy place was built. It was held in frames of religious reform of Volodymyr. But reform was not successful. Since 6th century the pantheon of gods had not transformed Kyiv into ideological centre of heathen Rus'. In other Slavic countries at that time paganism was changed by Christianity. Monotheism (one God power), hierarchy of Saints, the idea of after death compensation, specific service, etc., all these points coincided with needs of Princess' authority. Because of that Prince Volodymyr in 988 realized the second part of religious reform. He baptized Rus'. His marriage to Byzantine emperor's sister Anna made relations between two states closer. Baptizing of Rus' stimulated the development of various arts and spheres of culture. Among them were literature and science, education and architecture. After baptizing of Rus' the Church organization here was similar to Byzantium one. During the rule of Yaroslav the Wise Kyiv metropolitan was created. Up to 1448 it was the part of Constantinople' Church. Orthodox religion in Rus' had some peculiarities. Population of baptized Rus tried to adapt Christian faith to their own pagan traditions, elements of believes, outlook and arts of their ancestors, adding Slavic features for new religion. The outlook syncretism was formed. People's beliefs were combined with the Church Christianity. We can mention the traces of this combination in the celebration of Christian holidays – Easter, Trinity (Zeleni Svyata), Christmas, Ivan Kupala, Peter and Paul's apostles, adoration of Lord's Mother. Population of Kyivan Rus' preserved heathen belief in kind ("white") and evil ("dark") gods. In opposition to Byzantium Christianity people were sure that the cause of sins was not the person with its passions, but influences of devil. They had been understood that the world was dualistic and

129 combined physical-spiritual (human) and divinely mysterious (godlike, consisted from good and bad). From their point of view evil could settle in human soul and person became egoistic, forget of family and national belonging. Positive part of human being led to reasonable satisfaction of spirit and body, internal balance and welfare of individual. Godly person was the one, who followed god's principles in everyday life. It was not enough to pray and follow fasts. Among sins there were: lie, envy, anger, haughtiness, violence, thievery, roving, miserliness, and mercilessness. Christianization slowly entered in all fields of social life. Churches and monasteries became the centers of spiritual, political, educational and artistic life. Clergymen influenced on all stratums of society. There were not sculptural compositions inside the churches in Rus', and divine service realized by native national language (for Catholic Church Latin language was the main language of worship). Christian church used monumental-decorative art for psychological influence of believers. Architecture also started to develop in Kyiv lands after baptizing. In old Kyiv Chronicles "Novel of former years" (there is another variant of its title "The Tale of Bygone Years") mentioned that Christian Churches started to build on the holy places of heathens. Stone was the main building material in 10th – 12th centuries. Desyatynna Church was the first cult building in Kyiv. Prince Volodymyr initiated the building of it in 989 (it was finished in 996). Specific name of this church is connected with that 1/10 of all Prince's profits were directed to the building of this church. After baptizing of Rus Prince Volodymyr founded the first school for the children of nobility in Desyatynna Church. Yaroslav the Wise built a lot at the territory of Kyiv. There was a big earthern wall around the city. It was 3,5 km long, 14 meters high and at the basis it had about 30 meters. At the top there was a special entrance to the city through the Gates. This Gates were mentioned in the Chronicle of 1037. There was an Announcement Church over them (similar to the Trinity church in Kyiv- Pechers'k monastery). In 13th century Khan Batyi troops ruined this architectural building. But in 1982 it was reconstructed.

Education and verbal arts in Rus There were three types of schools in Kyivan Rus: palace school of higher type (it existed for princes' fee); school of "book study" (the main aim of it was training of clergymen and monks); secular school of home training for children of craftsmen and merchants. Schools were organized according to Greek example. Children learned basics of writing, reading, arithmetic, singing, music, poetic, , foreign languages, mostly Greek and Latin. Teaching was realized by Ruthenian language. The main task of these schools was elementary education, learning of basic principles of Orthodox religion, and integration of believers around the church. Such schools existed up to the 16th century. In 1054, Yaroslav the Wise founded the school for 300 children of local governors and clergymen in Novgorod. Children had reading, writing, basics of Christian faith, and arithmetic. It was necessary to have specialists for church building and worship. Schools of singing, painting, carving, glassmaking, and artistic blacksmithing were opened for preparing of such specialists. Diplomatic and commercial relations of Rus' needed the appropriate education and knowledge of Greek and Latin languages. Yaroslav the Wise founded at the basis of Sophia Cathedral the first educational enterprise of highest level. The children of nobility got the education there: future Metropolitan Hilarion, Ostromyr and Ratybor, codifiers of "Rus'ka Pravda" Kosnyachko and Nykyfor Kiianyn, children of Yaroslav the Wise. Among the main subjects of this school there were: theology, philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, history, , geography, and natural sciences. Bishops also organized schools for clergymen. At the basis of churches there were primary schools for ordinary people. There were also schools for girls. In 1085 Yaroslav the Wise's grand-daughter Yanka (Anna Vsevolodivna) founded the school for 300 girls. They learned writing, crafts, singing, sawing, and other useful knowledge. Princess Paraskeva from Chernihiv and Paraskeva from Polots'k were well-educated and had written the books. Monasteries were built at this territory with the spread of Christianity. The

130 biggest of them was Kyiv-Pechers'k monastery. Two monks Anthonii and Theodosii Pechers'ki founded it. This monastery played an important role in the development of Ruthenian culture and became the educational centre. Kyiv-Pechers'k monastery became the centre of Chronicles' writing. The majority of clergymen graduated the school and seminary there. In the 11th century it was a center of training of high clergymen, artists, doctors, calligraphs, and interpreters. Later, education and science developed in Novgorod, Polots'k, Chernihiv, Galich, and Volodymyr-Volhyns'ky. Libraries helped in the development of education. The most famous collection of books there was Yaroslav's library in St. Sofia Cathedral. According to estimates of scientists the book fund of Kyiv Rus' had about 130–140 volumes. Kyiv, Novgorod, Galich, Chernihiv, Volodymyr-Volyns'ky, Pereyaslav, Rostov and others were the centers of book-writing. Parchment was the material for books. Special monks wrote them. Literary works of Kyiv period had syncretic, handwriting, multi-language, and anonymous character. After adoption of Christianity there was a necessity in translated religious and secular literature from Greek, Bulgarian, and Serbian languages. The Holy Bible was the specific source of translated literature. There were many hand-writing copies of Gospels – Ostromyr Gospel (1056– 1057), fragments of Turiv Gospel (11th century), Mstyslav Gospel (early 12th century), Yurii Gospel (1120), Galich (1104 and 1301) and Dobryliv Gospels (1164). Psalter (collection of religious songs-anthems), apocryphal works, Lives of Saints and the Fathers and theological literature of famous clergymen were also popular at that period. Translated secular literature was spread in Kyivan Rus'. It had narrative character with cognitive elements. Historical literature, belle-letters, and collections of aphorisms also were popular among the literate population. This kind of literature played an important role in the formation of original Russian Chronicles. Chroniclers should describe origin, formation and building of Kyiv state its role in world historical process. Chronicles' writing started in 10th century during Prince Volodymyr reign and continued in Yaroslav's time. The most famous collection of chronicles was "The Tale of Bygone Years" related to 1113. Monk Nestor completed it. There were second (1116) and third (1118) variants of that chronicle. Sources of "The Tale of Bygone Years": 1) oral folk creativity (myths, legends, narrations, heroic epos); 2) written books (Bible, Lives of Saints, Byzantium and Bulgarian Chronographs, texts from Ancient Greece and Rome); 3) chroniclers' copyright and written evidences of eyewitnesses. Chronicles' writing developed and became the source for the formation of historical- literary genre, popular up to the 18th century. Development of oratory-homiletic prose was connected with a church activity of Kyiv metropolitan Hilarion ("Word of Law and Welfare") and a monk Cyril from Turiv. "The Lay of Igor Warfare" (there is another title "The Lay of Igor's Campaign") was nice example of heroic lyric and epic poem about not very successful warfare of Novgorod-Sivers'kyi Prince Ihor (Igor) Svyatoslavych. The unknown poet generalized the life of Rus', presented human soul and true beauty. Process of systematization of scientific knowledge started in Kyivan Rus'. The main science was theology. History, law, natural sciences, mathematic and astronomy also developed. The most famous legal document of 11th – 12th centuries was "Rus'ka Pravda" ("Russian Pravda") – codex of laws. Medicine also developed in Kyiv Rus'. Kyiv-Pechers'k Pateryk (collection of stories about founders of Lavra) mentioned first Russian doctors Damian, Alipii Pechersky, Prokhor-Lobodnik and others. St. Agapetus of the Kyiv Caves was the most famous doctor of 11th century. He read works of Hippocrates and Galen in Greek. He did not take money for healing. He used prayers and herbs for the treatment of sick people. Doctors of that period used ointments, powders, and water healing (hot and cold water). Answer the questions 1. Which kinds of arts were developed in Kyivan Rus'? 2. How did baptizing of Rus' influence on the cultural development of these lands? Peculiarities of Chritianity in these lands.

131 3. Describe the role of Kyivan Rus' for cultural development of East Slavs

4 Ukrainian Culture of Lithuanian and Polish Period (14th – the first half of 17th centuries) Social, political and historical situation Second half of 14th – the first half of 17th century was a very complicated and contradictive period in the development of Ukrainian culture. Ukraine appeared under the influence of other states. In spite of that Ukrainians started to feel themselves like an ethnic integrity with specific national features in the context of European tendencies of Renaissance and early Baroque. After the decline of Kyivan Rus' a new period of Ukrainian history started. Galicia-Volhynia State was formed in the Western part of these lands. It stopped to exist after the death of prince Yurii-Boleslav II (1331). In 13th–14th centuries during the reign of Lithuanian Princes Gediminas, Algerdas and Keitstut, the whole Right and the Left-Bank Ukraine were merged in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Great Lithuanian Principality). Both states were equal. Ukrainian, Belorussian and partly Russian lands formed 9/10 of the whole territory of principality. The population had not resisted the occupation, because here Lithuanians followed the rule: "we do not break old traditions, and do not set the new ones". Slavic language was official (it had Northern variant – Belorussian and Southern one -Ukrainian). Orthodox Church saved its position. There were not any religious conflicts in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, because leaders of this State were tolerant to different confessions. From the middle of 15th century Galich, Lviv, Peremyshl, and Syanok were united in Ruthenian province (voivodstvo) with the center in Lviv. The Grand Prince, gifted lands and shared by the power with local governors, presented by the nobility (shlyakhta). In the second half of 15 th century situation was complicated. Not only Poland threatened Ukraine. In 1475 Crimean state appeared under vassal dependence from Turkish sultan. Nearly the whole Ukraine became the object of devastating raids of Turkish-Tatar hordes. Ivan III, Moscow Grand Prince, occupied approximately the whole Chernihiv-Sivershchyna and wanted other Ukrainian lands. New military and political force (Cossacks) was formed in Ukraine. The first written mention of them historians found in chronicles related to 1492. They tried to protect Ukrainian lands from the foreign danger. In the 15th century Eastern Church was in deep crisis, because Byzantium had lost political and cultural influence, and later occupation of Balkans by Ottoman (Othman) Empire. From the middle of 15th century Moscow metropolis (in fact), separated into local church subordinated to Russian tsar. Kyiv metropolitans could not co-ordinate religious life in Ukrainian and Belorussian lands. In reality, in frames of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ("Rzec Pospolita") King and Grand Prince controlled the Church. General level of Orthodox Church was not very high. Priests impoverished and had to work in farming, but clergymen tried to get more lands. At the territory of Ukraine monastic orders (Dominicans, Bernadine, Franciscans, and later Jesuits) started to build churches. Orthodox Church at the territory of Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in better conditions, than in Russian province. Resistance to Catholic suppression was strong and well-organized in Galicia. Many churches and monasteries were built at that time. In late 16th century Anna Hoiska founded Pochaiv monastery, in 1612–1615 Mykhailo Vyshnevetsky founded two monasteries (Gustynsky and Mgarsky) not far from . Situation in Ukrainian lands under Poland was worse than in Lithuanian period. Position of Catholic Church in Polish state was stronger than in Lithuanian lands. Orthodox believers had formal freedom of religion, but their confession was considered lower than Catholic one. But last Polish king from Yagellon family and Lithuanian Prince Sigismund August II in 1563 made Catholic and Orthodox nobility equal in their rights. Later, according to Lublin Union (1569) Ukrainian nobility formally received the equality with Polish and Lithuanian ones. Lithuania and Poland connected Ukraine with Western Europe. Western influence

132 we could mention in Latinization of Ukrainian elite circles and humanism and Reformation tendencies in spiritual life of society. Humanism was the ideological ground of Renaissance. Latin word "Humanitas" we understand it like erudition, skills in fine arts, and benevolence. It is the culture, opposite to barbarianism (absence of culture). Humanism provides morality and generosity. Because of that there was the interest to education, books, and science. Understanding of human and divine nature changed a lot. Humanists thought the human world full of immorality, dirtiness, and cruelty. They took into account sinful nature of human being.

Development of education and scientific knowledge Complicated situation in Church was closely connected with the situation in education. The unknown author of the book "The Warning" underlined "schools could give Ukrainians good education, develop their intellect, independence and dignity". Pastor Paul Oderborn in 1670-s travelled about Ukraine and wrote in memories "Ruthenians always had schools at the basis of churches and monasteries. Children learnt there writing, counting, prayers and apostle symbols". Elementary schools used religious books for reading. Among the most spread there were "Book of Hours", "The Apostle", and "Psalter". High education Ukrainians got in European universities. In 1353 Master Peter Cordovani, wrote about his friends from Ruthenia at Paris University, in 1369 Ivan "from Ruthenia" studied there, and in 1397 student Herman Vilevych "Ruthenian from Kyiv" also studied in Paris. European cultural influences affected Ukrainian culture through the students, who studied at European universities. Between 1510–1560 years only in Krakiv University (Poland) 352 Ukrainians got the education. In 15th century for Ukrainian students in Prague and Krakiv Universities there were special hostels. Ukrainian students got the education in Bologna, Padua, Basel, Heidelberg, Leipzig, and Leiden. The part of Ukrainians left for work in Western Europe. Some of them became the outstanding representatives of West-European humanistic culture. So, it was quite naturally that ideas of Renaissance, Humanism and Reformation influenced on national and cultural development of Ukraine in 14th–15th centuries. Among the prominent Ukrainian scientists and teachers of that period we have to mention Yurii Kotermak (more famous like Yurii Drohobych).

Literature and arts. Printing Literature of that period had many interesting genres. Sermons of Hryhorii Tsamblak were full of emotional and expressive points. They presented the Renaissance style of religious speech. Chronicles' writing was still popular genre of historical-literary works. Kyiv-Pechersk Pateryk, Lithuanian and Kyiv Chronicles were the most famous ones of that period. Author of Lithuanian (Supralsk) Chronicle wanted to increase the authority of Princes, because of that their origin he connected with the Roman patricians. The development of visual arts and architecture was amazing at that period. Architecture of 14th-15th centuries in Ukraine had some peculiarities. Historical and social processes demanded building of fortified cities and castles. The majority of them were wooden, so they did not preserved up to nowadays. Castles in and were built in this style. In castles of that period defensive buildings around the perimeter were changed by dwelling ones. In walls outside there were loopholes, but inside there were big windows, and two-layer open arcades-galleries. There are many wonderful castles in Ukraine of that period: in Kamyanets’- Podil'skyi, Khotyn, Oles'ko, Mukachiv and others. Byzantinesque and Gothic styles dominated in church architecture. Unique Pokrova church-fortress in Sutkivtsi (Podillia) (1476) and church- rotunda in Horyany (12th – 15th centuries) preserved up to nowadays. Western influences in church architecture we can find in Lviv, Rohatyn, and Drohobych. Ukrainian artists of 14th – 15th centuries presented Renaissance influences in fine arts. West- European influences we find in frescoes in Horyany (Uzhhorod). Frescoes were made in new

133 stylistic manner. In frescoes we can see ordinary people in traditional . Dynamic poses, jesters, and countenances reflected emotions of characters. Wooden icon-painting also developed at that period. were cheaper than frescoes and at that period instead of some icons in sanctuary part of the church Ukrainian decorators used monumental compositions (iconostasis), which combined in organic unity painting, sculpture and ornamental carving. Churches were decorated by monumental compositions of iconostasis (mixture of painting, sculpture, and ornamental carving). Painters tried to change some principles in icon-painting. The dominative tendency of that period was the attempt to show the beauty of surrounding world and penetrate into the inner world of human being. Book miniature of the second half of 14th – 15th centuries was connected with hand-writing books. Gospels, Psalters, hagiographical and secular literature were decorated by miniatures with initials and ornamental frames. Each page of written book was true masterpiece. In 1556–1561 monk of Peresopnytskyi Orthodox monastery (Volhyn') Mykhailo Vasylevych (from Syanok) made for princess Anastasia Golshanska-Zaslavska one of the first translations of Gospel's texts from Bulgarian language into Ukrainian everyday language. In manuscript of Peresopnyts'ke Gospel there were phonetic, grammar and lexical features of folk Ukrainian language of the 16th century. It was unique wonder of Ukrainian culture, national holy book. Text of this Gospel was written by motives and compositions were used for decoration of this book. Decoration of this book presented Ukrainian nature. There were nice pictures of famous Gospel writers: John, Luke, Matthew and Mark. Titles of this book were made from the oak tree and were covered by velvet. The insurance value of this book is 6,5 million dollars. It is preserved in National Scientific library named after V. Vernadsky (Kyiv). This book started to be famous after inauguration of our Presidents. It became the symbol of independent Ukraine and the most valuable Ukrainian Holy book. In conditions of foreign expansion Ukrainians had to preserve national identity. In Orthodox Ukraine started to build Catholic churches and Jesuit schools were formed at the basis of those churches. Conflicts between churches were usual at that time. Catholics felt their privileged position, because of that they did not give the chance Orthodox believers to follow the tradition: to toll, to organize funeral processions, to build new church, forced to participate in Catholic festivals. Ukrainians resisted this situation and Cossack uprisings happened very often in late 16th – early 17th centuries. They were not successful and Cossacks defeated (Ʉrzysztof Kosynsky (1591–1593), Severyn Nalyvaiko (1594–1596), Taras Fedorovych (Tryasylo) (1630). By late 16th – early 17th centuries in Ukraine started to form collective organs – brotherhoods. These were national-religious and public cultural organizations. They started to form because Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied Ukrainian lands and Ukrainian culture appeared in the situation of limitation. Brotherhoods protected human rights of Ukrainian people, the Orthodox faith, educated Ukrainians, organized and supported schools, trained writers, philosophers, orators, teachers, cared of historical and cultural monuments, chronicles, books, supported poor people, paid ransoms for Ukrainian people, who appeared in Turkish captivity, participated in funeral ceremonies of brotherhood's members. Brotherhoods presented national consciousness of Ukrainian people. Actually, brotherhoods' movement played similar role as Reformation in Europe (clergymen appeared under the control of public bodies). Brotherhoods fought against Polonization (providing of Polish language in Ukraine). Among the main tasks of these organizations there were: increasing of moral and intellectual level of members, education, and protection of Orthodox religion. Activity of these organizations had to help in renewing of national Church. In 1588 Lviv brotherhood was formed. Members of it wanted self-government for Ukrainians in this town and protect Orthodox traditions. By the end of 16th century brotherhoods in other towns were organized: Rohatyn, Krasnoslav, Brest, Horodok, Komarnya, and Lublin. At the beginning of next century brotherhoods existed in Volhyn, Kyiv, and Podillya.

134 At the beginning of 17th century Kyiv renewed like cultural centre of Ukraine. Elizabeth (Halshka) Hulevychivna (1575–1642), daughter of Luts'k nobleman Stefan Lozka gave money for the foundation of Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood (it was the most numerable one in Ukraine). It united the best representatives of Ukrainian nobility, clergymen, craftsmen and merchants. Hulevychivna was educated person, worked out the Statute and programme of Kyiv, donated the land in Podol region, gave money for school, church and hotel (for poor people) building. At this period Cossacks played an important role in social life of society. Talented hetman Petro Sahaidachny (Konashevych-Sahaidachny) (?–1622) with all his 20 thousand host became the members of Kyiv brotherhood. He supported this brotherhood by money. Thanks to Cossacks' support Kyiv brotherhood became strong organization of national liberation and cultural movement. P. Sahaidachny helped to renew the Orthodox Church hierarchy (which was cancelled after Berestian Church Union 1596). Five days before his death he left his property for educational- scientific purposes, religious-church needs and charity. He gifted 1500 gold rubles for schools. Pedagogic principles of brotherhoods' schools were based on the humanism. In the Statute of Lviv brotherhood school (1586) there was a principle of value of each person in spite of his origin or wealth. At the best places usually had to sit the best pupils (even if they were poor). Corporal punishments were framed. Respect of human dignity was one of the most important points of teacher's practice. It helped to form public active citizen. According to this Statute teacher should be an example of moral behaviour: he should be good believer, modest, not furious, not use rude words, not be the heretic, etc. Brotherhood schools were democratic educational enterprises. Lviv brotherhood school taught children of landlords, priests, blacksmith masters, bakers, painters, tailors, furriers, and even poor people. Brotherhood schools had Greek-Slavic character. Latin and Polish languages were also among the main subjects of such schools. Pupils studied reading, writing, grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, piityc (poetry), arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. At this period along with brotherhood schools, Jesuit schools were opened. The main aim of Jesuits was strengthening of Catholic positions, activation of its expansion to the East by the way of ideological influence on masses with the help of school education. Jesuit schools were founded in Yaroslav (1575) (Bohdan Khmelnytsky studied there), in Lviv and Luts'k (1608), Kyiv (1615), Kamyanets'-Podils'kyi and Ostroh (1624), Uzhhorod (1646) and other towns. Full course of Jesuit school had 5 years and after graduation former students should participate in discussions with Protestants and Orthodox believers enlisted them to Catholic Church. Uniatic bishops had written to the Pope that cooperation between Kyiv brotherhood and Cossacks threaten Catholicism. We should underline that Kyiv brotherhood school (1615) influenced a lot on Ukrainian cultural development. Famous Ukrainian humanists Yov Borets'kyi, Yelysei (Olexander) Pletenets'kyi (1554–1624), Taras Zemka (1582–1632), Zakhariya Kopystens'kyi (?–1627) were among founders of Kyiv school. Jerusalem patriarch Theofan blessed this school. Yov Borets'kyi was the first rector of Kyiv brotherhood school. Later, Meletii Smotryts'kyi, Kasyan Sakovych, Khoma Yevlevych were rectors of this school. This educational enterprise was named "Kyiv Schools", because it was consisted from 4 schools: one elementary (so called "phara"), and 3 humanitarian ("infima", grammar and "syntaksyma"). Old Slavic, Greek and Latin languages, rhetoric, piityk (poetry), philosophy were among school subjects. Brotherhoods developed printing. Ivan Fedorov in 1573 printed "The Apostle" and other books for church and education. Lviv brotherhood school was famous for its text-books and dictionaries. There were new processes in educational sphere. At the beginning of 17th century there was an active discussion about the model of ideal school. By the middle of the century there were some results. Ukraine needed specialists: governors, clergymen, teachers, scientists, architects, builders, administrators of different levels, and diplomats. Education transformed from private into state policy. Foreigners were impressed by high level of literacy of Ukrainians. Paul of Aleppo in 1653 traveled about Ukraine underlined that

135 educated Ukrainians, knew laws, rhetoric, logic and philosophy. The majority of population was literate. Even women and girls could read and were skillful in church singing. Clergymen taught orphans and did not give them the chance to be tramps. Nearly each Ukrainian village had a school. In education of late 16th – early 17th centuries happened many changes. Influential Ukrainian magnates spent money for its development. Prince Constantine-Basil Ostroz'ky was one of them. He cared of culture and charity. Ostroz'ky supported the idea of cultural and religious autonomy of Ukrainian and Belorussian people, patronized Orthodox institutions, medical and educational enterprises. He organized the circle of writers in his private town Ostroh collegium (school) with printing press (1576), founded schools in Turov (1572), Volodymyr-Volhynskyi (1577). Ostroh School was Slavic-Greek-Latin school of highest European level. He gathered the best scientific forces of Ukraine. There had been taught "seven free arts": grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Teaching was realized in Greek, Latin and Ukrainian (Ruthenian) languages. 500 pupils graduated this school between 1576– 1636 years. Early 17th century was the time, after Prince Ostroz'kyi death (1608) the support of Orthodox Church and Ukrainian culture stopped. Polonization of nobility spread over the Ukrainian territory. Polonization is a specific term for policy of Polish government in Ukrainian lands. During the realization of this policy the Polish language was used like an official one and was compulsory for education and in all spheres of social life. At the top of political elite appeared people, who had spoken in Polish and adopted Catholicism (instead of Orthodox religion). In 1612 Ostroh printing press stopped to exist. The school without material support also stopped its activity by 1640. Granddaughter of Basil Ostroz'ky Anne-Aloize Khodkevych (1600– 1654) followed Jesuits. She organized Jesuit collegiums (1642) and even re-baptized bones of her father Olexander Ostrozkyi. The circle of theologians and philologists was the part of Ostroh educational branch. Herasym Smotrytskyi was one of the most famous participants of it. He was a rector of Ostroh School. His son Meletii was also very talented person. He was a teacher, translator, writer and polemist, religious and political leader. But the most thing made him famous – his "Slavic grammar" (1619). The first half of the 17th century was the period, when Kyiv finally, became the center of national culture. In 1615 Kyiv brotherhood school started to teach children in Podol. Here circled the best intellectuals of society. There were many Galician people among teachers of this school: Y. Borets'ky, Z. Kopystenskyi, L. Zyzanii, brothers Berynda, K. Sakovych, and A. Kalnofoiskyi. In autumn of 1631 archimandrite of Kyiv-Pechersk lavra Petro Mohyla founded school. September, 1, 1632 lavra and brotherhood school united and received the name Kyiv Mohyla collegiums. Programme of this school was similar to programmes of western collegiums. Main languages for teaching were Polish and Latin. It had branches in Vinnytsya and Kremenets'. Later, these collegiums became an Academy the only Slavic high educational enterprise. It got the name of founder. Isaya Trofimovych- Kozlovs'ky became its first rector. He was the Doctor of theology one of the authors of "Catechism" (short review of Christian religious dogmas in questions and answers). Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth demonstrated hostility to Ukrainian educational enterprises. Polish king Wladyslav IV ordered to liquidate all Latin schools in Kyiv and in 1635 Polish parliament forbade to teach philosophy. In spite of prohibition the philosophical course and theology preserved in Kyiv collegiums. We should underline a very interesting point. Petro Mohyla realized in programmes of his collegiums synthesis of spiritual heritage of Western and Eastern Europe. He followed our own national traditions. Thanks to his activity Ukraine became the part of Europe without adoption of Catholic dogmas and had not lost its national identity. Petro Mohyla understood that weak faith of population originated from absence of normal level of education. Italian historian and jurist Bissachoni Majolini in his book "History of Civil

136 Wars" wrote about Ukrainians that they were noble knights, engaged in arable farming, and skillful in using of weapons, despairing in a battle, their will to the victory was amazing up to self-sacrifice. There is one more feature – they strongly drawn towards the education, especially ordinary people. Polemic literature played an important role in the struggle of Ukrainians for social and national liberation. It started its active development especially in 16th–17th centuries. The majority of polemists accepted necessity of educational programmes' perfection and arising role of school in youth upbringing. Herasym and Meletii Smotryts'ki were the most famous polemic writers of this period. Meletii Smotryts'ky in his book "Threnos" (1610) had shown that nobility betrayed the Orthodox faith by the adoption of Catholic religion. Meletiy Smotryts'kyi quoted in this book such authors like Ibn Sina, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Franchesko Petrarka and others. "Threnos" influenced a lot on some generations of Ukrainians. Polish king Sigismund III ordered the seizure and burning of all copies, to close of the printing press in Vilnius, where the book was published. He also wanted to punish all people responsible for this publication. "Threnos" had written in Polish language. Ivan Vyshens'ky (1550–1620) was a very famous polemic writer. He originated from town Sudova Vyshnya (Galich region). In 1596 he was the monk of Athon monastery in Greece. This monastery was a big religious center of Orthodox Church. We can find now for about 20 polemic works of this writer. In his books he defended the traditional Orthodox doctrine. He engaged the propaganda for natural equality of people, collectivism, offered the socialization of property, etc. He considered that the ideal social organization should be built on the principles of early Christianity. Unfortunately, he was against a system of secular education. He thought that it is not necessary to study foreign languages and antique philosophy. He supported church-scholastic upbringing. Among popular literary genres in Ukraine of 14th – the first half of 17th centuries there was Chronicles' writing. "Gustyn Chronika" was compiled between 1623–1627 years by Zakhariya Kopystenskyi (?–1627). This chronicle dwelled on the events from the time of Kyivan Rus' up to the late 16th century in the context of world history. There were many literary inserts, which gave the information about the beginning of writing language, origin of the Rus name, formation of Cossack State, preservation of heathen faith in ritual culture of Ukrainian people. In the period of 15th–17th centuries oral folk creativity (especially historical poetry) was formed. We could find full presentation of national spiritual peculiarities of Ukrainian culture. Historical songs and Dumas appeared at the time, when Ukrainian people struggled against Polish and Turkish-Tatar aggression. The formation of Zaporizhzhya Sich gave an impulse for the development of popular song creativity. Historical songs and Dumas had a very specific ideological subtext and formed moral and patriotic codes (such ideas we could find in Dumas of Olexii Popovych, Samiylo Kishka, Ivas Kononovchenko, and Marusya Bogyslavka). "Song of Baida" was the original one of popular poetry of the mid.-to-late 16th century. It dwells upon the execution of prominent Cossack leader Dmytro Vyshnevets'ky. He devoted his life to the struggle against Turkish-Tatar aggression. Book printing in Europe was formed thanks to the efforts of Johann Guttenberg from Mainz (Germany, 1440). In Ukrainian lands printing formation was connected with the name of Ivan Fedorov (about 1525–1583). Earlier existence of printing in Ukraine has not proved by scientists. In 1553 I. Fedorov managed to start the building of Moscow printing press. There he edited (1564) with his friend Petro Mstyslavets' the first Russian book "The Apostle". Later, because of religious persecution they had to move to Lithuania. There, in Lithuanian town Zabludov they opened the printing press and edited "The Homilary Gospel" (Uchitel'ne Yevangelie) (1569) and "Psalter" (1570). In 1572 I.Fedorov moved to Lviv and in 1573 he founded the first Ukrainian printing press. In February, 1574, at Lviv monastery of St. Onufrii he prepared the second edition of "The

137 Apostle". It had high historical value like the first book printed in Ukraine. Later, there were more editions of this book in Kyiv (1630), Lviv (1639), and Luts'k (1640). Very soon after the edition of "The Apostle" Ivan Fedorov edited "The Alphabet" with grammar. It was the first East-Slavic printed alphabet. It was the text book of Slavic language. There we could find the patriotic acclaims directed to the youth. Nowadays, there is one copy of this Alphabet in the library of (USA). Because of financial difficulties I. Fedorov moved from Lviv to Ostroh (at the beginning of 1575). Ostroh at that time was the scientific and educational centre. Sometimes this place was named the Ukrainian Athens. In 1578 Ivan Fedorov printed "The Alphabet" for pupils of Ostroh school. There, he started cooperation with Herasym Smotryts'ky. They edited "The Ostroh Bible" in 1581. It was real polygraphic masterpiece. It was the first full edition of the Bible in Church Slavic language. It was famous among Orthodox believers of Germany, England, France, and Italy. Later editions of this Bible in Moscow (1663) and Petersburg (1751) were only re-editions of it with some phonetic changes. It is interesting to know that for the whole history the Bible was translated into 2092 languages. The most famous Ukrainian cultural public figure of the early 17th century was Yelysei Pletenets'ky (1554–1624). He was an archimandrite of the Kyiv-Pechers'k monastery from 1599 up to 1624. In 1615 he founded the first printing press in lavra. More than that he organized in Radomyshl' a big paper manufacture. By the end of 16th century there were 7 paper manufactures in Ukraine and they exported the paper to Russia. Usually the majority of printed books were devoted to ecclesiastic themes. But there were also educational books. Books edited in Ruthenian, Church Slavic and even in Ukrainian literary languages. There were also editions in Latin, Greek, and Polish languages. In 1627 Kyiv-Pechers'k printing press published the fundamental Slavic-Ruthenian dictionary "The Lexicon Slavic-Ruthenian language and explanation of names". It was used in school education. Lexicon contented 6982 definitions with the translation and interpretation in Ukrainian literary language. Pamva (Pavlo) Berynda was the editor of this dictionary. We should say that printing presses were not only workshops of scientific production. They were also the centers of education and culture. They played an important role in polemic between Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Through their books a big amount of humanistic ideas of Ukrainian elite were spread over the Ukrainian territory. In 16th – 17th centuries, two kinds of theatre were formed. School theatre was very popular. Mysteries, miracles, and moralities were religious dramas. Interludes, funny, humoristic scenes were also popular and usually demonstrated in intervals of drama plays. Vertep was a puppet- theatre, which was the part of Christmas celebration. In brotherhood schools of Lviv, Luts'k, and Kyiv (in Kyiv Mohyla collegium) there were musical-theoretical subjects. Polyphonic singing was very famous in Ukraine, and abroad. Composer M. Dylets'ky published in 1677 "Musical Grammar". Kyiv teachers of singing, choirs' regents, singers and composers got invitations from Slavic states for work. Answer the questions 1. Which language dominated in Great Lithuanian Principality? 2. Which architecture styles were spread in Ukrainian lands in 14th – 16th centuries? 3. What were the main tasks of brotherhoods? 4. Which principles dominated at brotherhood school? 5. Which topics discussed polemic writers? 6. Which literary genres were popular in the period of 14th – 16th centuries? 7. Who initiated book printing in Ukrainian lands? 8. Describe the major achievements of Ukrainian culture in the second half of the 14th – at the beginning of the 17th century.

138 5 Ukraine and West-European Cultural Influences. Enlightenment (the second half of 17th – 18th centuries) Historical conditions of Ukrainian cultural development "The golden age" of Ukrainian arts and culture started from the second half of 17th – 18th centuries. In a very short period the way of thinking and way of life had changed. Liberation war encouraged Ukrainians to political and cultural creativity. New outlook and a new mentality were formed. Ukraine was a successor of Kyivan Rus'. It tried to renew own sovereignty, school, language and church. Literature, music, fine arts, and architecture combined features of European and national cultures. New phenomenon of Cossack Baroque was formed. It was national variant of European style in arts. In Europe this was a period of the formation of national states: Italy, , Flanders, , and France. Bourgeois and industrial revolutions changed the social life of the majority of countries. The Enlightenment and progress of natural sciences formed new rational world view. Europe went out of deep spiritual crisis caused by Reformation and split of churches. Sacral and secular culture actively developed. Cossacks influenced on cultural processes of Ukraine. Kyiv was a spiritual center of Ukrainian lands. The level of spiritual culture of any nation is defined by the situation in sphere of education and by spread of scientific knowledge in society. This period of the second half of 17th – 18th centuries was the evidence of spiritual progress of Ukrainian people. Western Ukraine was closely connected with Europe. There was only one university in Ukrainian lands.

Education and science Lviv University was founded January 20, 1661 after special order of Polish king Jan II Kazymir at the basis of Lviv Jesuit school-college. There were 4 faculties there: philosophic, theologian, judicial and medical. Teaching realized by Latin language, and after the incorporation of Galicia (in 1722) to Austrian state – in German or Polish ones. At this period after the events of the middle of the century, I mean liberation war of 1648– 1654 the Ukrainian state was formed. The part of it at the Left-Bank Ukraine (Hetmanshchyna) existed like autonomy in frames of Russian empire up to the early 18th century. Russia won Poltava battle in 1709 and after that Russian government started to limit rights and liberties of Cossacks, realized policy of assimilation in Ukraine. Russian language was spread in administrative enterprises, education and in printing press. In 1721 Synod (religious highest organ) controlled Ukrainian printing and did not allow publishing books in national language. In 1724 tzar censors closed Chernihiv printing. Education of Hetmanshchyna attained high level. Three types of schools existed at that time: primary, secondary (brotherhood schools and collegiums) and high (Kyiv Mohyla Academy). In 1740 there were 866 primary schools, where children studied reading and writing. Kyiv Mohyla College (it received the judicial rights and the title academy in 1701) was the spiritual, educational, scientific and cultural centre of Ukraine. It was like Oxford for England, Sorbonne for France, Karl University for Czech, Jagiellonski Uniwersytet for Poland. For the whole period of its existence 25.000 Ukrainians graduated it. Approximately all prominent public figures studied here. This academy trained the intellectual, church, and military elite of Ukraine. Here studied famous scientists, writers, teachers and cultural public figures, politicians and philosophers: I. Gizel, T. Prokopovych, M.Berezovs'kyi, D. Bortnyans'kyi, A. Vedel', I. Hrygorovych-Bars'kyi, S. Yavorivs'kyi, A.Lopatyns'kyi, Y. Konys'kyi, H. Poletyka, P. Zavadovs'kyi, O. Bezborod'ko, and M. Lomonosov. The last person (I mean Mykhailo Lomonosov) later, in the middle of 18th century, founded Moscow University and became the first Russian Member of the Academy of Sciences in Petersburg. Six Ukrainian hetmans have been studied in Kyiv Mohyla academy: I. Vyhovs'kyi, I. Samoilovych, Y. Khmelnyts'kyi, I. Mazepa, P. Orlyk, P. Polubotok, and children of Cossack foremen. Even a grandfather of Russian famous composer Petro Chaikovs'ky studied here.

139 There were many prominent public figures among teachers of Kyiv Mohyla Academy. Professor Innokentii Gizel' (ca.1600–1683) he was Orthodox Church and educational leader, historian, rector of Kyiv Mohyla College (1646–1650). He taught courses of philosophy and psychology, (by the way, he graduated Cambridge University). Lazar Baranovych (1620–1693), he was Orthodox Church and political leader, writer, rector of Kyiv Mohyla College between 1650 and 1657. He was the founder of the printing press in Novgorod-Sivers'kyi (1674) and the author of theological works. Professor of rhetoric Yoanikii Galyatovs'kyi (1620–1688) he was Orthodox leader, and theological writer. As a rector of Kyiv Mohyla College he was working (1657–1669). In his book "The Key to Understanding" (1659, 1663, 1665) he presented the basics of baroque homily in special printed text book of homiletyka. Theophan (Feofan) Prokopovych (6.06.1681–19.09.1736) was one of the most prominent scientists of encyclopedic knowledge (he was a philosopher, publicist, historian, mathematician, and astronomer). He was the Head of "scientific guard of Russian tzar Peter the Great. T. Prokopovych received the education in Poland and Italy. He had been studied even in Roman Catholic Academy. He spent his money on scientific books. He had a lot of books. There were 3.193 books in his private library (Mykhailo Lomonosov had 670, Theofilact Lopatyns'ky, the rector of Moscow University had 1.416 ones). The majority of the books in his library were devoted to the philosophical themes. There were many texts of antique authors: Homer, Aristotle, Cicero, Seneka, Ovidius, Vergilius and European Renaissance authors: Yan Amos Komens'ky, Lorentso Valla, Erasmus from Rotterdam, Tommazo Kampanella, Niccolo Machiavelli, Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes, natural scientists and mathematicians Jacob Bernoulli, Robert Boyle, Galileo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler. There were many works of theologians Martin Luther, John Calvin, Faustus Socinus, and Phillip Melanchthon. Literary and scientific heritage of Theophan Prokopovych is amazing. He had written numerous "Words" and homilies, he was the author of educational courses, such as: poetics, rhetoric, logic, natural philosophy, and mathematic. He wrote poems in Ukrainian, Russian, and Latin languages. He also knew Polish. Many of his works were edited abroad in English, German, French and Swedish. Among the main ideas of his philosophical conceptions we could find the right of each human being for happiness, he was absolutely sure that mind and practical experience should be over than theology and church dogmas. He criticized the blind fanatic faith in authorities. T. Prokopovych was the first one in Ukraine, who started to propagandize the philosophic works of R. Descartes, J. Locke, and F. Bacon. He made the presentation of Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei ideas. There were 8 classes in Kyiv Mohyla Academy. At the first step there were preparing or elementary classes. It was necessary for children, who entered this class to read and write. Pupils of three first classes learnt Latin, Ruthenian language, Ukrainian literary, Greek, and Polish. Later, in addition, students learnt Russian, French, German and Hebrew. In the educational plan there were also arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, Greek, Roman and medieval literature, trigonometry, physics, astronomy, architecture, singing and catechism. In the next two classes pupils learnt poetry (piityka) and rhetoric (elements of orator's mastery). The highest part of the educational course included philosophy (2 years) and theology (4 years). Academy became the center of philosophical thought in Ukrainian lands. Students studied 12 years in Academy. The educational year started September, 1 and finished in the middle of July. Children may become students in November, December, March and July, but classes started in September. There was the special hostel for poor pupils. There were not any limitations related to the age. For example, in the second or third junior classes may studied 11 and 24 year old pupils. Each year 500–2000 students studied here. Students, who failed exams, repeated the course. They were not expelled from the Academy. Teaching was realized by Latin language like in many European universities. Library had 12000 books and lots of manuscripts and documents.

140 According to the traditions of brotherhood schools the Ruthenian language was also used for poetry, literary works, and school dramas (by the way, this kind of theatrical art was born in Kyiv Mohyla Academy). From the middle of 18th century (1753) the Russification of the Academy started. Representatives of different groups of society had been studied in this Academy. There were 22 children of Cossack foremen, 6 from merchants' families, 84 children of ordinary Cossacks, 66 petty bourgeois (members of urban lower middle class comprising small traders, craftsmen), 39 children of peasants. In the second half of 17th century professors of Kyiv Mohyla Academy had been invited by Russian schools and churches. So, we could understand that Ukraine became an intellectual donor for Russia.

Literature and arts Philosophy was one of the major points of high education. At the basis of Aristotle's philosophy teachers of Kyiv Mohyla academy had been teaching logic, dialectic, physics, metaphysics, and ethics. Hryhorii Skovoroda (1722–1794) was one of the most famous philosophers of Ukraine. The main points of his philosophic concept were anthropologism, and self-cognition. He was sure that the world consisted of three levels: microcosm (inner world of human being), macrocosm (external world, Universe), and the world of symbols (the Holy Bible), which united both material and spiritual worlds. The aim of human life from his point of view was the happiness of "labour by calling". It was the activity, which took into account all human talents. The ideal of thinker was the spiritual person focused on self-perfection, independent in opinion and cognition, and joyful. Friendship with close in spirit people is the source of emotional health. "A Conversation among Five Travelers Concerning Life's True Happiness", "Fables and Aphorisms" were famous his philo-sophical works. He spent the period from 1745 to 1750 in Hungary and is thought to have traveled elsewhere in Europe during this period as well. In 1750 he returned to Ukraine where he taught poetics in Pereyaslav from 1750–1751. For most of the period from 1753 to 1759 Skovoroda was a tutor in the family of a landowner in Kovrai. From 1759 to 1769, with interruptions, he taught such subjects as poetry, syntax, Greek, and ethics at the Kharkiv Collegium. After an attack on his course on ethics in 1769 he decided to abandon teaching. Skovoroda was known as a composer of liturgical music, as well as a number of songs to his own texts. Of the latter, several have passed into the realm of . Many of his philosophical songs known as "Skovorodynivski psalmy" were often encountered in the repertoire of blind itinerant folk musicians known as kobzars. He was described as a proficient player on the , and . Historiography of this period was full of many interesting works. Chronicles' writing slowly had got features of scientific texts. The most famous of them was "Chronicle" (1762) by Theodosius Safonovych, "Synopsis" (1674) by Innokentii Gizel', and "Litopysets" (1699) by Leontii Bobolynsky. These works were the evidence of continuing of chronography tradition and new approaches to systematization and comments of historical facts. Theodosius Safonovych underlined that each person should know and tell about the history of family and Motherland. "Synopsis" was brief text- book in history, which had a lot of re-editions. "Cossack Chronicles" described the history of Liberation war: "Samovydtsya" (by Roman Rakushka-Romanovsky), Chronicles by Hryhorii Hrabianka, and Samiylo Velychko. Researchers of 18th century devoted their works to different periods of Ukrainian history: in 1730-s "Brief Description of Small Russia" and in 1770-s Stefan Lukomsky "Historical Collection" were published. Memoirs and diaries of famous Cossacks were good source of information. Son of hetman Danylo Apostle published "The Diary" (1722–1727) in French language. Jakob Markovych, Cossack General treasures also issued his "Diary" (1735–1740). Russia realized imperial policy in Ukrainian lands. Ukrainian administrator Alexander Bezborod'ko, one of private secretaries of Queen Catherine II, provided such policy here.

141 Some political factors influenced on the development of Ukrainian culture: 1) Existence of Ukrainian state (Hetmanshchyna); 2) Cossack officers got privileged position in society; 3) Widespread of Ukrainian ethnic territory, especially to the South and North East (Slobozhanshchyna); 4) Integration of Ukrainian lands in Russian empire. Decline of Hetmanshchyna stopped successful development of Ukrainian culture. In 1775 Catherine II defeated Zaporizhian Sich and the major part of Ukraine became semi-colony of Russian empire. Russian and Austrian empires provided the policy directed on the leveling of Ukrainian national identity. Schools and printing were closed. It was forbidden to use Ukrainian language. Instead of that Russian, Polish, German and Hungarian languages were provided. In 18th century Orthodox Church lost autonomy. Intellectual elite and artists migrated to Russia. It was the additional barrier for national-cultural consolidation of Ukrainian people. In conclusion, we should underline that in the second half of 17th–18th centuries Ukraine became one of the centers of education and science in East Europe, and Ukrainian scientific potential helped to spread knowledge in Russia. Cultural context of Baroque development in Ukraine was very specific. National character was formed under the influence of Cossack knight's ideal. It added outlook-aesthetic originality to Ukrainian Baroque. Decline of Cossack state caused the decadence of the style. The Baroque was a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to the most states of Europe. Outlook foundations of Baroque were formed as a result of Reformation and heliocentric theory of Nickolas Copernicus. Ukrainian Baroque combined traditions of national folk art and characteristics of European Baroque ones. European variant of this style was oriented onto court-aristocratic art, but Ukrainian one was more democratic, oriented to all stratums of society. Because of that in opposition of excessive virtuosity and sensory extremes of Italian Baroque, tragic dramatism of and pomposity of Spanish one, mysticism of German, and refined decoration of French ones, in Ukraine this style was imbued by heroic pathos and solemn assertion of the ideal of the Light. Baroque became the universal artistic trend spread in all fields of arts: poetry, fine arts, music, and theatre. Strengthening of cultural contacts with neighbouring states, achievements in sphere of science, education, and arts led to the establishment of Ukrainians in the international arena. Because of that Ivan Mazepa became the attractive figure for his contemporaries and philosophers, scientists and artists of subsequent periods: Voltaire, George G. Byron, Juliusz Slowacki, Alexander Pushkin, and Franz Liszt. Ukrainian songs were popular and great composers (Ludwig van Beethoven, Karl M. Weber, and Alexander Alyab'ev) created instrumental variations of it. So, Baroque was European artistic phenomenon, and Ukraine was equal partner of other states in the development of this style. It was a bright flash in the development of Ukrainian culture. Drama was a favourite kind of literature in late 17th – the first half of 18th century. It was formed under the influence of Polish traditions, religious Christmas and Easter mysteries. Miracles (dramas about lives of Saints), moralities (allegorical plays of instructive content), historical dramas, tragedies, comedies, and tragicomedies (synthetic genre combined elements of tragedy and comedy) were also popular at that time. Teachers of poetry wrote plays, and students were the actors. School drama had allegoric character with main symbolic characters reflected Faith, Hope, Love, Human Nature, God's idea, Conscience, Wisdom, Blessedness, etc. Dialogues had written by solemn philosophic metaphorical language. Ukrainian musical culture of the second half of 17th – 18th centuries developed traditions of previous periods. We should mention kobza- and Pandora-players, and lirnyks. They sang songs and Dumas, which were popular among people and elite. Russian Queen Elizabeth (reigned

142 1741–1761) liked Ukrainian music and singing a lot. She even had choir and some Ukrainian musicians in Petersburg. In 1742 Hryhorii Skovoroda was a singer of that choir. In Hlukhiv special school for singers was opened in 1738. It became the center of musical arts. There was a nice choir and orchestra in Kyiv collegiums. There were guilds of singers in Ukraine. Ukrainian composers created music for vocal performances (for 4,8 and even 12 voices). Ukrainian composer and educator Mykola Dylets'ky was prominent theorist of music. He was sure that musical education had to be a part of general education of human being. He underlined that music influenced on the emotional-aesthetic world of person. Mykola Dylets'ky was the author of the first text-book of music in Slavic countries. The second half of 18th century was "the golden age" of Ukrainian music. This was the period of classical sacred music (composers: Maxym Berezovskyi, Artemii Vedel' and Dmytro Bortnyanskyi). At the same time there were many achievements in the development of secular musical genres: opera, symphony, concerto, sonatas, and romance. So, literature, theatre and music of the second half of 17th – 18th centuries developed in the context of European Baroque culture with national traditions. Baroque style in Ukraine had the brightest manifestations in architecture: plastic forms, bright and dark walls, decorative details, raised ornaments, etc. Active building started in Kyiv, Central and Left-Bank Ukraine. Many new churches, cathedrals, monasteries, educational enterprises, houses of Cossack foremen were built at that time. All these buildings help to understand Ukrainian way of life. For example, Lysohub houses in Sednev. Exactly these were the elite variant of buildings. Plan of the house reminded "khata for two masters". Outwalls were decorated with the help of architectural plastic. Among the most out-standing architects in Ukraine we should mention Stephen Kovnir and Ivan Hryhorovych-Barskyi. Stephen Kovnir (1695–1786) Kovnir Palace in Klovska Square in Kyiv, Trinity Church in Kutaivska pustyn' not far from Kyiv, Anthony and Theodosius Pechers'ki Church in Vasyl'kiv, and a bell-tower in Far Caves at the territory of Kyiv-Pechersk monastery. This bell-tower was the best examples of Ukrainian Baroque. Ivan Hryhorovych-Barsky (1713–1785) designed many buildings: Shroud Church and Church of Mykola Naberezhnyi in Kyiv, Church of the Nitivity of the Virgion in ', Cyril Monastery in , etc. Foreign architects Johann-Gottfried Schadel from Germany and Bartolomeo Rastrelli from Italy designed in Ukrainian Baroque style. Johann-Gottfried Schadel (1680–1752) was the author of the best buildings in this style: Old Kyiv Mohyla Academic Building, Assumption Cathedral in Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery, Bell Tower of St. Sophia Cathedral, and Zaborovsky Gates. Original and unique structures of Italian architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700–1771). According to his projects St. Andrew Church and Mariinsky Palace were built in Kyiv. Mariinsky Palace presented the architectural and landscape ensembles of Baroque style. Up to nowadays Baroque wooden churches had preserved. They were high multi-storied buildings with complicated and dynamic forms. The best example of such cult building is Trinity Cathedral in Novomoskovsk (Dnipropetrovsk region). It had been built without any nail by national master Jakym Pohribnyak in 1772–1781. In West-Ukrainian lands monumental architecture of this period developed under the influence of Catholic culture and Polish Baroque. Among the most famous buildings in West-European Baroque and Rococo styles at the territory of West Ukraine we should mention: Dominican Church (architects Jan de Witte and Martin Urbanic), St. George's Cathedral (Baroque-Rococo style, architect Bernard Meretin, 1744– 1760), Town Hall in Buchach (Rococo style, Bernard Meretin, 1751), and Pochaiv Lavra (Polish architect Gottfried Hoffmann reconstructed some buildings between 1771–1791). Painting of the Baroque is a special page of Ukrainian culture. It developed under the influence of European and Ukrainian folk arts. Like in previous periods monumental and easel painting developed. Monumental painting of that period was connected with decoration of cult buildings. Frescoes and iconostasis of Kyiv-Pechersk lavra, St. Sophia and St. Mykhailo's Cathedrals were the best examples of Baroque monumental painting. Alimpii Halyk was the master,

143 who painted many buildings of Kyiv-Pechersk lavra. Wall-painting in wooden churches was the original phenomenon of Ukrainian culture without analogues. Icon-painting was the dominative trend in easel painting. Ivan Rutkovych (unknown date of birth – 1708) and Yov Kondzelevych (1667–1740) painters from Zhovkva created a lot of iconostasis in many churches of Western Ukraine. Colouring of their icons was composed, fine and full of harmony. The highest level iconostasis' painting reached in 18th century. It was a component of Ukrainian Baroque style. Iconostasis combined some kinds of arts: painting, decorative sculpture and architecture. Mixture of bright painting with exquisite carvings, dynamic movement of architectural details were the main characteristic features of this style. Iconostasis of Saviour Transfiguration Church in was the best example of Baroque ones. Figures reflected the dynamic movements of human body. Beauty was connected with spiritual desire. From the second half of the 17th century genre of portrait started to spread from the Western Ukraine to the Central and Left-Bank Ukraine. Portraits of outstanding people (princes, hetmans and tzars), decorated the walls of cathedrals, monasteries and lavras. In Assumption Cathedral of Kyiv-Pechersk monastery there was such portrait gallery. Bohdan Khmelnytsky was the favourite character of portrait painters of 17th – 18th centuries. As as a model for them there was the Hetman's portrait engraving created by Dutch artist Wilhelm Hondius in 1651. Ceremonial portrait was very popular genre of painting in 18th century. Its function was presentation of a person in beauty and significance. Ukrainian portrait painters presented ideal variant of a person. The best example of such portrait was otaman Danylo Yefremov. Nice finery, position, expressive gestures, and family emblem were the required signs of the ceremonial portrait. At the same time painters presented individual features of hero. Portraits of Basil Hamaliya and Semen Sulyma were the excellent portraits this genre. Genre of folk painting was very popular from the 17th up to the first half of 19th centuries. Cossack Mamai (Cossack ) pictures there were nearly in each . Painters put his image in chests, doors, walls, and even hives. Composition of the majority of pictures was mostly the same: the Cossack was sitting under the oak tree playing in or kobza. His horse was walking nearby, his saber, rifle or pistol, and tobacco pipe were next to him. Sometimes there were sad of fun humouristic inscriptions in such pictures. Cossack Mamai embodied the ideal of national hero: beautiful, strong, brave, wise, and ironical. Sculpture played an important role in Baroque arts. It was widely used for the decoration of facades and interiors of architectural buildings. In Ukraine sculpture was developed better in Western part than in East. Johann Pinzel' was the outstanding sculptor, who decorated St. George's Cathedral in Lviv and Town Hall in Buchach. Dynamic, variability, and the expression were the characteristic features of his sculptural compositions. J. Pinzel's creative manner influenced on the development of sculpture in Galicia and abroad. In Central and Left-Bank Ukraine decorative sculpture was under the influence of folk arts. Sculpture was closely connected with carving. In Ukrainian churches, cathedrals and monasteries there were many variants of complicated wooden decoration of iconostasis and walls. In conclusion we should underline that the second half of 17th century was the "golden age" of Ukrainian culture. It was the period of Cossack Baroque. The culmination there was in Ivan Mazepa time. Later, Ukrainian lands were incorporated to Russian empire and policy of Russification started. Classicism started to form like a dominative tendency in culture. So, classicism was the trend in European literature and arts of 17th – early 19th centuries. There were some characteristic features of classicism: orientation on the examples of Ancient Greece and Rome (classic examples); rationalism, striving to build arts at the rational basis; strict regulation and rules for the theatre: "law of three unities" (action, time, and place); compulsory following of canonical rules in written creativity (hero should perform public duties, division of characters into positive and negative, proportion in all parts of play, harmony of composition, etc.); hierarchy and division of genres into "serious", "high" (tragedy, epic, novel,

144 elegy, and idyll) and "low", "entertainments" (travestied poem, comedy, fable, and epigram); taking into account of tastes and demands of noble stratum to increase artistic creativity over daily routine. Classical language had to be clear and pure, aphoristic, conceptual, at the basis of "the theory of three styles".Classicism in Ukraine was spreading in 17th–18th centuries in school dramas, oriented on Antique and Renaissance heritage. Classicism in Ukraine did not have the chance to develop like a strict system, and "low genres" were more popular. Some of classical tendencies we can find in tradicomedy "Volodymyr" by Theophan Prokopovych, poetries of Ivan Neckrashevych, Russian-language poetries of Basil Kapnist and Ivan Maksymovych, and poem "Aeneid" by Ivan Kotlyarevskyi. Palace of Hetman Kyrylo (Cyril) Rozumovsky in Pochep was the oldest classical building in Ukraine. Olexii (Aleksei) Yanovskyi built it according to the project of French architect J.B. Vallin de la Mothe. Saviour's Transfiguration Cathedral in Novhorod-Siverskyi (architect Giakomo Quarenghi) was one of the best buildings of 18th century. In visual arts classicism manifested in works of Russian artists of Ukrainian origin Dmytro (Dmitriy) Levytskyi and Volodymyr (Vladimir) Borovykovskyi. Dmytro (Dmitriy) Levytskyi (n.1735, Kyiv – 1822, Petersburg) was the outstanding portraitist and painter. His father was famous engraver of Baroque period in Poltava region Hryhorii Levytsky-Nos. In students' days Dmytro Levytskyi helped his father in making graphics in books edited by Kyiv-Pechersk lavra. In 1758 he entered Petersburg Academy of Arts and became a student of Olexii (Aleksey) Antropov. In 1763 Levytsky was a fasionable portraitist in Petersburg. His collection of Smolny pupils was real masterpiece of portraits. In 1764 he started independent artistic practice in Moscow. 1764 ɪ. Dmytro (Dmitriy) Levytskyi headed the portrait class in Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts. He painted many famous people of that time. In Geneva Museum there is a portrait of Denis Diderot (philosopher- encyclopedist) painted by Dmyro Levytskyi (Denis Diderot recognized this portrait the best one). There was another famous artist originated from Ukraine – Volodymyr (Vladimir) Borovykovskyi. He was born in in 1757. His father was a skilful icon-painter. By the end of 1780-s Volodymyr Borovykovskyi moved to Petersburg. His early works were connected with traditions of Ukrainian painting of 18th century. His miniatures and portraits (especially female ones: Catherine Arsenyeva (1796) and Mariya Lopukhina (1797)) were the most famous. Some of the pictures were painted in sentimentalism style. In these portraits, lonely female figures full of elegiac mood were painted in a state of dreamy abstraction at the rural background. The last period of his creativity was connected with sacral thematic. He participated in the painting of iconostasis of many cult buildings in Russia and Ukraine: Kazan' Cathedral and Trinity Cathedral of Alexander Nevskyi Lavra in Petersburg, Shroud Church in Chernihiv, etc. Late period of his work was coincided with the Patriotic war of 1812. Volodymyr (Vladimir) Borovykovskyi in portraits of tried to reflect nobility, dignity and heroic character of people. From time to time V. Borovykovskyi painted the portraits of ordinary people: servants Liza and Dasha, Chrystyna, and allegoric image of the winter. V. Borovykovskyi created about 200 portraits and many icons. His works we can find in many museums of Russia and Ukraine. Answer the questions 1. What are the main features of Cossack Baroque? What is the main difference between European and Ukrainian Baroque? 2. Why image was so popular among Ukrainian people? 3. Which principles were the main points of Cossack way of life and thinking? 4. What were the main points of Hryhorii Skovoroda philosophy? 5. What are the characteristic features of ceremonial portrait?

6 Culture of Ukraine in 19th – early 20th centuries Periods of Ukrainian cultural revival. In the culturological literature period of late 18th – early 20th centuries got the name "Ukrainian national revival". National revival is a necessary period

145 of the development of each ethnos on the way to independence. National revival started in East Ukraine in last quarter of 18th century. Historian Dmytro Doroshenko underlined that the sources of Ukrainian revival started from the awakening of nationality and preserving of national traditions. Famous representative of the newest historiography Ivan Lysyak-Rudnytskyi (1919–1984) offered the system of Ukrainian national-cultural revival. The first period (noble or aristocratic) lasted from 1780 up to 1840. It was the period of scientific interest. During this period enthusiastic people tried to collect linguistic, folklore, literary, and historical points of the nation. The second period was "the populist one" (1846–1880) during which masses of population participated in the process of national revival. Reading rooms, theatres, libraries, museums, and schools were opened for them. Books with the information about cultural heritage were published. This period ended by 1890. Third, "modern" period was characterized by mass national movement, when political parties and other organizations were formed. It gave the chance for the wide masses to participate in the political life of society (1890–1914). It was a political period. National political parties and organizations had been created during this period. In 1917–1918 there was an attempt to proclaim the independent Ukrainian State. From the late 18th century Ukrainian territory was under the power of two multinational empires: Russian and Austrian. Development of Ukrainian spiritual culture had appeared in the situation of constant harassment. The 19th century was the period of serious social and economic changes. The transition from feudal serfdom system (landlords' ownership, personal peasants' dependence from the landlord) had started. Technical revolution, which started in 1830-s and finished in 1890-s. Social division of labour and commodity-monetary relations were the basis of progressive economic development. These processes caused urbanization and increasing of industrial workers. In response to the feudal oppression in Ukraine increased peasant movement. Peasant uprisings shook the foundations of serfdom system. Peasant movement had liberation character and national significance. Any manifestation of Ukrainian consciousness Russia interpreted as a "betrayal" of Empire interest, and the desire of autonomy was characterized like Ukrainian "separatism". During the reign of Nickolas I strengthened Russification policy. Russian tsar concentrated the number of Russian troops stationed in Right Bank Ukraine. In 1831 Magdeburg Law and in 1839–1840 Lithuanian Statutes were cancelled. Political events in Europe influenced on the political situation in Ukraine. The French Revolution of 1789–1794, the Napoleon war (1812) brought democratic slogans and Ukrainians hoped to revive the independence. Many young officers after European campaign had seen states without serfdom. They were the participants of secret mason organizations. Secret mason lodges appeared in Kyiv, Poltava, Zhytomyr, and Kremyanets'. The majority of members were Russian and Polish people, but they added to programmes national points for the development of Ukrainian national consciousness. In 1820-s new secret political societies "Malorosiyske Tovarystvo" ("Little Russian Society") and "Society of Liberation of Ukraine" were organized. They wanted to renew the political autonomy of Ukraine. Among the members of secret organizations there were V. Lukashevych, S. Kochubey, V. Tarnovskyi, P. Kapnist, and I.Kotlyarevskyi. Later this movement joined to revolutionary Decembrists (revolutionary movement of Russian high officers and nobility). In 1823 "The Society of United Slavs" was organized by brothers Andrii and Petro Borysovy. The programme of society had the points of destruction of the autocracy, serfdom, and formation of federation of Slavic democratic republics. By the way, this idea of federative Slavic state there was in programme of Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. In February, 19, 1861 tzar Alexander II signed the Manifesto of Peasants' Liberation (Emancipation Manifesto). It was necessary to change the whole state system by the reformation of different fields: regional division, legal system, military, educational, censorial, and etc.

146 Capitalist changes stimulated social division of labour and progress of civilization. Qualified specialists were necessary in many fields. Because of that intellectuals became the specific social stratum of society. Advanced representatives of educated nobility did their best for the development of culture and the formation of Ukrainian national self-consciousness. In July, 1863, Ukrainian national-liberation movement became more active and secret circular of the Minister of Internal Affairs P. Valuev was the result of that activation. The Circular ordered the Censorship Committees to ban the publication of religious texts, educational texts, and beginner-level books in Ukrainian, but permitted publication of literature in that language. Teaching in Ukrainian was defined like political propaganda. The situation with Ukrainian language later was resolved in such a way that the usage of the language in open print was completely prohibited with the in 1876. M. Drahomanov protested against anti-Ukrainian policy of Russian government in his report from the tribune of World Literary Congress in Paris (1878). So, there were some pre-conditions for national cultural revival: social and economic changes, transition from feudalism to capitalism; process of national culture and self-consciousness formation; results of national-liberation struggle, directed to the political independence. Russian tsarist government finished the liquidation of Ukrainian autonomy by the end of 18th century. Hetman authority and specific regiment-hundred division of Ukrainian lands stopped to exist. Ukraine became dependent province of Russian empire. All peculiarities of education and church-religious life that contained national features disappeared. Ukraine had lost even its name. It became "Little Russia", and even in official documents instead of Ukrainian nationality pointed "Maloros" (offensive "Little Russian"). Ukrainian nobility tried to provide historical knowledge. In 1820-s anonymous manuscript "History of the Rus' or Little Russia" was very popular among intellectuals (probably Orthodox bishop Hryhorii Konysky was its author). The main point of this work was the idea of close connection of Kyivan Rus' and Ukraine. This work was the political declaration of that part of Ukrainian nobility, which wanted to renew Hetman State. Officially was published in Russian in 1846 by Moscow University Press. High circles of Ukrainian society tried to prove in scientific way the noble roots of Cossack foremen families. In 1822 Dmytro Bantysh-Kamenskyi published "History of Little Russia". Mykola Markevych (1804–1860) continued the investigation of ideas of this book in his 5-volumes "History of Little Russia" (1842–1843). So, at the beginning of 19th century Ukrainian historiography was formed. Romanticism became the significant feature of the European Slavic literature formation. Yevhen Hrebinka (1812–1848) developed folk satirical traditions. He organized the group of Ukrainophiles in Petersburg. ( was the love of, or identification with Ukraine and Ukrainians. Ukrainophilia was severely persecuted by the imperial Russian government. Ukrainian- language books and theater were banned). In spite of that Yevhen Hrebinka helped Taras Shevchenko to publish collection of poetry and poems "" (1840). Hryhorii Kvitka-Osnovyanenko was the founder of Ukrainian prose. Amvrosii Metlynsky (1814–1870), Levko Borovykovsky (1806(8) – 1889), and Victor Zabila (1808–1869) were poets- representatives of romanticism. In 1818 Olexii Pavlovsky published the first "Grammar of Little- Russian Dialect" (in fact it was the text-book of spoken Ukrainian language). New type of Ukrainian theatre at the beginning of 19th century was connected with so called "serf theatre". It was the transition from school theatre to secular one. Kharkiv and Poltava were the centers of theatrical life. In 1808 after the break Kharkiv theatre started to work. In 1812 H. Kvitka- Osnovyanenko became the director, producer, and actor of it. I. Kotlyarevsky was the director of Poltava theatre. At the beginning of the 19th century Russia realized the reform of education system in 1802– 1804. According to this reform all educational enterprises were divided into levels: parochial schools, local training schools, grammar schools, and lyceums and universities. Education of this period had class character. Children of workers and peasants did not have the chance for secondary

147 and high education. The majority of population was illiterate. Russification did not let Ukrainians to study in native language. Parochial schools, usually, were opened at the churches and had the full course 6 months in villages, and 1 year in towns. Reading, writing, arithmetic and divinity were the main subjects of these schools. Local training schools (secular elementary schools) had 3 years of full course. Among the main subjects there were: Russian language, arithmetic, history, geography, physics, geometry, natural science, and divinity. Grammar schools (full course was 7 years) gave secondary education. Pupils learnt Latin, German, French languages, philosophy, statistics, jurisprudence, political economy, physics, etc. Final year pupils could enter universities or became teachers of elementary schools. Lyceums and universities gave high education. Three lyceums: in Kremenets' (Volhynia'), Odesa and Nizhyn for 9 or 10 years had been given mixed grammar school and university course. There were four faculties in Kharkiv University: historical-philological; physical and mathematic; judicial (moral and political sciences); and medical. Professor I. Ryzhs'ky became the first rector of Kharkiv University. At the first half of the 19th century there were only 2 universities in Ukraine: Kharkiv (1805) and Kyiv (1834). Term of full course was 4 years. Vasyl Karazin wanted to have the best scientists and teachers in Kharkiv University. He was high educated person and he had scientific works in different fields: climatology, agronomy, meteorology, and in mining. More than that he invented central heating, drying apparatuses, stoves for dry distillation of wood, technologies of saltpeter mining. V. Karazin constructed agricultural machines. He was named "Ukrainian Lomonosov". Ivan Ryzhskyi was a writer and philologist, . He was elected as a rector of Kharkiv university twice. "Intellectual Speaking or Mental Philosophy" (1790) and "The Oratory Experience" (1796) were his famous text-books. In 1813 Timofei Osipovsky became the rector of Kharkiv University. He was the author of "The Course of Mathematics". Many decades it was one of the best text-books for students in 19th century. His pupil M. Ostrogradsky in 1820 graduated the University of Kharkiv. Later he studied at the Sorbonne and at the College de France in Paris, France. In 1828 he returned to Russia and settled in Saint Petersburg, where he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. Among the teachers of historical-philological faculty there was famous writer Petro Hulak- Artemovsky (1790–1865), historians Mykola Kostomarov (1817–1885) and Dmytro Bahaliy (1857–1932). Kharkiv University became not only scientific-educational centre of Slobids'ka and the Left-Bank Ukraine, but also a provider and the birthplace of Ukrainian romantic culture. It was one of the first places related to the national-cultural revival. Foundation of Kharkiv University in Eastern Ukraine, edition of first Ukrainian magazines, activity of prominent cultural figures of that time transformed Kharkiv into the biggest cultural centre of Ukraine. In 1834 in Kyiv there was Kyiv Church Academy (in 1817 Kyiv Mohyla Academy stopped to exist and transformed into the high educational enterprise for clergymen). It does not mean that this Academy prepared only priests for church service. Many former students of this Academy after graduation started to work in secular enterprises. Some of them became famous figures of Ukrainian culture. Among them there was a writer Ivan Nechui-Levyts'ky (1838–1918); a composer P. Kozyts'ky (1893–1960); chorus conducter and composer A. Koshetz (1875–1944); academicians K. Voblii (1876–1947) (economist and geographer), and M. Petrov (1840–1921) (ethnographer and historian). Foundation of Kyiv University was connected with some difficulties. It became the bone of contention between Polish and Russian governments. It was opened July, 15, 1834 instead of Polish lyceum (high school or law school in pre-revolutionary Russia). Russian government hoped that Kyiv University of St. Volodymyr would suppress the spirit of Polish nationality and connected it with Russian one. So, Kyiv University played a role of advanced post for spread of Russian educational system in western regions of Ukraine. They had

148 forgotten about Ukrainians. But in spite of that Kyiv University made a lot for Ukrainian national cultural revival. From the very beginning Kyiv University had 2 faculties: philosophical and judicial. The term of education was 4 years. Philosophical faculty was divided into historical-philological and physical-mathematic departments. In 1835 they became independent faculties. In 1841 medical faculty was opened. Number of students arose from 61 to 651. Less than 20 years (up to 1861) about 1500 students graduated this university. Professor Mykhailo Maksymovych became the first rector of Kyiv University. He was the scientist of encyclopedic knowledge: he wrote works in natural sciences, history, folklore, and theory of literature. He liked Ukrainian history and culture. He was at the sources of Ukrainian folklore studies: he edited "Malorussian Songs" (1827); "Ukrainian Popular Songs" (1834); "The Collection of Ukrainian Songs" (1849). M. Maksymovych was a friend of Mykola (Nikolai) Hohol (Gogol') and Taras Shevchenko. Before Kyiv he taught botany in Moscow University and published "Basics of Botany". In 1864 the New Russian University in Odesa was opened. In 1875 the Chernivtsi University started training of students. With the development of capitalism there was the necessity in the formation of technical high educational enterprises. In 1885 the first Ukrainian South-Russian technological institute in Kharkiv was opened. Now it is Polytechnic University. In 1898 Kyiv Polytechnic institute and in 1899 Katerynoslav high Mining training college started their work. In 1873 Kharkiv Veterinary institute began the schooling of students. In the 19th century Russian government did its best to not give the chance for the development of Ukrainian culture. Russification was the main point in sphere of cultural policy. Russian officials tried to support the assimilation of Ukrainian population. After Polish uprising in 1830 all national elements in local government disappeared. Kyiv local militsia (police) (2000 people) was disbanded. They traditionally wore Cossack .

Social and cultural unities of Ukrainian intellectuals In this hard situation the only power that left in Ukraine was national self-consciousness. Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius (1846–1847) made a lot for the formation of national self-consciousness, spread of education and printing. In cultural historical process brotherhood declared: equal rights of all nations and for national originality; state and political independence; free development of language and national culture. Members of brotherhood analyzed the original features of Ukrainian character: love for freedom, natural democracy, religious tolerance and Members of Cyril and Methodius brotherhood tried to formulate theoretically the Ukrainian idea for progress and independence. By the way, members of brotherhood disputed the similar ideas like "Rus'ka Triytsya" (1833–1837) ("Russian Trinity"), Galician literary group. It was formed in Lviv and students of religious seminary (school) and university became the members of it. Three leaders had been at the sources of this organization: Markiyan Shashkevych (1811–1843), Ivan Vahylevych (1811–1866) and Yakiv Holovats'ky (1816–1888). They were against Polonization of Ukrainians in Western lands. They edited literary almanac " Dnistrova". After the abolition of serfdom in 1861 it was necessary to realize some reforms. According to the educational reform of 1864 all elementary schools (church- parochial and secular) were transformed into elementary public training schools. Representatives of all stratums and classes of society could study there. General plans and programmes for this kind of schools were adopted. Main subjects were reading, arithmetic and divinity. Quality of education was not very high. The part of training schools became exemplary ones (with 5 years for full course). Pupils studied some additional subjects: geography, history, needlework, drawing, etc. Another part of training schools were under the control of local governments (so called zemstvo) and among teachers there were many progressive intellectuals.

149 Regional training schools had 6-year course and prepared specialists for industry, transport, and clerks. Among additional subjects there were: geometry, sketching, physics, botany, etc. Sunday schools (1859–1862) had been opened by hromadas and only in these schools pupils could study both in Russian and Ukrainian languages. These schools had more humanities and natural sciences. In 1862 they were closed, because tsarist government afraid of spreading the Ukrainian nationalism. Secondary education had been given by grammar schools (gymnasiums). There were 7 years for the full course. There were divided into classical gymnasiums and real training schools. Classical gymnasium had deeper humanitarian orientation. Pupils after gymnasium could enter university without special exams. Pupils in real training schools studied exact and natural sciences. Pupils after these schools usually entered high technical institutes. Education in Dnieper Ukraine developed in frames of state Russian policy. The network of educational enterprises, but it was not enough for the population of Ukraine. Schools and universities were the means of Russification and denationalization of Ukrainians. In West Ukraine situation was little bit different. Lviv was the cultural center of this region. In 1849 the first department of Ukrainian language was organized. Yakiv Holovatsky (1814–1888) headed it. Second half of 19th century was the time of active development of science. There were many scientific schools at that time. Ukrainian Studies were very important for the development of national culture. Among the most famous historians and ethnographers we should mention Mykola Kostomarov (1817–1885), Volodymyr Antonovych (1834–1908), Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895), Olexandra Yefimenko (1848–1918), Dmytro Bahaliy (1857–1932) and Fedir Vovk (1847–1918). Folkloristics developed through the efforts of Pavlo Chubynskyi (1839–1884) and Mykola Sumtsov (1854–1922). The important contribution to linguistics made Olexander Potebnya (1835– 1891), Pavlo Zhytetskyi (1837–1911), and Agatangel Krymskyi (1871–1942). The significant role in the development of national consciousness played cultural- educational society "Prosvita", which was founded in Lviv (1892). In 1892 one more society was founded there. It was the "Scientific Society named after Taras Shevchenko". Later, in fact, it fulfilled the role of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. More than 15 years Mykhailo Hrushevskyi headed this society. He had written more than 2 thousand of historical works. Among them there were 11 volumes of "History of Ukraine-Rus" and 5 volumes of "History of Ukrainian Literature". High education had been given by universities of Kharkiv, Kyiv and Odesa, Lviv and Chernivtsi. There were some institutes, which trained different kinds of specialists: Kharkiv Technological and Veterinary institutes, Kyiv and , Nizhyn Historical- Philological, Hlukhiv Teachers' institute, etc. Unfortunately, the education was not free, so children of workers and peasants could not get the high education. In late 1850-s – early 1860-s specific ideology "narodnytstvo" started to spread among student's youth. Young people under the influence of this ("hromady"). The main points of their activity were national-cultural, educational and public-political directions. Up to the end of 19th century hromady played an active role in Ukrainian national revival. The first "Ukrainian hromadas" were organized in Petersburg (1859) and Kyiv in 1861. Young historian Volodymyr Antonovych headed Kyivan one. There were many famous Ukrainian cultural and public figures in the stuff of it: M. Ziber, M. Drahomanov, P. Zytetskyi, T. Vovk, P. Chubynskyi, M. Starytskyi, T. Rylskyi, I. Kasyanenko, M. Lysenko, O. Konys'kyi, etc. All "hromada" members had common national Ukrainian idea developed on the democratic ground: love and respect of Ukraine and Ukrainian people, pride of spiritual culture and its contribution to human cultural heritage. Ukrainian students-members of this hromada edited text-books and works of Ukrainian writers, organized national concerts and plays, spread education, founded Sunday schools and taught there. The edition of books of Ukrainian writers was organized with the help of Ukrainian landlords Basil Tarnovs'ky (Senior) and Hryhorii Galagan. They published "Notes of Southern Russia" and "The Black

150 Council" ("Chorna Rada") by Panteleimon Kulish, "Folk Stories" by , and "Kobzar" by Taras Shevchenko. Petersburg hromada had special fund of donation for the edition of Ukrainian text-books and scientific-popular literature. In 1861–1862 public-political and belles-letter literary magazine "Osnova" started to publish works and articles of Ukrainian authors in national language. There were publications of Mykola Kostomarov (1817–1885), Tadei Ryl'sky (1841–1902), Pavlo Chubyns'ky (1839–1884), etc.

Ukrainian cultural movement of early 20th century In architecture at the beginning of 20th century the dominative style was modern () (from French "modern" means newest, contemporary). Bessarab Market in Kyiv (1910) was built in this style by Polish architect Henryk Gaj. In this style of Ukrainian modern the house of Poltava Zemstvo had been built in 1904–1908 (architect V. Krychevskyi), and " or Gorodetsky House" (1902–1903) (architect V. Gorodetskyi). 20th century started from the bourgeois revolution (1905–1907), because of that all cultural processes came to Ukraine little bit later. Inner essence of national and cultural revival in Ukraine in different periods of its evolution was defined by national idea of liberty, independence and sovereignty. Answer the questions 1. What does Ukrainian national revival mean? Describe its peculiarities and periods. 2. What do you know of Taras Shevchenko and his contribution to Ukrainian culture? 3. Who was the founder of Ukrainian classical music? 4. Which tendencies were dominative in Ukrainian literature of 19th century? 5. What do you know of Cyril and Methodius brotherhood and other organizations of intellectuals in Ukraine in 19th century? 6. What do you know of Ukrainian hromadas? What was their role in cultural life of Ukrainians? 7. What do you know of the main trends and the development of visual arts in Ukraine by late 19th – early 20th centuries? 8. Which style was dominative in architecture at the beginning of 20th century?

7 Culture of Ukraine in 20th – early 21st centuries Culture of Ukraine (early 20th century – before 1917) The development of Ukrainian culture in early 20th century we could characterize like a period of its national-state revival (third, political sub-period). The first democratic revolution in Russian empire (1905–1907) had shown that the national problem in this country was very sharp. Ukrainian community struggled against national oppression for the right to study in native language, to use it for edition of national literature, in theatres, in state (official) organs. Ukrainian press started to develop in 1906 (there were 18 edited Ukrainian newspapers and magazines in Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Lubny, Petersburg, and Moscow). At this period "Prosvita" organizations started to form. "Prosvita" was the network of Ukrainian amateur cultural-educational organizations. Democratic and liberal public figures became the heads of them. These organizations had at the aim the development of national self-consciousness. For the realization of this aim they founded libraries; reading-rooms; edited scientific- popular literature, organized lectures and plays in Ukrainian language; opened Ukrainian schools. Tzarist government counteracted to the activity of these national organizations. In 1905 students of Ukrainian universities started to demand to teach them in native language by registration order. In 1906 professor M. S. Hrushevs'ky moved from Lviv to Kyiv. He resumed the edition of "Literary- scientific herald". The best Ukrainian writers got around this magazine. M. Hrushevskyi edited "The Outline of History of Ukrainian People" (in 1904, 1906, and 1911). This work was very important for understanding of Ukrainian question. News about the beginning of democratic revolution in Russian empire (1905) caused demonstrations, meetings and

151 strikes of international solidarity in Galicia, Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia. 2,5 thousand people ran from Russia to East Galicia and Bukovyna. They formed "The Group of Contribution". This group sent through the border the revolutionary literature and weapon, organized demonstrations and meetings for support of revolutionary movement in Russia. There were 211 strikes in West-Ukrainian lands between 1905–1907 years. Peasants demanded lands, suffrage, and refused to collect the harvest in landlords' lands. Ukrainians wanted secondary schools and Ukrainian universities with native language of teaching. They dreamt of united sovereign democratic state. Austrian-Hungarian government started to use repressions. 12 thousand peasants were imprisoned and 3 additional military corps at the border. Government ignored Ukrainian demands. Revolutionary movement developed and in 1917 Ukraine got the chance for independence.

Culture of independent Ukraine (1991 – nowadays) In 1991 Ukraine became an independent state. It gave a new impulse for national and cultural revival process realization. Perspective plan "Ukraine of 21st century" for educational system was adopted. Main principles of this programme were based on the unity of education, science and culture. System of high educational enterprises and colleges reorganized. Ukraine slowly directed to the European educational space. In 1997 Ukraine signed Lisbon Declaration of Education. According to this declaration Ukraine trains different levels' specialists (bachelors, specialists and masters). Educational plans of universities adopted and take into account such differentiation. Bachelor receives basic high education, specialist – more practical training, and master – deeper scientific knowledge. System of science also reorganized. In 1994 Academy of Sciences became National. Ministry of Science and technologies, Ukrainian Scientific Association, Academy of Medical Sciences, Academy of Agricultural sciences, Academy of Arts, Academy of Judicial Sciences were founded. But low level of financial support from the government caused a lot of problems for the development of science. Without material, information and moral support scientists started commercial activity or left Ukraine. Only from Academy of Sciences 2800 young scientists went abroad. 254 doctors of sciences left Ukraine in 1991–1994. Pluralism and new forms of arts were realized in cultural life of the state. Vanguard styles in music, monumental painting gave new names. Big number of festivals and musical competitions (opera, organ and music) supported the creative activity of young talents. In spiritual rebirth of Ukrainian people religion and church played an important role. They tried to preserve human and moral values. There were 105 churches, confessions, trends and directions at that time. 96,7% among them were Christian. Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox and Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Churches renewed their activity. It is still a problem the existence of three Orthodox Churches subordinated to different centers (Moscow and Kyiv patriarch, and Autocephalous (national) Church). All over the Ukraine building of new churches started. After getting of independence in 1991, a new period of Ukrainian social development started. It was the transitional period. Ukraine became a sovereign democratic state, and the government reforms were realized. The new social and cultural situation was characterized by changed social and economic conditions, forms of ownership, new kind of human relations, another social structure and system of values. National culture got a new status. Unfortunately, deep economic crisis affected all spheres of Ukrainian life. Problem of using the national Ukrainian language in all fields of social and cultural life was very sharp. Russian language dominated in education and political life of many regions. Because of that in 1989 Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) adopted "The Law of Languages in Ukrainian RSR". Status of Ukrainian language like a state one was proclaimed in a special point of Constitution. With the adoption of new legislation the process of Ukrainiazation of state bodies, mass-media, cultural enterprises, and education started.

152 By 1999 for about 60% of secondary schools taught in Ukrainian. System of secondary education changed. A big variety of schools was formed: author schools, gymnasiums and lyceums. The programme of support for talented children was adopted by state bodies. System of 12-year education was introduced in 2000. But social differentiation of the population, in fact, caused specific changes in education. State schools had lots of financial difficulties: teachers did not get their salary in time, system of professional education absolutely disappeared, because the industry stopped to finance professional-technical colleges. A big number of kinder-gardens were closed. System of high education reformed. System of accreditation the high educational enterprises was introduced. The most universities got National status. Kyiv National University named after Taras Shevchenko, V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, National University of "Kyiv- Mohyla Academy" and many others. The network of commercial high educational enterprises started their work at that time. Because of that there were many institutes, academies, and universities. Its number twice increased. International cooperation in cultural field widened. Thank to the activity of many foreign funds Ukrainian scientists got the chance to go abroad and participate in common projects. Books of Ukrainian writers-emigrants were published. Ukrainian Studies became popular among foreign students abroad. In 1993 28 American and 12 Canadian Universities and colleges offered elective courses related to Ukraine. Ukrainian science developed-despite of financial and other difficulties. Ukraine participated in the greatest space international programmes of 20th century: "Sea Launch", "Globalstar", "Spektrum-X-Gamma", "Mars-96", "Space Shuttle", "The Ocean", and "The Nature". National Ukrainian Antarctic station started its work. Unfortunately, financial problems affected Ukrainian scientific potential. Restructuring of economic management, transition of many plants from state to private ownership, unprofitability of others, caused the closing of many profile scientific and project institutes. State financing decreased fourfold. Ukraine imported electronic technique and did not develop its production. Deterioration of living and labour conditions provoked in 1992–1996 emigration of thousands of scientists. The contradictions between elite and mass culture sharpened. Ukraine faced with the Americanization of culture. The best evidence of it was the situation in cinema, popular music and literature. General poverty of the major population did not give the chance for going to theatres, museums, and libraries. People did not have money for travelling. Ukraine took 95th place in the world according to the standard of living (more than 95% lived below the poverty). There was the deterioration in the quality of health care and the rising cost of drugs, complicated ecological situation caused many diseases, decline in fertility and increasing mortality. The half of scientists left their work because of low level of financing. Financial problems caused social pessimism, social apathy and sometimes professional misconduct. Ukrainians should understand that nobody can help them. The whole society had to concentrate efforts for the solution of social problems. Just patriotic elite can unite the population. Despite of all negative moments in social life of Ukraine cinema developed. Thete were many documentary films devoted historical past of this country. Some serials were made at that time: "Garden Gethsemane" (after Ivan Bahryany), "The Trap" (after Ivan Franko), "Roxolana", and etc. At 34th Film Festival in San Remo Ukrainian movie "Izhoy" (Ukrainian variant "Remember") (after Anatolii Dimarov) got Grand Prix. Some Ukrainian actors acted in films of foreign producers. For example, Bohdan Stupka and some Ukrainians acted in the film of Polish film director and screen writer Jerzy Hoffmann "" ("Ogniem I Meczem") which was a great event in cultural life of Poland and Ukraine of 1999. The same year French-Ukrainian-Russian-Spanish-Bulgarian film directed by Regis Wargnier was finished. In 2000 O. Dovzhenko studio screened the historical novel "Chorna Rada" by Panteleimon Kulish devoted to hetman Ivan Mazepa. In theatre directors Roman Viktiuk (was

153 born in 1936 in Lviv), Boris Zholdak, Serhii Danchenko (1937–2001), and others had been worked fruitfully. In state television there were many films and serials in Ukrainian language. The content of radio-programmes also changed. They started to be more national-oriented and professional. The development of Ukrainian pop-music in late 20th – early 21st centuries was connected with names of Irene Bilyk, Pavlo Zibrov, Taisiya Povaliy, Olexander Ponomaryov, , Andrii Kravchuk, Ani Lorak, Victor Pavlyk, Irene Skazina and many others. Their artistic evolution caused by the development of national popular music. In literature there were two specific trends: from one hand, writers of old generation have been written their works (, Volodymyr Drozd, , Pavlo Zahrebelny, , Yurii Mushketyk, Borys Oliynyk, and ), and from the other – commercial needs of the market dictaded literature new principles. Mostly Russian language literature was popular (fiction, detective, love and adventure novels). Fiction writers Oleh (Oleg) Ladyzhensky and Dmytro Hromov (collective pseudonym Henry Lion Oldie), Andrei Valentinov (Andrii Shmalko), Maryna and Serhii Dyachenko became famous abroad. Simona Vilar (Natalya Havrylenko) is a famous love-adventure writer. In spite of economic problems Ukrainian sportsmen got many prestigious awards in competitions of different level. In Atlanta Olympic Games (1996, the USA) Ukrainians entered the top ten best sport teams in the world. Ukrainian integration to world cultural space, openness of the Ukrainian society caused the specific interest to national cultural traditions, protectionism in the development of Ukrainian culture, priority in the edition of Ukrainian literature, cinema, theatre and artistic creativity. President's decree "Means for the development of spirituality, morality protection and the formation of healthy lifestyle" (27.04.1999) contented main directions of the spiritual development of Ukrainian society. Some of programmes directed on the renovation of upbringing system may help in the solution of problem of choice the spiritual values for the whole society ("Education 21st century", "Basics of Humanitarian ", "Basics of National Upbringing", "The Ukrainian Studies in Educational System", etc.). In conditions of international integration Ukraine developed its culture without any barriers and limitations. There are some important UNESCO objects here: Saint-Sophia Cathedral and Related Monastic Buildings (11th century), Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra (1051), Lviv – the Ensemble of the Historic Centre (1256), and Wooden tserkvas (churches) of Carpathian region in Poland and Ukraine. More than that National Park "Khortyza", National Museum-Reserve of Ukraine of Fictility in Opishne, and the last object included to the list in summer, 2013 Ancient City of Tauric Chersonese and its Chora. In last decades new non-traditional forms of cultural activities started to form. "Prosvita" association, Sunday schools, and translation of world classical literary masterpieces were organized. In conclusion we should underline that in the 20th century Ukrainian culture developed in very complicated conditions, because of that it had contradictory character. In spite of that Ukrainian artists made great contribution to world treasure of literature and arts. Ukrainian culture has the future because of the existence of deep spiritual points, original "cordo-centric philosophy", mystic and Gnostic forms of consciousness. Ukraine should overcome the totalitarian way of thinking protect true national-cultural values, formed on the ground of ancient spiritual-moral principles of Ukrainians, created by many generations. In conditions of transitional economics we should understand that commercialization of true arts is impossible. Market economy ruins classical culture. State should protect culture, takes care of it and give enough money for its development. Without culture we will not have the future. Answer the questions 1. Globalization and its influence on Ukrainian culture. 2. What was the contribution of Ukrainian Diaspora to world and national culture?

154 3. Cultural processes in Ukraine after independence.

Culture of Ukraine Quiz 1. What were the characteristics of literature, drama and music in the first half of the nineteenth century? 2. What year came the first edition of "Kobzar" Shevchenko? 3. Who was the author of collections of "Little Russian songs, Ukrainian folk songs", enjoyed by contemporary Ukrainian intelligentsia? 4. How many universities exist in the Ukrainian lands in the first half of the nineteenth century? 5. What were the characteristics of architecture and fine art in the first half of the nineteenth century? 6. Name famous artists first half of the nineteenth century. What was their contribution to the painting? 7. For what purpose was conceived "History Ukraine-Russia" (author – M. Hrushevsky)? Why had work differently perceived in Galicia and Russia? 8. What prevailed in the themes of Ukrainian literature of the late nineteenth century and why? 9. Who wrote the opera "Natalka Poltavka", "", "Aeneid", "Koza-dereza"? 10. How many universities were active in the Ukrainian lands in the early twentieth century? 11. In what year was established Scientific Society Shevchenko (Shevchenko Scientific Society), which played the role of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine? 12. When the Western Ukraine was introduced compulsory primary education? 13. In that period was flourishing Ukrainian theater?

Theme 8 Education. Printing. Science. Religion in Ukraine. Holidays – 2 hours

Plan 1 Education - Ostrih Academy: Eastern Europe's first institution of higher learning - Smotrytsky Herasym - Brotherhoods - Brotherhood schools - Kyivan Mohyla Academy 2 Science and technology in Ukraine - Notable people - History of technology in Ukraine - The Ukrainian academy of sciences Education and Science Quiz 3 Religion in Ukraine - Paganism - Religious life - Attending a Service Religion Quiz 4 Holidays - Easter in Ukraine - Calendric ritual folk poetry - Ukrainian traditions, Rites and Ceremonies - Calendar Holidays and Ceremonies Holidays Quiz

155 1 Education Ostrih Academy: Eastern Europe's first institution of higher learning Ostrih Academy (Ɉɫɬɪɨɡɶɤɚ ɚɤɚɞɟɦɿɹ). A postsecondary institution founded in Ostrih, Volhynia, ca 1576 by Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky. At a time when Catholicism was making inroads into Western Ukraine, the academy was a bastion of Orthodoxy and maintained the traditional orientation toward Constantinople. Though the Ostrih Academy did not develop into a Western European-style university, as Ostrozky had hoped, it was the foremost Orthodox academy of its time. The curriculum consisted of Church Slavonic, Greek, Latin, theology, philosophy, medicine, natural science, and the classical free studies (mathematics, astronomy, grammar, rhetoric, and logic). In addition the academy was renowned for choral singing, and developed the ostrozkyi napiv. The academy was closely affiliated with the Ostrih Press. The first rector of the academy was the writer Herasym Smotrytsky. The instructors, many of whom had been invited from Constantinople, included the pseudonymous Ostrozkyi Kliryk, the Greek Cyril Lucaris, J. Latos (a philosopher and mathematician from Cracow University), and Yov Boretsky, who later became rector of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and then metropolitan of Kyiv. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny, the writer and scholar Meletii Smotrytsky, and several other prominent political and cultural leaders studied at the academy. With the founding of a rival Jesuit college in Ostrih in 1624, the academy went into decline, and by 1636 it had ceased to exist. The example set by the Ostrih Academy had an enduring influence on pedagogical thought and the organization of schools in Ukraine and provided a model for the brotherhood schools that were later founded in Lviv, Lutsk, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Vilnius, and Brest. The academy was reestablished in 1994 as the Ostrih Higher Collegium, which was conferred university status in 2000 and renamed the Ostrih Academy National University.

Smotrytskyi Herasym [Smotryc’kyj], born ? in Smotrych in Podilia (now in raion, ), died October 1594. Writer and teacher; father of Meletii Smotrytsky. He was secretary at the Kamianets- Podilskyi county office and in 1576 was invited by Prince Kostiantyn Vasyl Ostrozky to Ostrih, where he became one of the leading activist members of the Ostrih intellectual circle. In 1580 Smotrytsky became the first rector of the Ostrih Academy. He was one of the publishers of the Ostrih Bible, to which he wrote the foreword and the verse dedication to Prince Ostrozky. The dedication is one of the earliest examples of Ukrainian versification (nonsyllabic) and is somewhat reminiscent of Ukrainian dumas. Smotrytsky's polemical works against those betraying the Orthodox faith and a satire on the clergy have been lost. Only his book, Kliuch tsarstva nebesnoho (Key to the Heavenly Kingdom, 1587), which is the first printed example of Ukrainian polemical literature, has survived. It is composed of a dedication to the prince of Ostrih, the appeal ‘Do narodov ruskykh ...’ (To the Rus’ Peoples ...), and two polemical treatises, ‘Kliuch tsarstva nebesnoho ...’ (Key to the Heavenly Kingdom ...) and ‘Kalendar rymskyi novyi’ (The New Roman Calendar). In the last-named Smotrytsky calls for the independence of ‘the Rus' faith,’ polemicizes with the Jesuit Benedykt Herbest, criticizes the Catholic teaching on the divine origin of the pope's authority, and rejects the Gregorian calendar. Smotrytsky did not always use theological arguments in his work; instead he often used folk humor with anecdotes and proverbs, and he wrote in a language close to the vernacular, which made his work accessible to the broad masses.

Brotherhoods (Ukrainian singular: ɛɪɚɬɫɬɜɨ) Fraternities affiliated with individual churches in Ukraine and Belarus that performed a number of religious and secular functions. The origins of brotherhoods can be traced back to the medieval bratchyny, which were organized at churches in the Princely era (first mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle, 1159).

156 Brotherhoods as such appeared in Ukraine in the mid-15th century (the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood was first mentioned in 1463), with the rise of the burgher class. They adopted their organizational structure from Western medieval brotherhoods (confraternitates) and trade guilds. Initially the brotherhoods engaged only in religious and charitable activities. They maintained churches and sometimes assumed financial responsibility for them, ensured that church services, in particular parish feasts, were celebrated in a ceremonious way, arranged ritual dinners for their members, collected money, helped the indigent and the sick, and organized hospitals. Since these religious and charitable activities of the brotherhoods left no visible traces, some historians, such as Kost Huslysty and Yaroslav Isaievych, do not consider the early period of the brotherhoods as being part of their history. The brotherhoods began to play a historical role in the second half of the 16th and at the beginning of the 17th century. In this period they assumed the task of defending the Orthodox faith and Ukrainian nationality by counteracting Catholic and particularly Jesuit expansionism, Polonization, and later conversion to the Uniate church. Because they consisted predominantly of burghers, the brotherhoods acquired a secular character and often found themselves in opposition to the authoritarian practices of the clergy. Hence, they endeavored to reform the Orthodox church from within by condemning the corrupt practices of the hierarchy and of individual clergymen. Their interference in clerical affairs was one of the reasons for the favorable attitude towards the Church Union of Berestia among the Orthodox bishops. The brotherhoods brought about a revival in the life of the church by promoting cultural and educational activity. They founded brotherhood schools, printing presses, and libraries. The resulting cultural-religious movement found its literary expression in polemical literature. The brotherhoods also participated in civic and political life. They sent representatives to church councils and to the Sejm in Warsaw and maintained ties with the Cossacks. In the late 16th and early 17th century new brotherhoods were founded and existing ones were reorganized in the towns of Galicia, the Kholm region, Podlachia, Volhynia, and the Dnieper region. Each brotherhood had its own statute (articles, regulations, procedures), modeled on the statute of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood of 1586. Membership was open to all estates, but usually only married men were admitted (unmarried men belonged to the ‘junior’ brotherhoods). At his initiation a member had to take an oath. Officers – usually four elders, including the head (a senior member) – were elected at the annual meeting. Although brotherhood members were usually merchants and skilled tradesmen residing in the towns, some Orthodox clerics and nobles, such as Lavrentii Drevynsky and A. Puzyna, and some magnates, such as Kostiantyn Ostrozky, A. Vyshnevetsky, R. Ruzhynsky, and Adam Kysil, participated in the affairs of certain brotherhoods. The clergy and the nobility were particularly active in the Lutsk Brotherhood of the Elevation of the Cross and Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood. Hetman Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny, ‘with the entire Zaporozhian Host,’ joined the Kyiv brotherhood. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood was one of the oldest and most successful brotherhoods. In 1586 it received the right of (direct subordination to a patriarch instead of a local bishop) and founded the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press. It maintained close contacts with Moldavian rulers and boyars. In 1588–1595 there were active brotherhoods in the towns of Kamianets-Podilskyi, Rohatyn, Horodok (Lviv region), Brest, Peremyshl, Lublin, and Halych. After 1596 brotherhoods were established in Sianik, ZamoĞü, Drohobych, , Kholm, Ostrih, Lutsk, Kremenets, , Nemyriv, Kyiv, and elsewhere. The Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood began to play an important cultural-educational and religious role in 1615. It founded the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School that in 1632 became a college and then in 1701 the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. In 1617 the Lutsk Brotherhood of the Elevation of the Cross gained prominence.

157 Under the Hetman state, the Orthodox church increased in influence. The reforms of Petro Mohyla and the general improvement in clerical education enabled the Orthodox to compete with the previously superior educational system of the Jesuits, and the threat of denationalization in Ukraine diminished. Although the number of brotherhoods increased in this period, they confined their activities to the religious and charitable sphere and dropped their broader national and civic pursuits. In Left-Bank Ukraine new brotherhoods, with a narrower focus, appeared at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century in Poltava, , , (where the brotherhoodsupported a hospital), Lebedyn, and Kharkiv. After the Ukrainian church became subordinated to the Moscow patriarchate in 1686 and then to the Holy Synod, the Russian imperial government did not approve of the activities of the brotherhoods. Only much later, on 8 May 1864, did the Russian authorities issue a law permitting brotherhoods to be formed throughout the Russian Empire; these newly created brotherhoods, however, differed in their aims and work from the traditional Ukrainian brotherhoods. In Right-Bank Ukraine in 1679 the Polish Sejm prohibited the brotherhoods from maintaining ties with the Eastern patriarchs; as a result, the right of stauropegion lost its significance. By the beginning of the 18th century the Uniate church had established itself firmly in Western Ukraine. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood had accepted the union in 1709 and had received from the Pope a guarantee of its right of stauropegion. Under the Austrian regime, however, the Galician brotherhoods were dissolved by the government decree of 1788. The Lviv brotherhood was then transformed into the Stauropegion Institute. In the 19th – 20th century brotherhoods were again organized in many villages and towns, but these usually merely helped to run the local parishes. They assumed their proper religious and national tasks only during Ukraine's struggle for independence (1917–1921). The Kyiv Brotherhood of the Resurrection (established in 1917 and headed by Rev Vasyl Lypkivsky) helped to convene the All-Ukrainian Orthodox Church Council, which later led to the formation of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. Religious life in certain internment camps for the soldiers of the Ukrainian National Republic in 1921–1922 was under the care of brotherhoods. The best-known among them was the Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress (1921–1924) in Aleksandrów Kujawski and then in Szczepiorno, Poland, with branches in other camps. This brotherhoodpublished Religiino-naukovyi vistnyk and books. Ukrainian immigrants in the United States and Canada organized brotherhoods as soon as they established their own parishes. The Brotherhood of was formed in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania, in 1885, and many other similar societies (such as the Brotherhood of Saint Nicholas in Winnipeg, Manitoba, established in 1905) appeared. Eventually they united into brotherhood associations, which in time evolved into mutal-aid and insurance organizations. Parallel women's organizations, such as the Saint Olha Sisterhood in Jersey City (1897), were founded. In 1932 the Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhood of Canada was established in Canada and adopted the functions of the Catholic Action societies rather than those of the traditional Ukrainian brotherhoods. After 1945 many Orthodox and Catholic brotherhoods were created in the displaced persons camps. The statute of the Orthodox brotherhoods was adopted by the council of bishops in 1947. The most important Orthodox brotherhoods established after the Second World War were the Metropolitan Lypkivsky Brotherhood, which publishes the bimonthly Tserkva i zhyttia (Chicago); the Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress in Argentina, which published the monthly Dzvin; Saint Simon's Brotherhood in Paris; and Saint Vladimir's Brotherhood in Toronto. In the United States the parish sisterhoods together formed the United Ukrainian Orthodox Sisterhoods of the USA, which is engaged in educational and publishing activities and has published Ukraïna: Entsyklopediia dlia molodi (Ukraine: Encyclopedia for Youth, 1971). The oldest Catholic brotherhood outside Ukraine is Saint Barbara's Brotherhood, established in the 1870s in Vienna. The church life of the Ukrainian Catholic eparchy in Australia is based on

158 lay brotherhoods. The recent struggle for an independent patriarchate and for the autonomy of the Ukrainian Catholic church has given rise to brotherhoods and sisterhoods in the United States that continue the traditions of the old brotherhoods. The Ukrainian Catholic Lay Brotherhood of Saint Andrew in Chicago is among the better known; since 1970 it has published annually Tserkovnyi kalendar al’manakh. The Union of Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhoods and Sisterhoods of America was formed in 1976 and is based in Chicago.

Brotherhood schools [Ȼɪɚɬɫɶɤɿɲɤɨɥɢ] Schools founded by religious brotherhoods for the purposes of counteracting the denationalizing influence of Catholic (Jesuit) and Protestant schools and of preserving the Orthodox faith began to appear in the 1580s. The first school was established in 1586 by the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. The school served as a model for other brotherhood schools in various towns of the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of them in Ukraine and Belarus: Peremyshl (est 1592), Halych, Horodok (Lviv region), Rohatyn, Stryi, Mykolaiv (Lviv region), Komarno, Jarosáaw, Kholm, Krasnystaw, ZamoĞü (est 1606), Lublin, , Brest, Volodava, Pynsk, Kyiv (est 1615), Striatyn, Vinnytsia, Nemyriv, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Medzhybizh, Lutsk (est 1620), Volodymyr- Volynskyi, , Kremenets, Vilnius (est 1587), Minsk, and Mohyliv-Podilskyi. In the first half of the 17th century even some villages had brotherhood schools. The most prominent schools were the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School. At first the brotherhood schools had a Greek-Church Slavonic curriculum: lectures were in Church Slavonic, and Greek was taught as a second language. (Hence these schools were also called Greek schools.) Then the schools began to adopt the structure and curriculum of the Jesuit schools, using Latin as the primary language, particularly those schools that modeled themselves on the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. Ukrainian was used only for examination purposes and, from 1645, for teaching the catechism. The curriculum of most of the brotherhood schools provided what was accepted as a secondary education in those times: classical languages, dialectics, rhetoric, poetics, homiletics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (church singing). Some schools taught Orthodox theology and Catholic theology (for the purpose of polemics). Brotherhood schools were open to various social strata. Students were judged not by lineage, but by achievement (in contrast to Jesuit schools). Discipline in the schools was strict, and physical punishment was used. Orphans and poor students lived in bursas and student residences. Lecturers were required to set an example by their behavior and to have pedagogical training. Brotherhood schools made a significant contribution to the growth of religious and national consciousness and the development of Ukrainian culture. They published textbooks, particularly language textbooks. The Czech educator J.A. Comenius (Komensky) derived many of the ideas in his Didactica Magna (1628–1632) from the practices of the brotherhood schools. At the end of the 17th century and in the 18th century the schools found themselves in adverse political conditions and declined.

Kyivan Mohyla Academy ( Kyievo-Mohylianska akademiia) The leading center of higher education in 17th – and 18th-century Ukraine, which exerted a significant intellectual influence over the entire Orthodox world at the time. Established in 1632 by Petro Mohyla through the merger of the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School (est 1615–1616) with the Kyivan Cave Monastery School (est 1631 by Mohyla), the new school was conceived by its founder as an academy, ie, an institution of higher learning offering philosophy and theology courses and supervising a network of secondary schools. Completing the Orthodox school system, it was to compete on an equal footing with Polish academies run by the Jesuits. Fearing such competition, King Wáadysáaw IV Vasa granted the school the status of a mere college or secondary school, and prohibited it from teaching philosophy and theology. It was only in 1694 that the Kyivan Mohyla College (Collegium Kijoviense

159 Mohileanum) was granted the full privileges of an academy, and only in 1701 that it was recognized officially as an academy by Peter I. In founding the school, Petro Mohyla's purpose was to master the intellectual skills and learning of contemporary Europe and to apply them to the defense of the Orthodox faith. Taking his most dangerous adversary as the model, he adopted the organizational structure, the teaching methods, and the curriculum of the Jesuit schools. Unlike other Orthodox schools, which emphasized Church Slavonic and Greek, Mohyla's college gave primacy to Latin and Polish. This change was a victory for the more progressive churchmen, who appreciated the political and intellectual importance of these languages. Church Slavonic, the sacral language, and Ruthenian, the literary language of Ukrainians and Belarusians closest to the vernacular, continued to be taught, while Greek was relegated to a secondary place. The undergraduate program, based on the liberal arts, was designed to develop the basic skills of public speaking rather than to pass on a body of knowledge, and was organized into five grades. The three lower grades were essentially grammarian. They were preceded by an introductory grade, analog or fara, devoted to reading and writing and elementary Latin, Polish, and Slavonic. The first grade, infima, provided an introduction to Latin grammar based on E. Álvarez's De Institutione Grammatica Libri Tres, the standard textbook adopted by the Jesuits. In the next grade, grammatica, Álvarez continued to be used for Latin syntax, readings from Cicero and were analyzed, and Greek grammar was introduced. In the syntaxis grade Álvarez was completed and Greek continued to be studied. Besides Ovid and Cicero, some works by Catullus, Virgil, Tibullus, and Aesop were read. Each grade required a year to complete and included some instruction in catechism, arithmetic, music, and painting. The intermediate level consisted of two grades, in which students began to compose Latin prose and verse. The first, poetica, took one year and provided a grounding in the theory and practice of literature, and a close study of the writings of Caesar, Sallust, , Curtius, Martial, Virgil, and Horace. Polish Renaissance and baroque poetry (Jan Kochanowski, ) and, later in the century, some Ukrainian poetry (Ivan Velychkovsky) were also read. The two-year rhetorica grade completed the secondary-school program. Cicero and Aristotle's Poetics were studied in the course of mastering the rules of elegant composition. In both grades students absorbed much prose and verse information on secular and biblical history, mythology, and classical geography for the purpose of rhetoric, not of knowledge. Kyivan instructors, like the instructors of Polish and other European schools, prepared their own Latin manuals of poetics and rhetoric. Approximately 120 17th – and 18th-century manuals have survived, including Teofan Prokopovych's De Arte Poetica Libri III (1705) and De Arte Rhetorica Libri X (1706). The remarkable efflorescence of Ukrainian baroque literature was closely connected with the school's philological program. Higher education consisted of a three-year philosophy program that paved the way to four years of theology. In spite of the king's prohibition, some course in philosophy was usually taught, and in 1642–1646 a theology course was offered. In the mid-1680s a full philosophy and theology program was given a permanent place in the curriculum. Logic, physics, and metaphysics were the main parts of the philosophy program. The philosophy manuals prepared by the school's professors, of which about 80 have survived, show that there was no uniform system of thought, but that each course reflected the preferences and abilities of the instructor. The basically Aristotelian philosophy taught in the school was derived not from Aristotle himself but from his medieval interpreters and was supplemented with doctrines from Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham, humanists such as L. Valla, L. Vives, and D. Erasmus and the Protestant scholar P. Melanchthon, and the Jesuits F. Suárez, P. da Fonseca, and L. de Molina. At the beginning of the 18th century Teofan Prokopovych showed an interest in R. Descartes and F. Bacon. From the middle of the 18th century on orders from the Holy Synod the academy

160 adopted C. Wolff's philosophy. The theological courses at the academy consisted of commentaries on Catholic theologians such as R. Bellarmine, F. Suárez, T. González, and the Polish Jesuit T. Máodzianowski. In method, if not in content, they were very Thomistic. The only attempt to work out an independent theological system was Petro Mohyla's Pravoslavnoe ispovedanie ... (Orthodox Confession ..., 1640). From its beginnings, the academy had close ties with the Cossack starshyna, which provided it with moral and material support. Hetman Ivan Petrazhytsky-Kulaha approved Petro Mohyla's plans for the new school in 1632 and granted it a charter. The school, in turn, educated the succeeding generation of the service elite. In the , when the Orthodox hierarchy sided with the Polish Crown against the rebellious Cossacks, Cossack sons continued to attend the college. Among them were the future hetmans Ivan Vyhovsky, Ivan Samoilovych, Pavlo Teteria, Ivan Mazepa, and Pavlo Polubotok. Bohdan Khmelnytsky established the tradition of hetman grants in money, lands, and privileges to the college. The Kyiv clergy's opposition to the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 severely strained their relation with the Cossacks. During the Cossack-Polish War (1648–1657) and the Ruin period (1657–1687), the activities of the college were severely disrupted. Its buildings and property were looted and destroyed several times by Muscovite and Polish armies. The strong Hetman state that emerged in Left-Bank Ukraine after the Ruin period provided favorable conditions for the college's growth. Supported generously by Hetman Samoilovych (1672–1687), the school began to flourish towards the end of his rule, and during Hetman Mazepa's reign (1687–1709), enjoyed its golden age. The enrollment at the time exceeded 2,000. Some of the students, including S. Maksymovych, O. Turansky, and A. Runovsky, later gained prominence as Cossack officers. Many of the most accomplished Ukrainian authors and churchmen of the time served on the school's faculty: Lazar Baranovych, Ioan Maksymovych, Dymytrii Tuptalo, Stefan Yavorsky, and Teofan Prokopovych. Some of them played instrumental roles in Peter I's educational reforms in Russia. The Moscow academy was patterned after the Kyivan one and numerous Russian schools were organized by bishops who were graduates of the Kyiv academy. Open to young men from all social strata, the academy attracted students from various regions of the Orthodox world. Some of its graduates, Ukrainian or foreign, continued their studies in Polish or European academies and universities, and returned home to weave Kyivan and European thought patterns into their native tradition. At the same time, Moscow's expanding political power and increasing interference in Ukrainian affairs threatened the academy's freedom and well-being. Gaining control of Kyiv metropoly in 1686, the Patriarch of Moscow attempted to end the intellectual influence of Kyiv on Muscovite society by placing almost all Kyiv publications on an index of heretical books. It was forbidden to print books in Ruthenian. Although in 1693 Patriarch Adrian eased the linguistic restrictions, Ukrainian books were denied entry into Muscovy. The academy's golden age came to an abrupt end with Ivan Mazepa's defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. The school's properties were plundered by Russian troops. Students from Right-Bank Ukraine, which was under Polish rule, were no longer admitted. By 1711 the enrollment fell to 161. Graduates of the academy were encouraged to seek positions in Moscow or Saint Petersburg. Peter I's ban on Ruthenian publications and religious texts in the Ukrainian recension of Church Slavonic was a heavy blow to the academy. After Peter I's death, Ivan Mazepa's endowments were returned to the academy. Thanks to the support of Hetman Danylo Apostol and the administrative talents of Metropolitan Rafail Zaborovsky (1731–1742), the school revived. New courses in modern languages, history and mathematics, medicine, and geography were added to its curriculum. The enrollment rose steadily from 490 in 1738–1739 to 1,110 in 1744–1745. Graduates were encouraged to complete their education in European universities and many sons of wealthy Cossack families studied abroad. The academy continued to educate the civil and ecclesiastical elite of the Hetman state and the Russian Empire.

161 Catherine II's abolition of the Hetmanate in 1764 and secularization of the monasteries in 1786 deprived the academy of its chief sources of financial support. The school became a ward of the Russian imperial government and its importance declined rapidly. By the end of the century it was reduced to an eparchial seminary. In 1811, 1,069 of its 1,198 students were candidates for the priesthood. In 1817 the academy was closed down, and two years later the Kyiv Theological Academy was opened in its place. In 1991 the Academy was formally revived as a national university and in 1992 it opened its doors to students on its historic campus. The academy's adaptation of European education was largely conditioned by the social and religious demands of early 17th-century Ukrainian society. Hardly touched by the Renaissance and Reformation movements, it placed little value on the vernacular Ukrainian language and felt no need for a secular culture. It defined itself mostly in religious terms and, therefore, made the preservation of the Orthodox faith its primary concern. By arming the Ukrainian members of the leading estates in the Polish Commonwealth with the languages and intellectual tools of the dominant culture, the academy fulfilled the demands placed on it by society. Accustomed to a defensive, conservative posture, the intellectual elite nurtured by the academy failed to capitalize on the new opportunities offered by the Hetman state. In the 18th century the academy adjusted itself as best it could to the increasing restrictions placed on it by an alien church hierarchy and imperial power. Its literary and scholarly achievement had a decisive impact on the development of Ukrainian culture and provided a firm foundation for later accomplishments.

2 Science and technology in Ukraine has its modern development and historical origins in the 18th and 19th centuries and is associated, first of all, with the Kyiv Mohyla Academy, University of Kyiv and University of Kharkiv. The founding of Ukraine's main research institution, the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, in 1918 by Volodymyr Vernadsky marked an important milestone in the country's subsequent scientific and technological development. Ukraine's space science advanced rapidly in the aftermath of World War II, with Korolyov, Glushko and Chelomey leading the rocket and spaceflight development in the Soviet Union during the Space Race.

Notable people Mikhail Ostrogradskyi (1801–1862), mathematician known for the Divergence theorem and Ostrogradsky instability, among other results. Mykhaylo Maksymovych (1804–1873), botanist, historian, linguist, ethnographer, first rector of Kyiv University. Vladimir Betz (1834–1894), anatomist, histologist. Ilya Mechnikov (1845–1916), zoologist, awarded the 1908 in Physiology or Medicine "in recognition of their work on immunity" (often considered as Russian scientist, but born and spent most of his life in current Ukraine, only 2 years in current Russia). Ivan Puluj (1845–1918), physicist, inventor. Early developer of the use of X-rays for medical imaging. Ivan Horbachevskyi (1854–1942), chemist. Volodymyr Vernadskyi (1863–1945), mineralogist and geochemist, founder and first chairman of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Georgy Voronoy (1868–1908), mathematician. Stephen Timoshenko (1878–1972), engineer. Ivan Schmalhausen (1884–1963), evolutionary biologist, zoologist, one of the central figures in the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Igor Sikorskyi (1889–1972), aviation pioneer. Mikhail Kravchuk (also Krawtchouk) (1892–1942), mathematician. Valery Glivenko (1896–1940), mathematician.

162 Yuri Kondratyuk (1897–1942), mathematician, engineer. Developed the first known Lunar Orbit Rendezvous. Theodosius Dobzhanskyi (1900–1975), geneticist, evolutionary biologist. George Kistiakowskyi (1900–1982), physical chemistry professor at Harvard who participated in the Project and later served as President Dwight D. Eisenhower's Science Advisor. Olexander Smakula (1900–1983), physicist. Inventor of anti-reflective lens coatings based on optical interference. Aleksandr Markevich (1905–1999), zoologist, parasitologist, founder of the Ukrainian schools of parasitology and invertebrate zoology. Oleg Antonov (1906–1984), aircraft designer, and the first chief of the Antonov – a world- famous aircraft company in Ukraine. Sergei Korolyov (1907–1966), rocket scientist, chief designer of the . See Voskhod, Vostok, Soyuz. Valentin Glushko (1908–1989), rocket scientist. Arkhip Lyulka (1908–1984), jet engine engineer. Nikolay Bogolyubov (1909–1992), mathematician and theoretical physicist known for a significant contribution to quantum field theory, classical and quantum statistical mechanics, and the theory of dynamical systems. Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy (1909–2001), engineer, lead developer of the Buran spacecraft programme. Nikolai Amosov (1913–2002), doctor, heart surgeon, inventor. Olexiy Ivakhnenko (1913–2007), , mathematician. Vladimir Chelomey (1914–1984), rocket scientist. Borys Paton (1918), mechanician, long-term chairman of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Vladimir Marchenko (1922), mathematician. Victor Glushkov (1923–1982), founder of information technology in the Soviet Union, and one of the founders of cybernetics. Platon Kostiuk (1924–2010), physiologist, neurobiologist, electrophysiologist, and biophysicist. Anatoliy Skorokhod (1930–2011), mathematician. Oleksandr Sharkovskyi (1936), mathematician. Leonid Pastur (1937), mathematician. (1948), computer scientist, mathematician. Rostislav Grigorchuk (1953), mathematician. Vladimir Drinfeld (1954), mathematician. Awarded the Fields Medal in 1990. Yury Gogotsi (1961), chemist. Maryna Viazovska (1984), mathematician, solved the sphere-packing problem in dimension 8, and, in collaboration with others, in dimension 24.

History of technology in Ukraine The development of technology in Ukraine in the modern sense (associated with the advent of machines and the mechanization of production processes) began at the end of the 18th century. It started from the machinery in textile industry (including the equipment of rope and spinning production). Later the technology of steel making, crystal, glass, porcelain and faience production began to develop, especially in Volyn. In the 19th century the discovery of deposits of iron ore and coal, and the construction of railways started off the period of industrial capitalism. Mechanization and machinery began to play an increasingly important role. The establishment of a large number of machine-building enterprises began.

163 In the Russian Empire, machine building was poorly developed and almost all complex machines were imported from abroad. The same situation was in Ukraine. Foreigners built complex machinery here. Kandyba, Ya. Kozlovskyi, I. Vasil'kov belong to pioneers of technology in 19th century. One of the areas of technology that reached a high level of development in Ukraine was the technique of road and bridge building (among others: the chain bridge over the Dnieper, built in 1847–1853 by the project of E. Vignel, the high bow gauge bridge and the tunnel near Yaremcha in the Carpathians, built 1898–1902 by Project Bizantz, Matakiewicz, etc.). Railways, the regulation of rivers flow, the construction of power stations in Kiev 1890 and in Kharkov 1897, urban transport technique (tram), the use of natural gas in municipal household, technology of extraction and refining of oil. Professits and engineers, graduates from Lviv Polytechnics (founded in 1845), later Kharkiv (from 1883) and Kiev Polytechnic Institutes (since 1898) did here the best work. The main achievements of modern technology in Ukraine 1927 – construction of Dnipropestan. 1932 – the first atom split in the USSR took place at the Kharkov Physico-Chemical- Mathematical Institute. 1934 – the first heavy water obtained in the USSR. 1937 – commissioning of the first USSR electrostatic generator with 2,5 Megawatt output. 1950–1955 – the creation of the first USSR linear accelerator of charged parts for 20 MeV and electron accelerator at 30 MeV. 1962–1965 – production of the first computers in the USSR and their further improvement. Creation of new generations of turbo-propeller aircraft (An-22 Antey, An-36), and development of high-speed jet aircraft production. 1967 – commissioning of 800,000 kW power units in Ukraine's power plants (the first unit at the Slavyanskaya TPP). The second half of the 1960s. – 1970s. – study of the principles of controlled nuclear fusion as a source of energy in the future. 1974 – research method of prom. production in space. Launch of the first carrier in the USSR ("Kyiv"). 1975–1976 – construction of blast furnaces up to 5000 m3 (Kryviy Rih). A striking example of effective innovations introduced into production are the radiotechnical tools for the strategic intelligence of new generation – Kolchuga, presented by the Donetsk National Technical University (2004). Thanks to its functional capabilities, the Kolchuga complex surpasses other technology of this type existing around the world. It is worth mentioning that the technology of industrial production of power high-voltage cable-conductor products which is developed by the scientists of the Institute of Electrodynamics of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and cooperators of the "Plant" Pivdenkabel. This technology allows to increase by 1,5 times the resistance to emergency electrical overloads in compare with its imported analogues. Scientists of the Scientific-technological complex "Institute of Single Crystals" of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine founded the only one in Ukraine high-tech certified production of semiconductor crystalline metals, functionality of which allow the state to receive over 2 mln annually from the sale of science- intensive products on the world market. Also worth mentioning is the development of the real business card of modern Ukraine, namely: the three-stage Zenit-3SL, operating under following programs: "Sea Launch", CB "Pivdenne", and "Southern Machine-Building Plant" (Dnipro). Other innovations are: new generation steam turbines with a capacity of 325 MW and Turboatom (Kharkiv); battle tank "Oplot" KB im. O. Morozov and VO "Plant them. Malyshev" (Kharkiv). Informatics In the USSR, including Ukraine, "calculus technics" concept included as to call technical devices as for science of it's design.

164 Now for this purpose the term "informatics", that means the science about information receiving, transmitting storage and processing is used. In turn, this science is split to theoretical and applied branches. Theoretical branch learns the mathematical simulation of information processes. Applied branch includes design of computers, networks and multimedia, information technology computer processes, etc. The primary scientific basics of applied informatics are microelectronics and artificial intellect theory. If to concatenate two words "intellect" and "electronics", then a new word INELLELECTRONICS, more proper word for applied informatics will be get. It worth to note, that we are at the very beginning of artificial intelligence, despite of many important achievements in this field and the great prospective of computer and "information human ability" confluence appears. Olexandr Shchukarev A short history survey. In 1870, a year before Babbage's death, English mathematitian Jevons constructed (might be, first in the world) "logic mashine", that mechanized simple logical conclusions. Jevon's work became known in Russia in 1893, when professor Sleshinski from Odesa published the article "Jevons logic mashine" (Experimental physics and elementary mathematics herald, 1893, v. 7). There were two "logical mashine constructors" in Russia – Pavlo Khrushchev (1849–1909) and Olexandr Shchukarev (1884–1936), who worked in Ukrainian high education establishments. First the logic mashine was constructed by Khrushchev in Odesa. This device was "inherited" by Shchukarev, professor of Kharkov Technology Institute. He constructed mashine anew, made some considerable improvements, and more than once lectured about this mashine and it's practical applications. One of the lectures was delivered in Moscow Politechnical Museum in 1914. Professor Sokolov, who attended the lecture, wrote: "If we have calculating mashines, that add, subtract and multiply numbers by lever turning, then it's time to have logic mashine, which able to make faultless conclusions by buttons pressing. It will save a lot of time and remain the field of creation, hypothesis, fantasy and inspiration to a human. This prophet words were said in 1914". It worth to note, that Jevons, who created "thinking mashine", doesn't foreseen any practical applications. Unfortunately, Khrushchevs and Shchukarevs thinking mashines don't been saved. However, in article "Mechanization of thinking" by O. Shchukarev, detailed description and application recommendations are delivered. So, Alan Turing, who published his article "Is mashine able to think?" in 1950 had predecessors in Ukraine. Victor Glushkov The best answer about mashine intellectual development belongs to Victor Glushkov: "It's hardly to doubt, that more and more considerable part of the environment regularities will be conceived and applied by mashines in the future, but the human will always have top priority in thinking and conceiving processes. The truth of this conclusion is stipulated by history. Humanity is not a simple sum of people. The intellectual and physical power is defined not only by sum of human muscles and brain, but also by human created material and cultural wealth. In this meaning, neither computer no set of computers, that are the results of human activity can't be more wise, than humanity as a whole, because at such evaluation computer is compared to the whole humanity with all tools and of course with computer being created". It worth to note, that the priority of material and cultural values estimation belongs to human, so, the computer can't overcome the human also in this meaning. So, as for pure information scope, then computers not only can, but also must overcome human ability, and in some narrow scopes it's the case now. But is social scope computers always remain no more, than human tools and assistants. As for microelectronics, the unit size now is coming to limit – 0.05 microns. Nevertheless, there are not qualitively new and efficient elements, so, the term "intelelectronics" might to live for a long time.

165 As noted above, the general trend of computer development is artificial intellect units embedding. Computers, that are called so du to it's original destination-calculation automation are obtained another important application-to be human assistant in intellectual activity. As for analog tools, the calculation precision remain low, it intellectualization failured and it defeat in competition with digitital tools. Time will show, is it temporary or ultimate situation.

The Ukrainian academy of sciences The idea of a national Ukrainian academy of sciences was first broached by the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kyiv following the February Revolution of 1917. The project, however, was realized only in 1918 in much changed circumstances under the government of Hetman in the Ukrainian State. According to its statute, the academy was to be located in Kyiv and divided into three divisions: historical-philological, physical-mathematical, and social- economic. Its publications were to be in Ukrainian. The statute emphasized the all-Ukrainian character of the academy: not only citizens of the Ukrainian State but also Ukrainians of Western Ukraine, then a part of Austria-Hungary, could be full members. Prominent geochemist Volodymyr Vernadsky was the academy's first president. After the Bolsheviks assumed power in Ukraine, the academy was renamed the All- Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in 1921. With the beginning of Ukrainization and the return of Mykhailo Hrushevsky from abroad in 1924, the academy expanded its work and published a number of first-rate historical and other scholarly and scientific works. However, beginning in 1928, the authorities increased their control over the academy by interfering directly and even brutally in its organization and scholarly work. Their purpose was to transform it into a Soviet institution imbued with the official ideology of Marxism-Leninism. Most of the institutions of the academy that were headed by Hrushevsky at the beginning of the 1930s were abolished, and the historian himself was deported to Moscow. In 1930–1931 VUAN was 'purged' of many of its associates and all the academy's serial publications in the humanities were discontinued. The repressions against the academy reached a peak during Pavel Postyshev's regime in 1933–1934. Over 250 research associates of the academy, including 22 academicians, were repressed in the 1930s, the largest number being in the humanities. After the German invasion of the USSR in 1941 the academy was evacuated to Ufa. It returned to Kyiv in 1944. In 1962 Borys Paton, a specialist in electric welding, became the academy's president. In the following year the academy was directly subordinated to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and reorganized on the pattern of its 'parent body.' The academy was reorganized again following Ukraine's proclamation of independence in 1991 and renamed the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.

Education and Science Quiz 1. Who and in what year founded the Ostroh Academy? 2. What teaching disciplines were taught at the Ostroh Academy? 3. Who was the first rector of the academy? 4. What prominent politicians and cultural figures have studied at the academy? 5. In what city and in what year was the first brotherhood in Ukraine? 6. What kinds of activities were engaged in brotherhoods? 7. What is the history of the existence of the brotherhoods in the Left-Bank Ukraine in the 17th – 18th centuries? 8. Why was the Lviv brotherhood banned by the Austrian authorities? 9. Why did religious fraternities establish schools? 10. In what city was founded the first brotherhood school in Ukraine in 1586? 11. What functions did the schools do at the end of the 16th century? 12. What was the life of students in brotherhood schools?

166 13. What contribution have the brotherhood schools made in the growth of religious, national consciousness and development of Ukrainian culture? 14. What was the major venue of sciences in the 18th c? 10. What universally recognised Ukrainian scientists do you know? 11. Who is the president of the National Academy of Ukraine? 12. What did V. Vernadskyi study? 13. Where did he study? 14. What universities did he teach at? 15. When did he serve as president of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences? 16. Who was O. Potebnia? 17. Where did he work? 18. What areas did he specialise in? 19. How did he regard language? 20. What universities did O. Bohomolets work at as a lecturer? 21. What institute did he found in Kyiv? 22. What institute bears his name? 23. What were Yevhen Paton's achievements in bridge-building? 24. What is M. Miklukho-Maklai's scientific legacy? 30. Which of the Ukrainian scientists has made an important contribution to the development of bridges? 31. What are the names of prominent Ukrainian mathematicians mentioned in the text? 32. What prominent Ukrainian people have made important discoveries in the space field of knowledge? 33. In which field of scientific knowledge was Viktor Glushkov famous? 34. What is the role of Ukrainian scientists in the development of computer science? 35. External independent evaluation are examinations for admission to universities in Ukraine. When have they made an attempt to introduce testing of secondary schools?

3 Religion in Ukraine Paganism (from the Latin paganus ‘country dweller’; Ukrainian: pohanstvo). A general designation for pre-Christian polytheistic religions, the term came into common use in Europe after Constantine the Great adopted Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire in 313. In the medieval period even non-Christian monotheistic religions, such as Judaism and Islam, were considered pagan. The earliest reference to paganism in Ukraine appears in Procopius of Caesarea (6th century AD). Paganism survived long after the official Christianization of Ukraine in 988. Traces of it can be found even in the 20th century. Paganism in Ukraine constantly evolved and changed. The oldest form was animism, which accepted the existence of good (berehyni) and evil (upyry, demony) spirits. Later, fertility gods ( and the rozhanytsi) and ancestral spirits were worshiped, and then a supreme deity, Svaroh, the god of heaven and fire. At the start of the rule of Volodymyr the Great the idols of the chief gods – Perun, , Dazhboh, Stryboh, Symarhl, and – stood on a hill near his palace. Plant, animal, and occasionally human sacrifices were brought before them. Upon adopting Christianity he destroyed the idols and built Saint Basil's Church at the site. Most of the common people continued to worship the pagan deities and nature and household spirits. The pagans did not build special shrines but worshiped in the open at altars on sacred sites. According to a Greek chronicler of the 10th century an altar was built under a great oak on Khortytsia Island, and Kyiv merchants sailing down the Dnipro River stopped to offer sacrifice there. Vikentii Khvoika excavated a site with a large sacrificial altar in Kyiv. Sacred sites of the first few centuries AD were found on vestal hills on the Dnipro River, near the village of Trypilia, and on the River, near Sakhnivka. There were also several such sites on so-called Bald hills in Ukraine. In the Christian era these locales were believed to be the

167 gathering places of witches and sorceresses. The pagans did not have a separate priestly caste, only soothsayers, known as volkhvy. Sacrifices on behalf of particular persons were brought by the persons themselves or their relatives; those for the benefit of a family, by the family head; and those for the country's sake, by the prince. Pagans in Ukraine believed in the afterlife and viewed it as an extension of this life. According to foreign writers they preferred death to captivity out of the fear of remaining slaves after death. They were buried with their favorite objects and with symbols of their social status. The dead were usually buried, but some were cremated. Funerals involved various rituals and songs. A year after a funeral a commemorative banquet was held. Weddings also were highly ritualized. Paganism tolerated polygamy, although most people, particularly the lower classes, practiced monogamy. The Christian church actively opposed paganism. It supplanted the more popular cults with Christian ones: Perun with Saint Elijah, Veles with Saint George, Kupalo with Saint John the Baptist. The seasonal agricultural festivals were also modified and associated with Christian holidays: the winter equinox became Christmas, the ‘Great Day’ (Velykden’) became Easter, and the Rosalia became the Descent of the Holy Spirit. Each of these festivals retains to this day elements of pagan rites. Gradually the church introduced its sacraments into everyday life – first into baptism and burial, then, finally, into marriage. Some pagan folk customs (caroling, the blessing of wells and fields) that could not be suppressed were simply adopted by the church. The expected result, however, was not always achieved: in most cases, Christian and pagan rituals with the same function were practiced side by side. Other pagan customs, such as the harvest rituals, were converted from religious into folkloric practices. Soothsaying was incorporated into the games of Saint Andrew's Eve. The people often interpreted church holidays in pagan terms; the Virgin Mary's Presentation at the Temple, for example, was viewed as a festival of the dead in Ukraine (the dead were said to ‘see’ their bodies on this day), and Christ's Presentation at the Temple celebrated the encounter between winter and spring. Traces of paganism were preserved longest in various seasonal folk customs and rites, such as the Christmas Eve dinner, carols, the Easter vesnianky-hahilky, the transfer of livestock to the pasture in the springtime, the Kupalo festival, the harvest rituals, and pomynky. A number of pagan rites have been retained in the wedding ceremonies. The oldest forms of the Ukrainian folk oral literature, including tales, legends, and aphorisms, originated in the pagan era.

Religious life Ukrainian Proverb: When in trouble, then you '11 turn to God. (əɤɬɪɢɜɨɝɚ, ɬɨɞɨȻɨɝɚ). In 1988 Ukraine commemorated the millennium of the conversion of ancient Kyiv to Byzantium Christianity under its ruler Volodymyr the Great. No less noteworthy was the return – following Ukrainian independence – of the churches to their historic Ukrainian hierarchies, which had been outlawed under communism and replaced by the . The reemergence of traditional religions saw the construction of new churches, refurbishing of decrepit ones, and the reopening of monasteries and seminaries. Other forms of religious expression, such as catechism classes for children and adults, were revived. Three-quarters of Ukrainians profess the Orthodox faith, but they're split among three churches. Two of the Orthodox churches, the Kyiv Patriarchate and the Autocephalous Ukrainian church are indigenous to Ukraine, while the Moscow Patriarchate is under the Russian Orthodox Church. Because of the unsettled religious climate, the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople, the "first among equals" of Orthodox hierarchs, recognizes the Moscow Patriarchate. The two other Ukrainian Orthodox churches regard it as an extension of Russian interests in Ukraine. Many of the faithful are not aware of the procedural differences or are unconcerned with the politics and distrust among the various churches, while the leaders dream of the eventual resolution of these differences and a union of all Ukrainian Orthodox. The Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church (UGCC) emerged from the underground where it had survived since it was outlawed in 1946. Sometimes called the Ukrainian Catholic Church, this church gives allegiance to the Vatican but uses the Byzantine style of worship.

168 An uninformed Westerner probably can't distinguish – either architecturally or liturgically – a Greek-Catholic from an Orthodox church. UGCC faithful constitute about 13 percent of the population and live primarily in the western oblasts of Ternopilska, Ivano-Frankivska, and Lvivska, The seat of the UGCC has been in Lviv for several hundred years, but is moving to Kyiv. About a million Roman Catholics worship in 200 parishes, primarily in west Ukraine, where many Poles and Hungarians live. Other significant Christian denominations include , Pentecostals, Seventh Day Adventists, Lutherans, Reformed, and Jehovah's Witnesses. With an estimated Jewish population of 400,000 to 600,000, there's a resurgence of Jewish life and culture throughout the country. Ukraine has more than 250 Jewish organizations and many operating schools and . Muslim mosques and Islamic schools are active in Crimea. There are even Buddhists and animists in Ukraine, although they have no organized expression. In fact, there's an estimated 80 different faiths and over 22,000 religious communities in Ukraine. The number of existing churches is not adequate to satisfy the claims for them. Sadly, there have been struggles – some physical – among the traditional denominations for the possession of church property. Evangelical Christians, who function without elaborate church buildings, are making great inroads. Many who find the rituals of the traditional churches incomprehensible are flocking to these churches that preach the Bible and emphasize a more personal relationship with God. The Ukrainian government has not discouraged proselytizing, and has allowed all religious groups to operate openly and freely.

Attending a Service Visitors are not only welcome at church services, it's common for the worshipers to step aside and urge a foreigner to the front, no matter how crowded the church. Orthodox and Greek- Catholic liturgies can be of marathon length by Western standards, so you needn't feel uncomfortable arriving late or leaving before the conclusion so long as you aren't disruptive. Participants stand throughout the service as there are no pews or kneelers. Chairs provided for the elderly or infirm may ring the sides of the church. The lack of seating allows the worshipers mobility. Rather than appearing to follow the actions of the priest, many move about to visit icons during the service. Don't be fooled by this apparently casual behavior: worshipers are attentive and deeply respectful, even those who may have to stand outside and listen to the service over the loudspeakers. Instrumental music is never used in traditional churches. There is, however, a rich tradition of choral liturgical music in Ukraine. The choirs are magnificent and you shouldn't hesitate if given the chance to attend a choir service. Ukrainian is the language of the service and the choir in the Ukrainian Orthodox and Ukrainian Catholic churches, while the Moscow branch Orthodox church uses the Russian language. It's customary for women to wear and cover their heads during a church service; however only in the lavra churches are mandatory, and shorts on men are forbidden. While discreetly taking photographs during a service is acceptable, it would be bad manners to distract the priest or worshipers with a flash.

Religion Quiz 1. When was Christianity imposed in Kyiv Rus? 2. What was the first monastery in Kyiv Rus? 3. What three churches formed an alliance in 1596 in Brest? 4. When were first Ukrainian Gospels published? 5. What church places first by the number of religious communities? 6. What other churches are well presented in Ukraine? 7. When was the Kyiv Cave Monastery founded? 8. What are the two labyrinths of the monastery called? 9. What cathedral contained the tomb of P. Mohyla and other prominent personalities?

169 10. Who was Nestor the Chronicler? 11. What century did he live in? 12. What was he renowned for? 13. Who is one of the most popular saints of the Ukrainian church? 14. What was he known for? 15. When is "warm Nicholas" celebrated? 16. What patron saint was he? 17. What beliefs do Ukrainians share about Saint Nicholas?

4 Holidays Easter in Ukraine Easter is the feast of Christ's resurrection, which in its observance combines both pagan and Christian elements. Easter (in Ukrainian: "Velykden" or "Paskha") is preceded by seven weeks of Lent and celebrated on each first week after vernal equinox and full moon. It is the most cheerful holiday for orthodox believers. In Ukraine Easter is called Velykden (The Great Day). In Ukraine Easter has been celebrated over a long period of history and has had many rich folk traditions. Ukrainian Easter is a historical combination of heathen and Christian traditions. Velykden was celebrated thousands of years ago as the victory of the Light over the Dark, Day over Night, Spring over Winter. The Resurrection was celebrated only from 988 when Kiev Rus was baptized. For some time these two systems coexisted, for some time it was forbidden for people to follow heathen traditions, but later the church decided to use in its Easter ceremony the heathen customs like painting eggs and backing Easter cake. The last Sunday before Easter is called Willow Sunday (Verbna nedilia). On this day pussy- willow branches are blessed in the church. The week before Easter, the Great (Velykyi) Week (Holy Week), is called the White (Bilyi) or Pure (Chystyi) Week. During this time an effort is made to finish all field work before Thursday, since from Thursday on work is forbidden. Pure (Maundy) Thursday is connected with ritual of clarification by water. On Passion (Strasna) Friday – Good Friday – no work is done. In some localities, the Holy Shroud (plashchanytsia) is carried solemnly three times around the church and, after appropriate services, laid out for public veneration. Saturday evening people gather in the church for the Easter vigil till the very morning when priests bless the food believers brought. After that people go home to celebrate Easter with their families. If they meet other people on the way they say: "Christ is risen!" and these people should reply "Risen indeed". All the people exchange Easter greetings and give each other painted eggs (krashanky). Easter cake ('Kulich') and painted eggs ('Krashanki') are the symbols of Ukrainian Easter and obligatory food on the table this day. Kulich is baked from yeast dough in the form of cylinder. Krashanka is a boiled and painted egg. On this Day Ukrainian kids play their favorite Easter game: knocking the eggs. If you knock somebody’s egg and you egg is not broken than you are the winner. The krashanky and pysanky (Easter eggs) are an old pre-Christian element and have an important role in the Easter rites. On this day they are given as gifts or exchanged. There is also the rite of sprinkling with water, which is still carried on in Western Ukraine on the next day afrer Easter (Wet Monday, Oblyvanyi ponedilok). It is practiced by young people, the boys usually splashing the girls with water. During the Easter season in Ukraine the cult of the dead is observed. The dead are remembered during the whole week after Easter, especially on the first Sunday following Easter Sunday. People gather in the cemeteries, bringing with them a dish containing some food and wine, which they consume, leaving the rest at the graves.

Calendric ritual folk poetry The calendric festivals, rites, and folk songs of Ukraine reflect the ancient, pre-Christian world view of the people and disclose especially their belief in the magical power of words. The

170 cyclical annual rituals and songs are closely related to nature and to the labor of an agricultural society. Such folk customs, rites, and songs reveal characteristic features of the material and spiritual life of Ukrainian society at the various stages of its historical development. With the people's acceptance of Christianity the ancient pagan rituals did not disappear, but rather merged, retaining much of their original form, with Christian practices and beliefs. The agrarian-calendric customs and rituals of the winter cycle were incorporated into the Christian feasts of Saint Andrew, Saint Barbara, and particularly into the three major winter celebrations of Christmas, New Year, and Epiphany. The feasts of spring, replete with ancient rites and customs, were blended into the church holidays of Saint George, and, more importantly, into the Easter celebrations. The summer cycle of pre-Christian feasts were united with the Christian Zeleni Sviata (the ‘Green Festival’, Pentecost), the holy days of Saints Peter and Paul, Saint John the Baptist, and Saint Elijah; the autumnal cycle, with the church feasts of the Holy Protectress and of Saint Demetrius. The basic artistic components of calendric ritual poetry are songs, including koliadky (Christmas carols) and shchedrivky (Epiphany carols), vesnianky-hahilky (spring songs), rusalni (Rusalka songs, related to the festival cycle of earing of the grain), kupalski (songs of Kupalo festival), and harvest songs. The motifs of calendric ritual folk poetry are widely used in Ukrainian literature, painting, and music, in the works of such authors as Taras Shevchenko, Stepan Vasylchenko, Mykhailo Starytsky, Oleksander Dovzhenko, and . (See also Folk oral literature.

Ukrainian traditions, Rites and Ceremonies The Ukrainian people’s native customs are primarily connected with the traditional way of thought and outlook on life that have been forming throughout the ages, and preserved quite a few features of the pre-Christian beliefs. Two main types of ceremonies are distinguishable: the domestic (family) and calendar ones. The former were the rites of passage marking a significant transition in a human life, while the latter performed to celebrate achievements or milestones in the lives of individuals or groups of people. Every conventional celebration and every ritual were closely connected with the folk- believes and legends of yore. The Family Rituals and Rites Puerperal ceremonies that accompany delivery of a child are part of especially delicate spheres; hence, they are being surrounded by magic actions and charms. While helping deliver babies a midwife was seeking to inculcate and instill in the child the important elements of character. For a child to grow healthy sviachene zillia (consecrated herbs and flowers) were made use of: for girls to be beautiful honey and, sometimes, milk were added to the font or put roots of elecampane there for boys to enjoy good health, or an axe placed to be become proficient in various skills. Everyone who happened to drop in during the ceremony was to drop a lucky penny into the basin holding baptismal water. Wedding among Ukrainians was indeed a solemn stage play accompanied by music, singing, dancing and games that grew into s folk feast. It all has been starting with wooing and seeking marriage (that is, towel presentation, proposing, towel taking and arrangement) when elders, representatives of the brides-to-be came to an agreement concerning wedding. (Instances happened when the intended bride said no to the marriage seekers. In such cases, she gave back the loaf of bread that seniors brought with them and "presented" the man seeking marriage with either a pumpkin or makohon (a wooden club-shaped, hand-held tool for grinding or mashing poppy seed, cereals, etc. in a mortar). Soon thereafter, the betrothal was arranged that began with a posad ceremony-the expression of mutual consent by those to be married and consecration of it by both parentages with bread and towel being the symbols of unity. With the betrothed seated at the head of the table, the

171 elders covered the bread with a towel, then placing the girl’s hand there and overlaying it with that of the boy, tied up the both hands with a towel. This was followed by tying up of the seniors with towels and presentation of all those in attendance with kerchiefs, pieces of cloth or shirts. In between the betrothing and wedding preparation the celebration continued with a series of rites, of which the principal were the hen and stag parties (or "periwinkle" ceremonies), loaf baking and invitations. The hen and stag nights symbolizing parting with single life were held on the eve of the wedding party separately at places of residence of the affianced. Meanwhile, married and highly honored women were baking the karavai, the principal bread at Ukrainian wedding, as well as varied bridal cookies. The most dramatic moment of the marriage was the pokryvania (bespreading) ritual that symbolized transfer of the young bride to the category of women and under husband’s authority and after which the general revelry started. The archaic rite is still preserved in Hutsul region. There, close to the end of the dinner party young bride was called to the barn to a sad tune played by musicians. When the groom heard the sound of a violin, he ran into the barn and bit through the ribbon that held metal decorations in the plait of the bride, thus making the entire splendid headdress spread. From this moment on she had to plait two braids, wind them around her head in a circle, and put on ochipok (a kind of a worm by married women), tying peremitka (a of fine fabric) or kerchief over it. An important component of the marriage ceremony is the nuptial service consecrating the marriage by the church. Funereal Rites and Customs were directed to reversibly transfer the souls of the deceased into the world of ancestors as well as protection of the living from detrimental influence of the spirits of the dead. The rituals comprised the burial and commemoration. When a person died, all the relations and fellow-villagers were notified. For that purpose white kerchiefs and peremitka were hanged out on the windows of the house where the dead stayed. Among the highlanders it was customary to kindle a big fire before the hut of the deceased or to blow trembita (Hutsul folk music instrument in the form of a long wooden tube without vents). The soul of the deceased was treated especially delicately. One should not drink water in the room since it was deemed possible to be consumed by the soul of the deceased; those wanting to sit down on a bench had to blow there to avoid crushing the soul of the dead. The carrying-out of the coffin was marked by special magic since it was connected with protection of the family and the farm from detrimental influence. To bar finding the way back home, the demised was born out feet first predominantly through the back door knocking on the threshold with coffin thrice so that the departed bid farewell to the ancestors and never returned. As soon as the chest was brought out from the room, a new jar was broken over the place it stood on as a symbol of life renovation while the way it was carried out was sprinkled with rye or barley so that nobody else died in the house. Ukrainians strictly kept the rite of semi-official church ‘sealing’ the grave unknown to other peoples: to a chant, the priest marked a cross over the grave with a spade, and then threw soil crosswise over the coffin. After the burial ceremony had been over, a meal was arranged for all those present which mandatory dish was kolyvo, a dish of wheat cooked with honey. It was customary immediately after the meal to put a glass of horilka and a piece of bread intended for the deceased on the windowsill: in popular belief, he returned home during the following nine days. The next day luncheon was carried to the grave (‘to wake up the deceased’. By this, the funeral ended and commemoration began. Marking of certain commemoration days are linked with popular ideas about life and death. Hence, the belief was that soul leaved the body on the third day, spirit on the ninth, while on the fortieth day the body ceased its existence.

Calendar Holidays and Ceremonies A calendar rites are divides into four principal seasonal cycles: winter, spring, summer and autumn with each of them timed on the one hand with the natural phenomena and to the correspondent types of agricultural activity on the other hand.

172 The winter cycle of popular calendar ritualism of the Ukrainian folk starts with Koliada marked on the eve of Christmas on January 7, ending with Vodokhresch on January 19. In general, the winter cycle includes the following holidays: Koliada (or the Holy Night); the Birth of the Sun Holiday (Christmas); the Old New Year’s Day (Malanka or Saint. Basil’s the Great Day), Vodokhresch (or Epiphany), Stritenia, and Obritenia. The Christmas night (the Koliada, Holy Night) was also called bahata kutia accompanied by extensive preparations: the stove was kindled with 12 logs that dried for twelve days, 12 ritual dishes were baked and boiled, of which the principal ones were the Christmas kutia (boiled wheat corn with raisins and honey) and uzvar (dried fruits compote). Towards the evening didukh (reaped sheaf) was brought into the house since, in accord with a belief, together with other home objects it acquired miraculous power bringing luck and providing for fruitful toil. In the evening children were sent to relations and kinsfolk with gifts and kutia to commemorate the souls of the dead. Starting with the Holy Night until the Vodokhresch the ritual wish-singing continued addressed to the hosts of lodgings and habitations, and to all their folks. Connected with the most vitally important business – laying foundation for the future harvest, the Spring Cycle of the calendar ritualism was of special significance among Ukrainians. For this reason, the people with the help of rituals and magic actions tried with all their might to speed up the coming of spring, warm weather and rain. In addition, the season is also famous for the alchemy of spring and awakening of human feelings. Hence, the spring ritualism was directed at recreation of the youth, telling fortunes and magic signs of supernatural protection. The characteristic colors of the spring rituality in Ukraine were vesnianky, highly poetic folk singing that penetrated more than one holiday and ceremonial actions. The Velykden (the Great day) was always seen among the people as the principal spring holiday that later was established by the Christian Church as Easter, a Christian festival commemorating Resurrection of Christ. Quite organically it combined pagan rites and canon ceremonies. The Velykden is a complete ritualistic cycle, which comprises the following chief elements: the Maundy-Week that in its turn divided into Palm Sunday and Holy Thursday; Velykden (Easter) and Svitlyi Easter Week including Radunytsia (veneration of ancestors) and Svitlyi Monday. On Palm Sunday, withes of willow were consecrated in church to be used at home for whipping the house folk and domestic animals. On Velykden, paskha (the Easter cakes) and decorated eggs, which were prepared in advance, are also consecrated. The most diversified is the Summer Ritual Cycle that lasted from the holy day of rusalii at the end of May until the Day of Holovosiky (beheading of St. John the Baptist) and included the following: rusalii, Trinity Sunday (the Green Feast), Kupaila or Ivan Kupala (St. John the Baptist Day), Petriv Den (Saints Peter and Paul Day), Maccabeus, Elijah and Saint Panteleimon the Healer Days, and the Savior Day, as well as quite forgotten today holydays of Thunder and pagan gods , Yarylo, etc. Within the Summer Ritual Cycle two ideas were prominent: water and plants. Special appeal of romance and magic distinguish The Ivan Kupala Feast. There is a folk-belief that to anyone who is lucky to pick the flower of fern (assumed to bloom at midnight, take fire and fall there and then) the hidden treasures are revealed while the person himself acquires miracle-working powers and knowledge. Hence, during Midsummer Night brave people were looking for fern in the wood, girls were telling fortunes by wreaths, young country folk lighted fires on the water and jumped over them presumably in a belief that Kupala fires and water had curative and purifying properties. The autumn cycle of the calendar holydays does not present itself as an integral order, but instead incorporates separate customs and omens with their general character defined by the nature going to sleep and preparation for winter. Ceremonial actions move predominantly indoors acquiring the form of evening sessions.

173 The cycle starts with Simeon feast that formerly coincided with the canon New Year’s Day. The whole cycle comprised of the following holidays and ceremonies: Simeon Day, Pokrova, saints’ days of Dymytriy, Kuzma and Demian, the Feast of Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, Kateryna, Saint George and Saint Andrew Days, as well as Saint Barbara and Saint Nicholas Days. The ceremonies of the autumn cycle were oriented predominantly at domesticity. Weddings started with the Pokrova with other holidays of the season also connected with marriages or divination about those to wed. Engagement in fortune telling was also intensive during the Feast of presentation of the Blessed Virgin, as well as on saints’ days of Kateryna and Andriy with the stock of techniques extremely diverse. Presently, traditional customs and rites are gradually becoming the thing of the past; however some of the elements still stay in the ceremonies of today to be used during celebrations of the most popular folk holidays.

Holidays Quiz 1. What folk customs and rites do Ukrainians observe? 2. What are the key rituals of the New Year celebrations? 3. What are the most important holidays in the Ukrainian churches? 4. What Sunday does Easter fall on? 5. What rituals does the feast on Christmas involve? 6. What dishes does the holy supper consist of? 7. When is Epiphany marked? 8. What is the traditional meal on the Eve of Epiphany? 9. What is the principal ceremony of Epiphany? 10. What kind of holiday is Easter? 11. What is the last Sunday before Easter called? 12. What is the week before Easter called? 13. What mass is performed on Easter night in the church? 14. What do people bless in the church on Easter night? 15. What kind of day is Maundy Thursday? 16. What do Easter eggs symbolise? 17. What kind of Easter eggs do you know? 18. When is Pentecost celebrated? 19. How are houses and churches decorated at Pentecost?

Theme 9 Literature. Theatre and cinema. Music – 2 hours

Plan 1 Literature - Taras Shevchenko - Taras Shevchenko's poems in English Opinion Literature Quiz 2 Theatre and cinema - Skomorokhy - Ukrainian poetic cinema - Dovzhenko Oleksander - Kavaleridze Ivan - Paradzhanov Serhii - Illienko Yurii - Osyka Leonid - Mykolaichuk Ivan Theatre and Cinema Quiz

174 3 Music - Ukrainian Musical Culture: general information - Ukrainian wandering bards: kobzars, bandurysts, and lirnyks - Kobzars - Lirnyks - Duma: Origin. Themes. History of collection and scholarship - Ukraine Wins the Eurovision Song Contest Music Quiz

1 Literature Taras Shevchenko In forging a new national identity, Ukraine has looked to its past, turning to its most durable symbols as a rallying point for patriotism. There's something appealing about a nation whose greatest hero is a poet and painter. Taras Hryhorovych Shevchenko, was born on March 9,1814 to a serf family in , a village that today is in the Cherkasy region. Orphaned as a teen, Shevchenko accompanied his master on his travels, serving as a houseboy. Noticing his artistic talent, Shevchenko's master apprenticed him to a painter in St. Petersburg. In 1838 Shevchenko's Russian artist colleagues bought him from his master and set him free. Shevchenko enrolled in the St. Petersburg Academy of Art where he had many contacts with Ukrainian and Russian artists and writers. His first collection of Ukrainian poetry, Kobzar (The Bard), published in 1840, was hailed as work of genius by Ukrainian and Russian critics alike. Drawing upon Ukrainian history and folklore, Shevchenko wrote in the Romantic style prevalent in his day. Soon his poems evolved from nostalgia for Kozak life to an indictment of rulers who abuse their power and then to sympathy for oppressed people everywhere. As a painter, Shevchenko was skilled in portraiture, landscape, and architectural monuments, but his most noteworthy paintings are scenes of country life and historical events that are sympathetic to Ukraine and critical of its oppressors. For example, Shevchenko's tragic story of Kateryna, a Ukrainian girl who was seduced, impregnated, and abandoned by a Russian soldier, expressed in ballad and later in a painting, are allegorical references to the fate of Ukraine under the Russian tsars who introduced serfdom. Shevchenko's reputation as a leading Ukrainian poet and artist was already established when he came to Kyiv in 1846. There he joined the first modern Ukrainian political organization, the Brotherhood of Sts. Cyril and Methodius. In 1847 the brotherhood members were arrested. Shevchenko was the most severely punished when authorities discovered his unpublished collection of poetry satirizing the oppression of Ukraine by Russia. He was sentenced to ten years' military service in a labor battalion in Siberia. Although Tsar Nicholas I stipulated that Shevchenko was to be "under the strictest supervision, forbidden to write and sketch", he managed during part of his term to write and paint clandestinely. After his release, Shevchenko was a broken man. He was not allowed to live in Ukraine, but permitted to visit. However, during one visit, he was re-arrested and banished to St. Petersburg, where he remained under police surveillance until his death in 1861. His gravesite, monument, and museum in (in the ) are popular tourist destinations. Even without his poetry, Shevchenko would be renowned for his art. His existing works number 835 paintings and engravings, with several hundred lost. His writings have had a greater significance, however, not only for their literary merit but also for the role they played in the development of the Ukrainian language. Shevchenko blended several with elements of Church Slavonic, thus expanding the range, flexibility and resources of the Ukrainian language. Elevating Ukrainian to a literary prose was equivalent to a literary declaration of Ukrainian independence, according to in Ukraine: A History. Shevchenko showed that Ukrainians didn't need to depend on the Russian language as a means of higher discourse because their own language was equally rich and expressive.

175 As a critic of tsarist autocracy and a champion of the universal struggle for justice, Shevchenko was exalted throughout the Soviet Union. His works were circulated and his memory honored in every republic. There's even a monument to him in Moscow. But to Ukrainians, Shevchenko has a special meaning. To them, he represents the right to be Ukrainian. Ukrainians understood that when Shevchenko referred to "Muscovy", he wasn't referring to a particular government, but to the Russian nation's subjugation of Ukraine. Ukrainians even knew which words in the official publications of his works the authorities had changed in order to conceal his nationalistic expression. Following independence, many more monuments were erected in Shevchenko's honor in Ukraine, often replacing statutes of Lenin that were torn down. The depiction of Shevchenko as an old man is misleading, since he died when he was only 47, and made his impact when he was much younger.

Taras Shevchenko's poems in English Opinion A Reflection The river empties to the sea, But out it never flows; The Cossack lad his fortune seeks, But never fortune knows. The Cossack lad has left his home, He's left his kith and kind; The blue sea's waters splash and foam, Sad thoughts disturb his mind: "Why, heedless, did you go away? For what did you forsake Your father old, your mother grey, Your sweetheart, to their fate? In foreign lands live foreign folks, Their ways are not your way: There will be none to share your woes Or pass the time of day". Across the sea, the Cossack rests – The choppy sea's distraught. He thought with fortune to be blessed – Misfortune is his lot. In vee-formation, 'cross the waves The cranes are off for home. The Cossack weeps – his beaten paths With weeds are overgrown... St. Petersburg, 1838. Translated by John Weir Toronto

The Testament Dig my grave and raise my barrow By the Dnieper-side In Ukraina, my own land, A fair land and wide. I will lie and watch the cornfields, Listen through the years To the river voices roaring, Roaring in my ears. When I hear the call Of the racing flood, Loud with hated blood,

176 I will leave them all, Fields and hills; and force my way Right up to the Throne Where God sits alone; Clasp His feet and pray... But till that day What is God to me? Bury me, be done with me, Rise and break your chain, Water your new liberty With blood for rain. Then, in the mighty family Of all men that are free, May be sometimes, very softly You will speak of me? Taras Shevchenko Translated by E. L. Voynich London, 1911

My Testament When I am dead, bury me In my beloved Ukraine, My tomb upon a grave mound high Amid the spreading plain, So that the fields, the boundless steppes, The Dnieper's plunging shore My eyes could see, my ears could hear The mighty river roar. When from Ukraine the Dnieper bears Into the deep blue sea The blood of foes ... then will I leave These hills and fertile fields – I'll leave them all and fly away To the abode of God, And then I'll pray .... But till that day I nothing know of God. Oh bury me, then rise ye up And break your heavy chains And water with the tyrants' blood The freedom you have gained. And in the great new family, The family of the free, With softly spoken, kindly word Remember also me. Taras Shevchenko Pereyaslav, December 25, 1845 Translated by John Weir Toronto, 1961

It Makes No Difference To Me It makes no difference to me, If I shall live or not in Ukraine Or whether any one shall think Of me 'mid foreign snow and rain. It makes no difference to me. In slavery I grew 'mid strangers, Unwept by any kin of mine; In slavery I now will die And vanish without any sign. I shall not leave the slightest trace Upon our glorious Ukraine,

177 , but not as ours known. No father will remind his son Or say to him, "Repeat one prayer, One prayer for him; for our Ukraine They tortured him in their foul lair". It makes no difference to me, If that son says a prayer or not. It makes great difference to me That evil folk and wicked men Attack our Ukraine, once so free, And rob and plunder it at will. That makes great difference to me. Taras Shevchenko St. Petersburg Citadel Prison May, 1847 Translated by Clarence A. Manning Columbia University , 1944

I was thirteen I was thirteen. I herded lambs Beyond the village on the lea. The magic of the sun, perhaps, Or what was it affected me? I felt with joy all overcome, As though with God.... The time for lunch had long passed by, And still among the weeds I lay And prayed to God.... I know not why It was so pleasant then to pray For me, an orphan peasant boy, Or why such bliss so filled me there? The sky seemed bright, the village fair, The very lambs seemed to rejoice! The sun's rays warmed but did not sear! But not for long the sun stayed kind, Not long in bliss I prayed.... It turned into a ball of fire And set the world ablaze. As though just wakened up, I gaze: The hamlet's drab and poor, And God's blue heavens – even they Are glorious no more. I look upon the lambs I tend – Those lambs are not my own! I eye the hut wherein I dwell – I do not have a home! God gave me nothing, naught at all.... I bowed my head and wept Such bitter tears.... And then a lass* Who had been sorting hemp Not far from there, down by the path, Heard my lament and came Across the field to comfort me; She spoke a soothing phrase

178 And gently dried my weeping eyes And kissed my tear-wet face.... It was as though the sun had smiled, As though all things on earth were mine, My own.... the orchards, fields and groves!... And, laughing merrily the while, The master's lambs to drink we drove. Oh, how disgusting!... Yet, when I Recall those days, my heart is sore That there my brief life's span the Lord Did not grant me to live and die. There, plowing, I'd have passed away, With ignorance my life-long lot, I'd not an outcast be today, I'd not be cursing Man and God! ... Translated by John Weir Toronto, 1961 * Oksana Kovalenko to whom Shevchenko dedicated the Poem to

Don't Wed Don't wed a wealthy woman, friend, She'll drive you from the house. Don't wed a poor one either, friend, Dull care will be your spouse. Get hitched to carefree Cossack life And share a Cossack fate: If it be rags, let it be rags – What comes, that's what you take. Then you'll have nobody to nag Or try to cheer you up, To fuss and and question you What ails you and what's up. When two misfortune share, they say, It's easier to weep. Not so: it's easier to cry When no-one's there to see. Taras Shevchenko Mirhorod, October 4th, 1845. Translated by John Weir, Toronto

Don't Envy Don't envy, friend, a wealthy man: A rich man's life is spent Without a friend or faithful love – Those things he has to rent. Don't envy, friend, a man of rank, His power's based on force. Don't envy, too, a famous man: The man of note well knows The crowd's acclaim is not for him, But for that thorny fame He wrought with labour and with tears So they'd be entertained. But then, when young folk gather 'round, So fine they are and fair You'd think it's heaven, – ah, but look:

179 See evil stirring there ... Don't envy anyone my friend, For if you look you'll find That there's no heaven on the earth, No more than in the sky. Mirhorod, October 4th, 1845. Translated by John Weir, Toronto

The Mighty Dnieper The mighty Dnieper roars and bellows, The wind in anger howls and raves, Down to the ground it bends the willows, And mountain-high lifts up the waves. The pale-faced moon picked out this moment To peek out from behind a cloud, Like a canoe upon the ocean It first tips up, and then dips down. The cocks don't crow to wake the morning, There's not as yet a sound of man, The owls in glades call out their warnings, And ash trees creak and creak again. Taras Shevchenko Translated by John Weir Toronto

Work with text. The main events of the biography of Taras Shevchenko. Task: read the text and answer the questions 1. When was the first publication of the collection of poems Kobzar? 2. Which of the famous artists helped Taras Shevchenko? What did they do for it? 3. What is the dramatic work of Taras Shevchenko called? 4. What pictures did Shevchenko draw? Name the five most famous of his paintings. Artist, poet, national bard of Ukraine, Taras Shevchenko was born on 9 March, 1814 in Moryntsi, Kiev gubernia. He was born a serf. When he was a teenager he became an orphan, and grew up in poverty. When he was 14, his owner, Engelhardt took him to serve as a houseboy. And Taras travelled with him to Vilnus and to St Petersburg. In Vilnus Taras for the first time heard different languages, Lithuanian, Russian and Polish and there he saw people whom their masters made free. When Engelhardt noticed the boy’s skiils in painting he apprenticed him to the painter Shiriayev for four years. At that time the young man met his compatriots Zoshchenko, Hrebinka, Hryhorovych, and Venetsianov, they showed his works to the famous Russian artist Karl Bryullov. Shevchenko’s paintings impressed Bryullov, and he decided to help him. Karl Bryullov painted a portrait of the Russian poet Zhukovsky and disposed it in a lottery. The money was used to buy Shevchenko’s freedom from Engelhardt in 1838. Shevchenko entered the Academy of Fine Arts in St Petersburg, there he became a student of Bryullov. Shevchenko was awarded three silver medals for his works and later he had become an Academician in engraving. Studying at the Academy T. Shevchenko understood that his main calling, his true passion was poetry. In 1840 he published his first collection of poems "Kobzar". In 1841 followed the epic poem "Haidamaky", in 1844 the ballad "Hamalia". When he graduated from the Academy, he became a member of the Kiev Archeographic Commission. In 1846 in Kiev he entered the secret Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. It was a secret political society, in 1847 it was smashed, and Shevchenko was arrested and sent to the Orenburg special corps, he was deprived the right to draw and write. 10 years of exile ruined his health, and Shevchenko became seriously ill.

180 When he was released in 1857 it was forbidden to him to live in Ukraine. He moved to St Petersburg but on March 10, 1861 the great poet died of heart disease. He was buried in St Petersburg, but his friends wanted to fulfill the poet’s wish that he had expressed in his "Testament" and they transferred his remains to the Chernecha Hill near Kanev, in Ukraine. Shevchenko’s works take an important place in Ukrainian literature and history. His literary output consists of the collection of poetry "Kobzar", the drama "Nazar Stodolia"; two dramatic fragments; nine novelettes, a diary, and a autobiography in Russian; and over 250 letters. Shevchenko was an outstanding poet and a highly accomplished artist. There are 835 works written by him, although 270 are known to have been lost. His collection also contains over 150 portraits, 42 self-portraits. There are many landscapes, watercolours and etchings.

Literature Quiz 1. What was the most notable monument of old Ukrainian lit erature? 2. Who were the most prominent authors of the Cossack period? 3. What literary and philosophical works did H. Skovoroda write? 4. What was Skovoroda's philosophical Idea? 5. What was the earliest Ukrainian drama? 6. Who was the "father" of the vernacular literature? 7. Who were the most noted prose writers and dramatists of the vernacular period? 8. What was Gogol's first collection of short stories? 9. What kind of world did Gogol portray? 10. When and where was Taras Shevchenko born? 11. Where did he study fine arts? 12. What Shevchenko's literary works do you know? 13. How many works does Shevchenko's artistic output consist of? 14. How did Shevchenko's poetry influence the Ukrainian political thought? 15. Who was Ivan Franko? 16. What is his birthplace? 17. Which of I. Franko's poems became patriotic anthems? 18. What public figures did Franko collaborate with? 19. Which of Franko's prose works are considered to be his greatest masterpieces? 20. What parents was Lesia Ukrainka born to? 21. Where did Lesia receive education? 22. What books of verse earned L. Ukrainka a leading place in Ukrainian literature? 23. What are L. Ukrainka's best plays? 24. What foreign languages did L. Ukrainka know? 25. What authors were among the most prominent sixtiers? 26. What are the most noted novels by ? 27. Which of his novels was officially censured and removed from circulation? 28. Whose poetry marks the beginning of the Ukrainian opposition movement of the 1960s and 1970s? 29. How many collections of 's poems appeared during his lifetime? 30. What is responsible for 's death?

2 Theatre and cinema Skomorokhy Itinerant minstrels in Kyivan Rus’. The first written reference to them dates back to 1068, but they were active in Kyivan Rus’ long before then. They are depicted in the frescoes of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. According to some scholars the skomorokhy developed under the influence of foreign models. Others suggest that they evolved from pagan priests (volkhvy) in the rural areas of Kyivan Rus’. The latter hypothesis is supported by the recorded condemnation by the church authorities of

181 the skomorokhy as representatives of paganism. By the 11th century the skomorokhy had become professional entertainers who performed songs, dances, mime shows, acrobatics, games, puppet shows, short dramatic scenes, and animal tricks for the common people as well as for nobles and court dignitaries. By the 12th century, when court singers started joining their troupes, the skomorokhy added bylyny to their repertoire. As Kyivan Rus’ began to decline in the 12th and 13th centuries, many skomorokhy moved to safer principalities in the north and particularly to Novgorod the Great. There they survived as a social group until 1572, when they were forcibly moved to Moscow by Ivan IV. In 1648 they were proscribed by Aleksei I, a blow from which they never recovered. The influence of the skomorokhy in Ukraine can be seen in Ukrainian theatrical productions of the 16th century.

Ukrainian poetic cinema The tradition of Ukrainian poetic cinema originated with the work of the film director Oleksander Dovzhenko and, in particular, with his film Zvenyhora (1927), originally scripted by Yurii Tiutiunnyk and Maik Yohansen. This film is considered to mark the beginning of Ukrainian national cinematography. At the same time, with his rich lyricism and the poetic power of his symbolic scenes and landscapes, Dovzhenko created a unique phenomenon in world cinema and was hailed as the 'first poet of the cinema.' Zvenyhora was followed by Dovzhenko's Arsenal (1929) and Zemlia (The Earth, 1930). These and other Ukrainian silent films of the 1920s marked a considerable technical and artistic achievement in the history of silent film. Many of them were attacked by the official critics for nationalist deviations and were banned in the early 1930s. Ivan Kavaleridze's film Zlyva (The Downpour, 1929) was criticized with particular severity for its attempt to present the epic of the Haidamaka uprisings and for its experiments with innovations in form and film technique. The end of silent films in the history of the Ukrainian cinema coincided with the beginning of the Stalinist campaign to crush Ukrainian culture, including the cinema. Until the 1950s the standard film was a Party-approved socialist-realist adaptation of a literary work about a Soviet civil war hero. Ukrainian history was distorted and the artistic quality of films dramatically declined. It was not until the 1960s that the Ukrainian poetic cinema tradition was revived in 1964 with the brilliant film adaptation of 's novel Tini zabutykh predkiv (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors), directed by Serhii Paradzhanov, camera work by Yurii Illienko, which won numerous awards at international film festivals. However, this original Ukrainian tradition was immediately attacked by the Communist Party and Soviet censorship. Two outstanding early films directed by Yurii Illienko were banned from distribution, while most other significant film projects were closed down during production or released in highly censored versions. In spite of this government interference, several remarkable examples of the Ukrainian poetic cinema were produced in the 1960s through 1980s, including Kaminnyi khrest (The Stone Cross, 1968) by Leonid Osyka, Bilyi ptakh z chornoiu oznakoiu (White Bird with a Black Spot, 1972) by Yurii Illienko, and Vavylon-XX (Babylon-XX, 1979) by Ivan Mykolaichuk.

Dovzhenko Oleksander [Dovženko], born 10 September 1894 in the village of , Chernihiv gubernia, died 25 November 1956 in Moscow. Film director. After graduating from the Hlukhiv teachers' seminary in 1914, Dovzhenko worked as a teacher in Zhytomyr. During the struggle for independence (1917–1920) he participated in the revolutionary events in Kyiv and in 1919–1920 belonged to the Borotbists. In 1921–1923 he worked in Warsaw and Berlin as a member of Ukrainian diplomatic missions. In 1923–1926 he drew caricatures for the newspaper Visti VUTsVK in Kharkiv and played an active role in the literary and artistic life of the city. He had begun studying painting in Berlin and continued to paint in Kharkiv.

182 In 1926 Dovzhenko began to work as a film director at the Odesa Artistic Film Studio. His first films were Vasia-reformator (Vasia, the Reformer), Iahidka kokhannia (The Berry of Love, 1926), and Sumka dypkur'iera (The Diplomatic Courier's Bag, 1927). Drawing on Ukrainian history, in 1927 he created the film Zvenyhora, which is considered to mark the beginning of Ukrainian national cinematography. Dovzhenko's expressionist film Arsenal (1929) is devoted to the revolutionary events in Kyiv in 1918. His last silent movie, Zemlia (The Earth, 1930), dealing with the collectivization drive in Ukraine, is a masterpiece. Dovzhenko was severely criticized as a Ukrainian nationalist for this film and for his next film, Ivan (1932), about the building of the Dnieper Dam. He was forced to move to Moscow, where he lived as if in exile until his death. In Moscow he made Aerograd (1935) about the Far East and spent over four years on the film Shchors (1939), which depicts the struggle of the Bolshevik army against the Ukrainian forces defending Ukraine's statehood during the Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–1921. During the Second World War Dovzhenko made three chronicle films: Vyzvolennia (The Liberation, 1940), on the annexation of Galicia to the Ukrainian SSR; Bytva za nashu Radians’ku Ukraïnu (The Battle for Our Soviet Ukraine, 1943); and Peremoha na Pravoberezhnii Ukraïni (The Victory in Right-Bank Ukraine, 1945). In 1948 he made his last film, Zhyttia v tsvitu (Life in Bloom), which was devoted to botanist Ivan Michurin. Dovzhenko's rich lyricism, his vivid characters, and the poetic power of his landscapes earned him a reputation as ‘first poet of the cinema’ and as one of the world's leading film directors. An international jury in 1958 ranked his Zemlia among the 12 best films in world cinematography. From the beginning of the Second World War Dovzhenko devoted more of his time to writing than to directing. He wrote a few dozen short stories, mostly about Ukraine's tragic fate during the Second World War, and a number of novels of a new genre, ‘film novels’: Ukraïna v ohni (Ukraine in Flames, 1943), prohibited from publication by Joseph Stalin because of its nationalism and published posthumously only in excerpts (the full version appeared only in 1990 and 1995); Povist’ polum’ianykh lit (The Tale of Fiery Years, 1945); and Poema pro more (A Poem about the Sea, 1956). His autobiographical novel Zacharovana Desna (The Enchanted Desna, 1955) is a literary masterpiece. All of his novels were published posthumously. His writings have been published in two collections: Tvory v tr’okh tomakh (Works in Three Volumes, 1958 and 1960) and Tvory v p'iaty tomakh (Works in Five Volumes, 1966). After Dovzhenko's death his wife, Yuliia Solntseva, who was also a film director, made the following films using his scripts: Poema pro more (1958), Povist’ polum’ianykh lit (1960), Zacharovana Desna (1964), and Nezabutnie (The Unforgettable, 1968).

Kavaleridze Ivan, born 26 April 1887 at Ladanskyi khutir near Romny, Kharkiv gubernia, died 3 December 1978 in Kyiv. Sculptor, film director, dramatist, and screenwriter. He studied art at the Kyiv Art School (1907–1909), the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts (1909–1910), and with N. Aronson in Paris (1910–1911). His sculptures include busts of famous people such as F. Chaliapin (1909), and over 100 monuments in various cities of Ukraine: eg, the monument to Princess Olha in Kyiv (1911), which was destroyed in 1934; the Taras Shevchenko monuments in Kyiv (1918), Romny (1918), Poltava (1925), and Sumy (1926); and the Hryhorii Skovoroda monuments in (1922) and Kyiv (1977). In the 1920s his work was influenced by cubism, as exemplified by his monument to Artem in Artemivsk (Donetsk oblast). His group compositions – Bohdan Khmelnytsky Sends the Kobza Players into the Villages (1954), A. Buchma in the Role of M. Zadorozhny (1954), and Prometheus (1962) – are somewhat stylized. In 1928 he became interested in filmmaking. He scripted and directed a number of innovative historical films marked by stylization and monumentalism: Zlyva (The Downpour,

183 1929), Perekop (1930), Koliïvshchyna (1933), and Prometei (Prometheus, 1936). Accused of ‘nationalist deviation’ and formalism, he was forced to turn to popular themes and a simplified style. He adapted the operas: ’s Natalka Poltavka (Natalka from Poltava, 1936) and Semen Hulak-Artemovsky’s Zaporozhets’ za Dunaiem (Zaporozhian Cossack beyond the Danube, 1938) for film. After the Second World War he directed the films Hryhorii Skovoroda (1960) and Poviia (The Strumpet, 1961) based on Panas Myrny's novel. A retrospective exhibit of his sculptures was held in 1962. He wrote several heroic dramas: Votaniv mech (Wotan's Sword, 1966), Perekop (1967), and Persha borozna (The First Furrow, 1969).

Paradzhanov Serhii, born 9 January 1924 in Tbilisi, Georgia, died 21 July 1990 in , Armenian SSR. Armenian and Ukrainian film director. He graduated from the State Institute of Cinema Arts in Moscow (1951, pupil of Ihor Savchenko) and began working at the Kyiv Artistic Film Studio, where he created several short films and musicals, including a biographical film about Nataliia Uzhvii (Nataliia Uzhvii, 1957), Ukraïns’ka rapsodiia (Ukrainian Rhapsody, 1961), and Duma (1964). International acclaim came to Paradzhanov in 1964 after the screening of Tini zabutykh predkiv (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, based on Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky's novella of the same title). It was awarded 16 prizes in all at international film festivals for its magnificent combination of camera work (by Yurii Illienko) with atonal music (by Myroslav Skoryk), bright colors, masterful editing, and brilliant acting (with Ivan Mykolaichuk playing the lead role). In 1965–1968 Paradzhanov was harassed for writing letters of protest against the unlawful arrests of intellectuals and for demanding free expression in the press. He moved to and experimented in a new cinema technique of superimposition of different colors (The Color of Pomegranates, 1969). In 1971 he returned to Kyiv and began working on the film Kyïvs’ki fresky (Kyivan Frescoes), but the filming was stopped, and he was arrested in 1973 on spurious charges of currency speculation and homosexuality and sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment. In 1977, after international pressure was applied (petition signed by Francois Truffaut, Jean- Luc Godard, Louis Malle, Federico Fellini, Lucion Visconti, Roberto Rossellini, and Michelangelo Antonioni), Paradzhanov was released from prison, only to be arrested again in Tbilisi in 1982 (charged with ‘associating with undesirable persons’). His work was restricted as a result of the arrest; nevertheless, in 1984 he produced the film The Legend of Surami Fortress and later coauthored the screenplay Swan Lake: The Zone, which was directed by Yurii Illienko (1989). His plan to produce a film version of Taras Shevchenko's Mariia was not realized.

Illienko Yurii, born 18 July 1936 in Cherkasy, died 15 June 2010 in Prokhorivka, Cherkasy oblast. Film director and cinematographer; the brother of Vadym Illienko and Mykhailo Illienko. A graduate of the All-Union Institute of Cinematography (1960), he worked at the Yalta Artistic Film Studio and, from 1965, at the Kyiv Artistic Film Studio. His camera work in Serhii Paradzhanov's Tini zabutykh predkiv (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, 1964) earned him international recognition and an award at the 1965 international film festival in Mar del Plata, Argentina. His Proshchaite holuby (Goodbye, Pigeons, 1960), made in fulfillment of degree requirements, was approved for general distribution in the USSR. Illienko made his debut as a film director with the stark black-and-white film Krynytsia dlia sprahlykh (A Well for the Thirsty, 1966), but the film was banned by Soviet censors who viewed the film as a condemnation of the destruction of the traditional Ukrainian village by the Holodomor and Second World War. His second film: his adaptation of 's stories Vechir na Ivana Kupala (The Eve of Ivan Kupalo, 1967) was accepted for competition at the Venice Internetional Film Festival, but the USSR Ministry of Culture did not release the film and soon afterwards banned

184 it altogether. Then Illienko co-scripted (with Ivan Mykolaichuk) and directed Bilyi ptakh z chornoiu oznakoiu (White Bird with a Black Mark, 1971), which won a gold medal at the Moscow International Film Festival, and then scripted and directed such films as Vsuperech vs’omu (Contrary to Everything, 1972); pisnia: Mavka (The Forest Song: Mavka, 1980), an adaptation of Lesia Ukrainka's play; Lehenda pro kniahyniu Ol’hu (The Legend of Princess Olha, 1983), the first part of a planned trilogy on Kyivan Rus’; and Solomiani dzvony (Straw Bells, 1987). During the period of glasnost and perestroika, Illienko produced an internationally acclaimed film Lebedyne ozero. Zona (Swan Lake. The Zone, 1990) that received two major awards (including the FIPRESCI International Federation of Film Critics Prize for Best Film) at the Cannes Film Festival. The film, based on the screenplay by Serhii Paradzhanov, was the first instance of an international film co-production in Soviet Ukraine (it was co-produced by Ukraine, Canada, USA, and Sweden) and was the first film to represent Ukraine (not the USSR) at an international film festival. Illienko’s last feature film was the experimental Molytva za het’mana Mazepu (Prayer for Hetman Mazepa, 2002). Illienko's highly personal cinema was deeply rooted in Ukrainian history and folklore. His original cinematographic style used subjective camera and explored the diverse potentialities of color. His oeuvre sets Illienko apart from the majority of his contemporary Ukrainian filmmakers and makes him one of the most accomplished masters of Ukrainian cinema. Illienko also taught at the Kyiv Institute of Theater Arts and, based on his lectures, wrote a monograph Paradygma kino (The Paradigm of the Cinema, 1998). He was also a prolific painter and wrote a three-volume novel Dopovidna Apostolovi Petru. Avtobiohrafiia alter ego (A Report to : The Autobiography of the Alter Ego, 2008).

Osyka Leonid, born 8 March 1940 in Kyiv, died 16 September 2001 in Kyiv. Film director. He graduated from the State Institute of Cinema Arts in Moscow (1966). Among his films are a poetic cinema version of 's novellas called Kaminnyi khrest (The Stone Cross, 1968) and the heroic epic cinema version of Ivan Franko's Zakhar Berkut (1972), as well as Tryvozhnyi misiats’ veresen’ (The Alarming Month of September, 1977), More (The Sea, 1978), a film about Mikhail Vrubel Etiudy Pro Vrubelia (Etudes about Vrubel, 1989), a cinema version of Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky’s story Podarunok na imenymy (A Name Day Gift, 1991), and a film Het'mans'ki kleinody (Hetman’s Jewels, 1993), based on a novel by Bohdan Lepky. Osyka was awarded the Shevchenko Prize in 1997. Documentary films about Osyka include Druh mii Lion'ka (My Friend Lionka, 2004) by Timur Zoloev and Leonid Osyka (2013) by Nataliia Kalatranova.

Mykolaichuk Ivan, born 15 June 1941 in Chortoryia, Bukovyna, died 3 August 1987 in Kyiv. Film actor, screenwriter, and director. In 1957 he completed drama studies at the Chernivtsi Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater, and in 1965 he graduated from the Kyiv Institute of Theater Arts. From 1965 he worked in the Kyiv Artistic Film Studio. Following the esthetic traditions of Oleksander Dovzhenko, he gave intense, realistic portrayals of archetypal and historical characters in films such as Son (The Dream, based on Taras Shevchenko's poem, directed by Volodymyr Denysenko, 1964), Tini zabutykh predkiv (Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, directed by Serhii Paradzhanov, 1964), Zakhar Berkut (directed by Leonid Osyka, 1972), Bilyi ptakh z chornoiu oznakoiu (A White Bird with a Black Mark, 1972, written with Yurii Illienko), and Vavilon-XX (Babylon-XX, 1979, based on a novel by Vasyl Zemliak), which he directed. On the basis of Mykolaichuk's script Illienko directed the film Mriiaty i zhyty (To Dream and Live, 1975). Mykolaichuk also directed the film Taka piznia, taka, tepla osin’ (Such a Late, Such a Warm Autumn, 1982, written with Vitalii Korotych). A book of memoirs about Mykolaichuk, interview with him, and his scenarios was published in Kyiv in 1991.

185 Theatre and Cinema Quiz 1. Who were the first Ukrainian-language plays written by? 2. Who were the pioneering Ukrainian actors? 3. When was the first professional Ukrainian theatre founded? 4. Who were the leaders of the first touring theatres in Ukraine? 5. When was the first resident theatre organised? 6. Who was the greatest innovator of Ukrainian theatre? 7. What is H. Yura known for? 8. How many theatres does Ukraine operate at present? 9. How old are the traditions of Ukrainian ballet? 10. Where were the first ballet performances staged in Ukraine? 11. What noted Ukrainian composers wrote ballet music? 12. What instructors do you know? 13. When did regular production of films begin? 14. What is O. Dovzhenko noted for? 15. How many film studios are there in Ukraine? 16. What studio did O. Dovzhenko begin to work at as a film director? 17. Which of his films won international acclaim? 18. What are his best stage parts? 19. In what films did I. Mykolaichuk play the leading roles? 20. How many awards did Paradzhanov's films win? 21. What is S. Lyfar's contribution to the development of European ballet art? 22. What comedies did P. Saksahanskyi play in?

3 Music Ukrainian Musical Culture: general information Ukrainians are known as a musical people with a lot of folk songs and talented performers. Groups of musicians performed during festivals and banquets at the courts of ancient princes. The first church music came from Byzantium. In the second half of the 11th century the Kyivan monasteries became the centres of the development of religious music in Ukraine. The 16th and 17th centuries saw the development of the polyphonic singing. The "Musical Grammar", written by the composer M. Dyletskyi in 1675 was a complete description of the theory of polyphonic music. In the 19th century in Galicia there was a school of music initiated by M. Verbytskyi and I. Lavrynskyi. That century Ukrainian music was absorbed by Russian musical devel-opment. The musical talents of Ukraine usually moved to Russia. In that time "Music Society" was founded in Ukraine. It established music schools, which later became conservatories in Kyiv, Kharkiv and Odesa. The second trend of this period was the development of interest in folk music. M. Lysenko became the main figure in this process. By 1904 he founded a school of music in Kyiv which served as a major centre for the development of the Ukrainian music. Lysenko Institute of Music was established in Lviv in 1903. Nowadays Ukrainian contemporary music and folk singing enjoy growing popularity. Most modern singers and musicians include folklore motives in their works.

Ukrainian wandering bards: kobzars, bandurysts, and lirnyks The artistic tradition of Ukrainian wandering bards, the kobzars (kobza players), bandurysts (bandura players), and lirnyks (lira players) is one of the most distinctive elements of Ukraine's cultural heritage. While kobzars first emerged in Kyivan Rus, bandurysts and lirnyks appeared and became popular in the 15th century. Kobzars often lived at the Zaporozhian Sich and accompanied the Cossacks on military campaigns. The epic songs they performed served to raise the morale of the Cossack army in times of war, and some (eg, Prokip Skriaha) were even beheaded by the Poles for performing dumas that incited popular revolts.

186 As the Hetman state declined, so did the fortunes of the kobzars, and they gradually joined the ranks of mendicants, playing and begging for alms at rural marketplaces. In the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly from the 1870s, the kobzars, including the virtuoso Ostap Veresai, were persecuted by the tsarist regime as the propagators of Ukrainophile sentiments and historical memory. In the 1930s, during Stalin's Great Terror, several hundred kobzars and lirnyks were brought to a congress from all parts of Ukraine and after the congress ended almost all of them were shot.

Kobzars Wandering folk bards who performed a large repertoire of epic-historical, religious, and folk songs while playing a kobza or bandura. Kobzars first emerged in Kyivan Rus’ and were popular by the 15th century. Some (eg, Churylo and Tarashko) performed at Polish royal courts. They lived at the Zaporozhian Sich and were esteemed by the Cossacks, whom they frequently accompanied on various campaigns against the Turks, Tatars, and Poles. The epic songs they performed served to raise the morale of the Cossack army in times of war, and some (eg, Prokip Skriaha, Vasyl Varchenko, and Mykhailo, ‘Sokovy's son-in-law’) were even beheaded by the Poles for performing dumas that incited popular revolts. As the Hetman state declined, so did the fortunes of the kobzars, and they gradually joined the ranks of mendicants, playing and begging for alms at rural marketplaces. In the late 18th century the occupation of kobzar became the almost exclusive province of the blind and crippled, who organized kobzar brotherhoods to protect their corporate interests. A few performed at the Russian courts of Peter I, Elizabeth I, and Catherine II (eg, Hryhorii Liubystok and O. Rozumovsky). In the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly from the 1870s, the kobzars, including the virtuosos Ostap Veresai and Hnat Honcharenko, were persecuted by the tsarist regime as the propagators of Ukrainophile sentiments and historical memory. (Kobzars are immortalized in the poetry and drawings of Taras Shevchenko and he titled his poetic works Kobzar.) The few hundred remaining kobzars in Poltava gubernia, Kharkiv gubernia, and Chernihiv gubernia and their artistry aroused the interest of various ethnographers, composers, and painters, including Mykola Lysenko, Oleksander Rusov, Opanas Slastion, Lesia Ukrainka, Klyment Kvitka, Mykola Sumtsov, Vasyl Horlenko, Valeriian Borzhkovskyi, O. Borodai, Filaret Kolessa, and Dmytro Revutskyi. At the 12th Russian Archeological Congress in Kharkiv in 1902, the kobzars Terentii Parkhomenko, H. Honcharenko, Mykhailo Kravchenko, Ivan Kucherenko-Kuchuhura, P. Hashchenko, P. Drevchenko, and I. Netesa, accompanied by , the ‘first seeing kobzar’ (he composed 69 works for the bandura) and the leading authority on kobzar artistry, performed to great acclaim, and the congress participants passed a resolution concerning the great value of the kobzars' art. Government attitudes toward the kobzars softened, and thereafter kobzar concerts became frequent events in many Ukrainian and Russian cities. Bandura schools were established, and in 1907 Khotkevych published the first history and manual of bandura playing; V. Shevchenko's and V. Ovchynnykov's manuals followed in 1914. After the Revolution of 1905 the kobzars again flourished. From 1908 bandura playing was taught at the Lysenko Music and Drama School in Kyiv. The kobzar artistry spread into the Kuban, where it had not existed before. The Kuban kobzars A. Chorny, V. Liashchenko, and D. Darnopykh became famous, and the bandura was introduced into the military orchestras of the Kuban Cossack Host. During the Revolution of 1917 and subsequent Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–1921, kobzars composed and performed songs promoting the Ukrainian national cause and smuggled political literature; many paid for this with their lives. From to 1919 the first Ukrainian banduryst ensemble existed briefly in Kyiv. Under Soviet rule, the State Banduryst Kapelle of Ukraine was established in Kyiv in 1927. The Ethnographic Commission of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences and VUAN Cabinet of

187 Musical Ethnography, particularly the members Klyment Kvitka, Mariia Hrinchenko, and Kateryna Hrushevska, conducted important studies of the kobzars in the 1920s. In 1929 Hryhorii Epik published the novel Zustrich (The Meeting) depicting the persecution of the kobzars. In the 1930s, with forced collectivization, the Famine-Genocide of 1932–1933, and the Stalinist suppression of Ukrainian culture, the kobzars were again repressed. Party directives to create a new socialist folklore and ‘Soviet’ kobzars resulted in the First Republican Conference of Kobzars and Lirnyks in April 1939, sponsored by the Institute of Fine Arts, Folklore, and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Thirty-seven kobzars, including Petro Huz, F. Kushneryk, Yehor Movchan, Pavlo Nosach, Oleksander A. Markevych, Ye. Adamtsevych, S. Avramenko, and Volodymyr Perepeliuk, were brought together to discuss ‘the first examples of Soviet dumas and heroic songs and the task of creating a Soviet epos.’ A number of such examples (eg, ‘Duma about the Communist Party,’ ‘Duma about Lenin’) were composed with the institute's workers and members of the Writers' Union of Ukraine and Union of Composers of Ukraine and performed at the conference's closing concert. The ‘creators’ were immediately inducted into the writers' union, and a Section of Folk Arts was formed in the union to ‘organize systematic creative and methodological assistance for kobzars and lirnyks.’ Yet, as composer Dmitri Shostakovich testifies in his memoirs (Testimony, 1979), several hundred kobzars and lirnyks were brought to the congress from all parts of Ukraine and after the congress ended almost all of them were shot. To hide this tragedy, the Institute of Fine Arts, Folklore, and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR and the Kyiv Philharmonic jointly set up a State Ethnographic Kobzar Ensemble in early 1941, consisting of Yehor Movchan, Pavlo Nosach, Petro Huz, Oleksander A. Markevych, Volodymyr Perepeliuk, and I. Ivanchenko; M. Hrinchenko was appointed artistic director. During its brief existence, the ensemble performed throughout Ukraine and in Moscow until the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. During the Second World War, kobzars fought in the Red Army and various Soviet partisan units (eg, O. Chupryna, S. Vlasko, D. Vovk, A. Bilotsky) and composed military-patriot songs. Since the war, many professional bandurysts (eg, Fedir Zharko, Volodymyr Perepeliuk, and A. Hryshyn) have supplemented the folk kobzars. Bandura playing has been widely taught, and many amateur and professional ensembles have been created. In 1969 a large kobzar concert took place in Kyiv and the Alliance of Folk Bards-Kobzars was formed under the auspices of the Music Society of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1974 the alliance was transformed into a Section of Kobzars and Bandurysts, with professionaland amateur members. In 1975 an artistic council of bandurysts was formed from among its members. Kobzar artistry has been cultivated among Ukrainians in the West, thanks to the efforts of Vasyl Yemets, J. and Hryhorii Kytasty, P. Honcharenko, V. Kachurak, Zinovii Shtokalko, Roman Levytsky, Volodymyr Lutsiv, , and other masters. Various banduryst ensembles exist in many countries in Europe and North America. In New York, Detroit, Chicago, and Toronto, there are bandura schools. Since 1982 the school in New York has published the journal Bandura. In Poland, kobzar artistry has successfully been propagated among Ukrainians through the efforts of A. Khraniuk. In Slovakia, there has been a group of female bandurysts within the Duklia Ukrainian Folk Ensemble in Prešov.

Lirnyks Wandering folk minstrels, often blind, who accompanied themselves on a lira. They appeared in Ukraine in the 15th century and had formed a guild by the end of the 17th century. There were special schools for them. Their repertoire consisted mainly of religious songs, although humorous and satirical songs were also popular. Some lirnyks specialized in historical songs and dumas. The lifestyle of lirnyks (as well as kobzars) is described by N. Kononenko in Ukrainian Minstrels: And the Blind Shall Sing (1998).

188 Duma Lyrico-epic works of folk origin about events in the Cossack period of the 16th–17th century. The dumas differ from other lyrico-epic and historical poetry by their form and by the way in which they were performed. They did not have a set strophic structure, but consisted of uneven periods that were governed by the unfolding of the story. Each period constituted a finished, syntactical whole and conveyed a complete thought. The poem's lines varied in length from 4 to 40 syllables. Rhyme played an important role. Usually the verbs carried the rhyme and in this way bound several lines together. The dumas were not sung, but were performed in recitative to the accompaniment of a bandura, kobza, or lira. The chanting had much in common with funeral lamentation. The poetics of the duma were similar in some ways to that of Serbian epic poetry. Synonym pairs (plache-rydaie, bizhyt-pidbihaie) and standard epithets (buinyi viter, synie more, syva zozulia) were frequently used. Origin. Scholars connect the dumas with the poetic forms that appeared in Ukraine in the 12th century, particularly with the Slovo o polku Ihorevi. One widely accepted theory of the origin of the dumas is that proposed by Pavlo Zhytetsky, according to which they were a unique synthesis of popular and ‘bookish-intellectual’ creativity. The dumas were based on folk songs, modified by the influence of the syllabic poetry produced in the schools of the 16th–17th century. The language of the dumas retains many archaisms and Church Slavonic expressions. The bookish elements could have been introduced into the historical songs by traveling tutors and cantors in the 17th century. Volodymyr Peretts described the dumas as ‘a harmonious synthesis of cultural-individual creativity with folk creativity.’ The dumas were first mentioned by the Polish historian S. Sarnicki, who, in his Annales under the year 1506, mentions that mournful songs – dumas – were composed in honor of two brothers who died during the Wallachian campaign. The dumas arose from the military life of the 16th–17th century. Themes. The dumas can be divided into two thematic cycles. The first and older cycle consists of dumas about the struggle with the Tatars and Turks. Among these the following groups can be distinguished: (1) dumas about Turkish captivity (‘The Escape of the Three Brothers from Azov,’ ‘Marusia Bohuslavka,’ etc); (2) dumas about a Cossack's heroic death (‘ Brothers,’ ‘Ivan Konovchenko,’ ‘Khvedir Bezridny,’ etc.); (3) dumas about the successful liberation of Cossacks from slavery or their return from a campaign (‘Samiilo Kishka,’ ‘Oleksii Popovych,’ ‘Otaman Matiash,’ etc.). In addition, the older group of dumas includes (4) moralizing songs about daily life (‘About the Widow and Her Three Sons,’ ‘About the Brother and Sister,’ etc). All the older dumas are distinguished by their lyrical quality, mournful tone, and profound moral insight. Their linguistic richness and style point to their close connection with the older folk songs, particularly funeral laments. The second cycle consists of dumas about the Cossack-Polish struggle. By content they can be divided into two groups: (1) dumas about the Bohdan Khmelnytsky period (‘Khmelnytsky and Barabash,’ ‘The Battle of Korsun,’ ‘Leases,’ ‘Khmelnytsky's Moldavian Campaign,’ etc) and (2) dumas on social themes (‘The Duma about Handzha Andyber,’ ‘Duma about Cossack Holota's Duel with a Tatar,’ etc). History of collection and scholarship. The collecting and study of dumas has evolved through three periods. During the first period, in the 1820s – 1830s, the earliest collections of Ukrainian folk songs were published by Nikolai Tsertelev, Mykhailo Maksymovych and Platon Lukashevych, and these collections contained the first transcriptions of dumas. In this period no scholarly analysis was attempted. In the second period there was a great surge of interest in dumas. They were widely used by such writers as Taras Shevchenko, Yevhen Hrebinka, Nikolai Gogol, and Panteleimon Kulish. Kulish tried to construct an anthology of dumas in his poem Ukraina od pochatku Vkrainy do bat’ka Khmel’nyts’koho (Ukraine from the Origin of Ukraine to Father Khmelnytsky, 1843). Dumas were collected and published by Amvrosii Metlynsky in Narodnye iuzhno-russkie pesni (South Russian Folk Songs, 1854) and by Kulish in Zapiski o Iuzhnoi Rusi (Notes on Southern Rus’, 1856–1857). In this period many new variants were discovered, and new standards

189 of transcription were established. Scholarly research on dumas was begun, particularly by Mykola Kostomarov. The third period of collection and research came in 1860–1890, and its achievements have retained their validity to this day. Volodymyr Antonovych and Mykhailo Drahomanov's publication of dumas entitled Istoricheskie pesni malorusskogo naroda (The Historical Songs of the Little Russian People, 2 vols, 1874–1875) had an epochal significance. The texts of the dumas were accompanied an extensive historical and comparative-literary commentary. Pavlo Zhytetsky's works were very important. The earliest research on the music of the dumas was done by Mykola Lysenko. In connection with the Twelfth Archeological Conference in Kharkiv in 1902, there was a great increase of interest in the professional duma singers- bandurysts, kobzars, and lirnyks. Research on the dumas reached its scholarly culmination in Kateryna Hrushevska's work Ukraïns’ki narodni dumy (Ukrainian Folk Dumas, 2 vols, 1927–1931). The dumas have been translated into various languages: into Polish by Michaá Grabowski in 1837 and M. Kasjan in 1973, into German by Friedrich Bodenstedt in 1845, into French by A. Rambaud in 1876, and into English by Florence Randal Livesay in 1916. The best and most complete collections were translated into French by Marie Scherrer (1947) and into English by George Tarnawsky and P. Kilina (1979).

Ukraine Wins the Eurovision Song Contest In 2004 Ukraine won the Eurovision Song Contest held in Istanbul, Turkey. The Ukrainian singer Ruslana, a cult figure in Ukraine, accompanied by a group of dancers in warrior costumes gave the audience an eye-catching mix of frenetic dancing, leather costumes and passionate vocals in a song called Wild Dances. Ruslana, one of Ukraine's top stars, grabbed the crown, mustering 280 points from the televoting in the 36 participant countries. It was Ukraine's only second appearance in the 49-year- old pop and rock song festival. Ruslana, the charismatic brunette, and her troupe, dressed in leather and wielding whips, offered a dazzling spectacle inspired by ethnic traditions in the Carpathian mountains of Western Ukraine. "Wild Dances" was taken from her best-selling album of the same name, which was the first ever to go platinum in Ukraine. The song, sung partly in Ukrainian and partly in English, is based on ancient rhythms and dances, mixing rock with ethnic dance music. Her victory came as a reward for a well-organised and quite costly publicity campaign, which saw her touring 14 countries ahead of the contest to promote her tune, equal parts upbeat pop and ethnic music. "All of us are contributing to a positive image of Ukraine. I want my country to open up before you with friendship and hospitality," Ruslana told a news conference after the show. With its victory Ukraine earned the right to stage the 50th Eurovi-sion Contest in 2005. A graduate of the musical conservatory in Lviv, Ruslana has been a well-known figure on the Ukrainian scene since 1996. She is co-author of most of her songs, strongly inspired by Ukrainian folklore, and works alongside her husband and producer Oleksandr Ksenofontov. Ask questions to get these answers. 1. In Turkey. 2. "Wild Dances''. 3. 280 points. 4. On ancient rhythms and dances. 5. 14 countries. 6. Since 1996.

Music Quiz 1. Who are the skomorokhy? 2. What centuries saw the development of polyphonic singing? 3. Where were the first music schools established?

190 4. Where was the first institute of music set up? 5. When did the national rock music reach its apex? 6. What vocal festivals of Ukraine do you know? 7. What international contests named for the Ukrainian composers and performers do you know? 8. Where did S. Krushelnytska study singing? 9. What kind of soprano did she have? 10. What were her world-famous roles? 11. What is V. Ivasiuk best known for? 12. Where was M. Lysenko born? 13. What degree did he graduate the university with? 14. Where did he open his own school of music and drama? 15. What operas by Lysenko do you know? 16. What educational establishment did M. Leontovych graduate from? 17. What does his musical heritage consist of? 18. Where did S. Hulak-Artemovskyi come from? 19. What kind of voice did he have? 20. What theatres did he sing at? 21. What song by P. Maiboroda has become a symbol of Ukraine? 22. What stage portraits did O. Petrusenko create? 23. Who is the author of the song "Wild Dances"?

Theme 10 Ukrainian folklore. Folk dress. National food – 2 hours

Plan 1 Ukrainian folklore - Folk Dance - Folk songs - Vechernytsi - Koliada - Kupalo festival - Folk musical instruments 2 Folk dress - Ukrainian Traditional Dress Folk dress Quiz 3 National food - National Ukrainian Food: general information - Ukrainian national cuisine – Dinner is served - Borsch, Varenyky, Salo - Food and Meals Food Quiz

1 Ukrainian folklore Folk Dance The dances are classified as circular and topical, the latter including dances that reflect folkways, occupational and humorous dances, and others. The majority of Ukrainian folk dances closely resemble the circular dance types but are enriched by figurative intricacies; the pair and solo dances evolved from this type. The circular dances are accompanied by a song. The , which features physical strength and almost acrobatic agility, is the most popular dance. Its theme is a youth's wooing of a girl. The youth executes the dance in order to gain the girl's favour.

191 The hopak is an original Ukrainian folk dance of an improvised nature. Its name is derived from hopaty: 'to leap and stamp one's feet.' It arose as a male dance at the Zaporozhian Sich in the 16th century and gradually spread throughout Ukraine, particularly through the Kyiv region. As it spread it became transformed into a group dance performed by couples with males retaining the lead role. It has several variants: a solo dance, a group and couple dance, and in Western Ukraine a circular dance (hopak-kolo). Its charm and attractiveness lie in the hopak's freedom of improvisation, which allows individual dancers to display their talents within a larger dance group. The basic male movements are leaps, squats, stretches on the ground and in the air, and various turns; the female movements are quick steps, bends, and turns. Solo performances in the hopak often involve a competition in virtuosity. Complex acrobatic movements are common in stage arrangements of the dance. The hopak is the culminating dance in the repertoire of almost all Ukrainian dance ensembles. Hopak melodies often appear in classical music. Ukrainian folk dances, unlike those of other peoples, were not affected strongly by court dances. Therefore they preserved their virtuosity and originality for a longer period of time. It should be emphasised that the female in Ukrainian folk dances has a dignified role; she dances gracefully and behaves modestly; she may at times act flirtatiously, but she always expresses her feelings in a restrained manner. The esthetic beauty and originality of the Ukrainian folk dances are augmented by the colourful folk costumes of the dancers and the melodic musical accompaniment.

Folk songs The song is one of the oldest and most prevalent forms of folklore. It unites a poetic text with a melody. The poetic imagery determines the character and emotive quality of the melody. Songs usually have a well-defined strophic structure: all stanzas are set to the same melody as the first stanza. Each stanza is often followed by a refrain. Folk songs are usually monodic choral songs, but Ukrainian folk songs are exceptional for their rich polyphony. The folk songs express the common experience of the Ukrainian people: all the important events in life from the cradle to the grave are accompanied by song. By their content and function folk songs can be divided into four basic groups: (1) ritual songs, such as carols (koliadky and shchedrivky), spring songs, songs about (rusalka songs), and Kupalo festival songs; (2) harvest songs and wedding songs; (3) historical songs and political songs, such as dumas and ballads; and (4) lyrical songs, such as family songs, social class songs, and love songs (such as ‘Povii vitre na Vkrainu’ [Blow, Wind, into Ukraine] or ‘Oi, ziidy, ziidy, iasen misiatsiu’ [Rise, Bright Moon]). Chumak songs (such as ‘Oi, u poli krynychenka’ [A Well in the Field] or ‘Huliav chumak na rynochku’ [A Chumak Caroused in the Market]), recruits' and soldiers' songs (such as ‘Ikhav kozak na viinonku’ [A Cossack Was Going Away to War]), wanderers' songs, and cradle songs belong to separate groups. Together these genres of folk song encompass the variegated life of the Ukrainian people. The universal content and the artful clarity of expression of Ukrainian folk songs account for their survival for many centuries. In many songs – historical, social – the epic and lyrical elements form an organic unity. In Ukrainian folk songs nature manifests human emotions. Poetic parallelism is one of the oldest devices of the lyrical song. In later songs the parallelism of contradiction is found. In lyrical songs poetic images or symbols are very common. Bird symbolism is very popular. The eagle or falcon is the symbol of manliness, power, beauty, courage, and freedom. The dove symbolizes feminity. The sea gull is the symbol of the suffering mother. Many symbols are derived from the plant world, for example, the viburnum tree represents the girl, and the oak represents the boy. In songs similes predominate: a girl is compared to a star, a red viburnum tree, a pine tree, and a poppy; a boy is compared to an oak, a maple, and a pigeon. Favorite tropes of the Ukrainian folk song include the standard epithet, repetition, antithesis, hyperbole, and metaphor. A vehicle

192 often employed in lyrical songs to express emotion is the dramatic dialogue. In some folk songs assonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia are also used. Folk songs have provided inspiration for many Ukrainian composers, such as Semen Hulak- Artemovsky, Mykola Arkas, Mykola Lysenko, Mykola Leontovych, Stanyslav Liudkevych, Kyrylo Stetsenko, Yakiv Stepovy, and Heorhii Maiboroda. The famous Russian composers Peter Tchaikovsky, M. Glinka, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Serge Rachmaninoff collected, arranged, and used Ukrainian folk melodies widely in their works. ***Marusia Bohuslavka is the main character in a renowned Ukrainian duma of the same name. The heroine is a priest's daughter from Bohuslav who, enslaved by the Turks, renounces her faith and wins her master's trust. On Holy Saturday, when the pasha is away, she frees 700 Cossacks from the dungeon. There is no evidence that Marusia existed; she became a common image in Ukrainian literature and the subject of several novels and plays and a ballet.

Vechernytsi (aka vechornytsi, dosvitky, priadky, popriakhy, odenky). Evening or night gatherings of young men and women, usually at the home of a childless widow, an otamansha, who was responsible for keeping moral standards and order on such occasions. The girls paid her for use of the house's fuel and food and sometimes for her labor. The vechernytsi season lasted from the end of the fieldwork in the fall until Lent. There were two types of gatherings: working vechernytsi, at which the young women spun or embroidered, and recreational vechernytsi, with music and dancing. The latter gatherings usually took place just before or during a holiday. Vechernytsi often began with work and ended with eating, games, singing, and dancing. In some localities the young men and women stayed all night, sleeping in pairs on the straw-covered floor. The chief purpose of the vechernytsi was to enable the participants to work in a group and to enable young people who lived in remote parts of the village or on distant farmsteads to become acquainted with each other. During the work the participants told stories and anecdotes, shared the latest news, sang folk songs, and told fortunes. Most courtships, leading eventually to marriage, began at such gatherings. For this reason the community tolerated a certain amount of sexual freedom at vechernytsi. The church, however, regarded them as sinful and opposed them. When factory products made home production, particularly spinning, obsolete, the vechernytsi lost their work-related function and became simply recreational. During the Soviet period they virtually disappeared and were replaced by dances in the village clubs or buildings of culture. The vechernytsi are frequently described in Ukrainian literature and staged in theater.

Koliada The name of a cycle of Ukrainian winter rituals stemming from ancient Greek kalandai and the Roman calendae. In Christian times it has been performed between Christmas Eve (6 January) and Epiphany (19 January). The koliada incorporated certain fall harvest rituals (such as the laying out of harvested produce and the bringing in of the last grain sheaf to the house), livestock-fertility rituals (the feeding of bread, garlic, and rose hips to livestock, feeding chickens in a chain, bringing a lamb into the house), and spring rituals (the sowing of grain, the plowing of furrows, and visiting with the koza). It was believed to be a personification capable of influencing the future harvest. Thus arose the customs of ‘calling koliada to partake in the Christmas kutia’and the ‘shooing away of koliada.’ The koliada cycle was a time of general merriment, during which generous helpings of food (9 or 12 dishes) were consumed. Even the poorest of families tried to maintain the eating ritual. The visiting of each other's homes and gift giving, particularly among family members but also among neighbors, were customary. Since koliada rituals were originally pagan, the church tried to supplant them with Christian ones. Many rituals of koliada were incorporated in the celebration of Christmas and persist until today.

193 Kupalo festival (also Kupailo, Ivan Kupalo). A Slavic celebration of ancient pagan origin marking the end of the summer solstice and the beginning of the harvest (midsummer). In the western Ukrainian Lemko region and Prešov region it was called Sobitka. In Christian times, the church tried to suppress the tradition, substituting it with the feast day of the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist (24 June), but it remained firmly part of folk ritual as the festival of Ivan (John, from Saint John) Kupalo. Kupalo was believed to be the god of love and of the harvest and the personification of the earth's fertility. According to popular belief, ‘Kupalo eve’ (‘Ivan's eve’) was the only time of the year when the earth revealed its secrets and made ferns bloom to mark places where its treasures were buried, and the only time when trees spoke and even moved and when witches gathered. It was also the only time of the year when free love received popular sanction. On the eve unmarried young men and women gathered outside the village in the forest or near a stream or pond. There they built ‘Kupalo fires’ – a relic of the pagan custom of bringing sacrifice – around which they performed ritual dances and sang ritual songs, often erotic. They leaped over the fires, bathed in the water (an act of purification), and played physical games with obviously sexual connotations. The fires were also used to burn herbs gathered in the previous year and various items of no further use, particularly those that had been blessed with holy water and could therefore not be discarded by normal means. The fires were never extinguished, but were always allowed to smolder out. On the eve female participants wore scented herbs and flowers to attract the males and adorned their hair with garlands of freshly cut flowers. Later they divined their fates according to what happened to the garlands which they had sent flowing on the water. An integral part of the festivities was a supper of eggs, varenyky, and liquor. An anthropomorphic effigy of Kupalo or a decorated sapling representing him was burned, drowned, buried, or torn apart and scattered in the fields as a symbol of the impending decline in the earth's fertility. In some regions Kupalo was represented by a wheel laced with dry grasses or straw, which was set on fire and rolled down a hill as a symbol of the declining life-giving powers of the sun after the solstice. The representation of Kupalo was frequently identified with Kostrub, the pagan god of winter, or with Marena, the goddess of spring. Magical properties were ascribed to the plants and herbs gathered on Kupalo eve. It was believed that such herbs could protect one from the evil forces of nature and even cure illnesses in humans and animals. Local priests seemingly sanctioned this belief by blessing the herbs in church on the day of the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist. On the morning of that day girls washed themselves with the dew that had fallen on Kupalo eve, which they collected in a bowl left outside overnight, and ran barefoot through the bedewed fields in the belief that doing so would accelerate their opportunity to get married. The sick would roll naked in the dewy meadows in the belief that this action would help them get well, and farmers would run their cattle through such meadows in the belief that this routine would prevent disease. Written references to the festival date from the 11th century. Its origins are much earlier, however. On a 4th-century calendar pot found in the middle-Dnieper region once inhabited by the Slavic Polianians, for example, the time of the festival was already marked by two crosses. The term ‘Kupalo’ was itself first mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle under the year 1262. In medieval and early-modern church documents – eg, ‘The Sermon of Saint John Chrysostom’ and the ‘Epistle of Hegumen Pamphil’ of Pskov Monastery (1515) – there are fairly detailed descriptions of the lascivious festivities. Despite the efforts of the church and secular rulers – eg, Hetman Ivan Skoropadsky issued a decree in 1719 categorically forbidding it, and many similar decrees were later issued – the tradition proved too old and too well rooted to disappear. By the late 19th century most of the pagan beliefs connected with the Kupalo rituals had vanished, but the festival was still widely celebrated to mark the beginning of the harvest. As a theme it has figured in the writings of Nikolai Gogol, Mykhailo Starytsky, Lesia Ukrainka, Olha Kobylianska, and Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky, in the music of Mykola Lysenko and Anatol Vakhnianyn, in the paintings of Olena Kulchytska, and in an early film by Danylo Sakhnenko.

194 Folk musical instruments Folk musical instruments were usually homemade and played by folk musicians. They can be divided into three basic groups: 1) string instruments (psaltimer, bandura or kobza, violin, viol, lira; 2) wind instruments (reed, bagpipe, trembita) and 3) percussion instruments (drum, tambourine, kettledrum, cymbals, bells, and rattles). The most popular instruments in Ukraine were the bandura. sopilka, violin, and dulcimer. Folk musical instruments were used primarily at dances and fc ɿ marching (eg, the wedding march), as accompaniment to popular plays (vertep), or for simple listening enjoyment. Dance music was often played by one instrument (usually the violin) or by a small ensemble (violin and drum). The classic folk ensemble known as iroisti muzyky originated probably in the 17th century and consisted of a violin, drum, and dulcimer or bass viol. About the same time orchestras appeared. They eventually played for the peasants in the form of an ensemble of twe violins, bass, and flute. In Polissia and Podillia brass orchestras were popular. Imitating military and earlier Cossack bands, they consist: of two to three (cornels), , two alto horns, a tenor , a baritone, drum, and brass cymbals. Odd one out 1. Groups of folk musical instruments: string, drum, wind, percussion 2. The most popular folk instruments: bandura, violin, reed, trembita, dulcimer 3. The "troisti muzyky": violin, drum, flute, bass, viol 4. The orchestra: dulcimer, two violins, bass, flute

2 Folk dress Ukrainian Traditional Dress The array of the Ukrainian traditional clothing is characterized by wide regional and ethnic diversity. Even adjacent villages displayed dissimilarity let alone Hutsul, Lemkiv or Rusyn styles; secondly, the multiformity is the effect of neighborhood other ethnoses and ethnic groups. Thus, the border territories of Polissia, Volyn, Lemkivschyna, Boikivschyna, Hutsulschyna, and Bukovyna manifest variations of the traditional dress formed under the Polish and Romanian influence as well as that of Southern Slavs, Hungarians, peoples of the Caucasus, especially of Circassians. The conception of traditional dress is related to the region of Central Ukraine just as the present-day standard Ukrainian language that also has formed in the region. To arrive to its present appearance the Ukrainian traditional dress has passed a long way with some of the elements remaining intact since the times of ancient Slavs. For instance, in this manner was inherited the most widespread garment – a long shirt decorated with embroidered magic ornament with a waistband. Incidentally, embroidery is the major adornment of the traditional used primarily to decorate underclothing, that is, male and female shirts, as well as supplementary items such as waistbands. Embroidery always enclosed certain information, It allowed to read where the shirt came from (since each of the regions had its favorite combination of colors), gender (for instance, the sleeves of a female shirt were wide narrowing into a densely embroidered cuff at the wrist in contrast to a male with sleeves often made straight), approximate age of an owner and function of the garment: it could be intended for everyday wear, festive or marriage purpose, etc. Over their blouse females of the central part of Ukraine wore zapaska, a piece of fabric wrapped around torso, on weekdays, leaving plakhta, a type of shirt made of two widths of woolen cloth, for holidays to be slashed by kraika, a belt of multicolored coarse woolen thread fringed. Since both plakhta and kraika did not meet in front, an apron embroidered to match in color was

195 worn. Besides the colored kraika belts narrow linen towels decorated with red bands were also used being the obligatory item of attire for a bride during wedding. waist or knee long made of fine woolen fabric, velvet or silk was worn over the shirt. Boots of morocco preferably of red color were the favorite woman’s festive footwear. Girls chose to wear shoes of brocade while lapti (bast shoes) and postoly (footwear of one-piece leather) were seen as sign of indigence treated with respected nowhere in Ukraine except northern regions of Polissia and Carpathians, where they were widespread. Colorful bands and glass beads (necklaces) complemented the attire adding festive mood to it. Often side by side with the necklace a circlet of coins was worn on the neck. The traditional male clothes comprise a shirt, pants or sharovary (baggy ), sleeveless jacket (a sort of a ), waistband and boots. The white male shirt with the passage of ages has changed its appearance from the one knee-long and worn outside trousers to become a short one with embroidered collar and cuffs at the end of sleeves, and tucked into pants. It had mid-chest cut with loops made of silk cord or ribbon for fastening. Sometimes a male corset resembling a vest was worn girded by a waistband. Historically, it originated from the Cossack pidzhupannyk. Concerning the pants, there were two types of them since times immemorial: the narrow trousers and sharovary. The former are sewn to a belt and buttoned, while the latter is girded with ochkur ( a belt or lace). Each of the types of pants corresponds to a certain type of a shirt: narrow trousers are worn with a long shirt outside, while the tuck-in shirt is matched with sharovary. The indispensable item of the masculine attire was also the waistband made of silk, cotton or wool, multicolored and decorated with tassels. Girded were not only sharovary, but upper garments – zhupan, svyta, and, sometimes, kozhukh too. The basic footwear for men were black boots, however among the inhabitants of mountain regions the so-called morshentsi or khodaky, leather sole with the edge tied up on the leg with a rope or bast fiber or strap, were widespread. In the woody locations lychaky were made of bast, and cherevyky (a very old kind of footwear) were widespread throughout Ukraine. In winter, both males and females dressed into kozkukh made of curried sheepskin. Several options existed for warmer weather, that is, svyta, a dress made of thick wool material, colorfully dyed, and decorated by embroidery or applique; a lighter keptar of Huzuls; and zhupan of the central part of Ukraine originating during the Cossack period. Now and then, kuntush could be met, which is also dated back to 16th century. To complete the general picture of the traditional national costume one should add the headwear and hairstyle. The mail haircuts were limited to u kruzhok (circled), do zakabluka, pid skobku (cut even around the head), and a la Pole. Hat, (not seen as clothing for poor), or kuchma (headgear made of caracultcha) were worn. Maids walked bareheaded which marked the state of being pure. Having lost virginity, a girl had to cover the head by pokrytka meaning "coverage". A plait was something a girl took pride in, whose traditional costume also included a wreath of flowers often furnished with ribbons. Not necessarily a married woman cut her hair, but she always covered her head with a kerchief, namitka or ochipok (a kind of bonnet worn by married woman). The headwear being seen as the principal element of female dress, the manners and ways kerchiefs or namitka were bound are highly intricate and varied.

Folk dress Quiz 1. What do folk songs express? 2. What poetic images and symbols are common in Ukrainian folk songs? 3. What is a girl compared to in folk songs? 4. Who was Marusia Bohuslavka? 5. What genres does folk oral literature comprise? 6. How are folk dances classified? 7. What are the basic male and female movements in the hopak?

196 8. What basic groups are folk instruments divided into? 9. What are the most popular folk instruments in Ukraine? 10. What instruments does the ensemble "troisti muzyky" consist of? 11. What are characteristic folk clothes in your region?

3 National Food National Ukrainian Food: general information had been formed by the middle of the 18th century. Ukrainian national recipes were significantly influenced by neighboring Polish, Byelorussian and German kitchens. Such a late formation is related to the late formation of the modern Ukrainian ethnos. Ancient Russ cuisine impact on the Ukrainian one is hardly observed as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasions, when the connection was lost for a considerable period of time.

Ukrainian national cuisine – Dinner is served Ukrainian cuisine is marked by often use of eggs, flour and vegetables. The most popular vegetables are potatoes, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, red beet, carrots, pumpkins, corn. Ukrainian cuisine folk recipes actively use such spices as garlic, onion, caraway, mint, angelica, chilly pepper, savory, cinnamon and bay leaf. Borsch (tomato soup with red beet and cabbage) Ukrainian cuisine is very popular among other Slavs. Many dishes like vareniki and borsch are now considered as international. Modern Ukrainian cuisine’s traditions were formed in the 19th century together with Ukraine’s contemporary bordering. Despite this now we can see some specific distinctions among cuisines of Volyn, Poltavschina, Zakarpatye and Bukovyna regions of Ukraine. Thus, Ukrainian cuisine is united by several common principles of choosing food and cooking. Varenyky (dumplings with different stuff inside: meat, country cheese, potatoes, stewed ɫabbages, fruits). Ukrainian cuisine has also imbibed some traits of German, Hungarian, Turkish and Tatar. For example, the father of well-known varenyky is a Turkish dish dyush-var. Ukrainians borrowed German technique of meat chopping and Ukrainians call it minced meat. Salo (pork's fat). Ukrainian cookery was also influenced by politics of early national-hood formation period of Ukraine. Versus or athwart Turks, who do not eat pork due to their religion Ukrainian Cossacks were fond of this meat, moreover they have created a cult out of pork's fat. But at the same time they fully refused to eat truly "muslim" dish – eggplants.

Ukrainian Borsch It is probably borsch that could be regarded one of the principle Ukrainian culinary inventions, something like pizza for the Italians or goose liver for the French. Soups were among the earliest dishes invented. They were cooked with a lot of herbs, vegetables and edible roots, and at one point a soup which had more beets than other ingredients came to be called "borsch" since the name of the beets was "ɛɶɪɳ" (bershtch). There are three basic varieties of the soup which is traditionally called borsch – "red" borsch (with beets), "green" borsch (with sorrel or similar herbs) and "cold" borsch (soup served cold). Most of the borsch varieties are served with sour cream added. Some varieties are cooked with kvas, buttermilk or whey added. In the nineteenth century, with tomatoes becoming a wide- spread garden vegetable, they and their juice were used in making borsch with an increasing frequency. In some regions beans were one of the ingredients; in others flour or buckwheat were added, and in the land of Poltava borsch was served with halushky. During Lent and other fasting periods, no meat stock or meat were used in cooking borsch, only sunflower oil, with mushrooms, cured or air-dried fish (or fresh fish) added. Borsch was a dish that could be served as an everyday meal, or a dish specially cooked for holidays and other festive occasions.

197 "Green" borsch is usually cooked in the spring, with young nettles, sorrel, beet leaves, with boiled eggs and sour cream liberally added. "Cold" borsch is mostly a summer dish, with some vegetables added raw; only the beets are boiled. It is served cold with bread or boiled potatoes. There are many recipes for cooking borsch. In fact, probably every land of Ukraine has its own way of making borsch. Besides, everyone who cooks borsch may use her or his own cooking ideas. In spite of great varieties of borsch there arc some recipes which are more or less universal in Ukraine. Here is one of them. Cold borsch with sturgeon Simmer spinach gently in a small amount of salted water; strain and rub through a sieve; place in a saucepan, add 20 boiled and cleaned crayfish tails, chopped cucumbers with the skin pealed, chopped onions, chopped parsley, and diced boiled sturgeon. Stir well, pour bread kvas over the ingredients and leave the saucepan in a cold place for a couple of hours. Ingredients: 400 grams of sturgeon; 600 grams of spinach; 20 crayfish tails; 5 cucumbers; 1 onion; 2 tablespoonfuls of chopped parsley and dill; 6 cups of bread kvas. Odd one out 1. The earliest soups were cooked with a lot of herbs, beets, pumpkins and carrots. 2. There are some varieties of borsch – red borsch, green borsch, cold borsch and sorrel borsch. 3. Among the borsch ingredients are raw beets, beans, halushky and tomato juice. 4. During Lent borsch can be cooked with mushrooms, meat, fish or sunflower oil. 5. Cooking cold borsch with sturgeon you should wash, boil, peal and chop cucumbers.

Food and Meals "Traditionally, the first meal when at home is called snidanok (breakfast), the second meal is called obid (dinner), the third one is poluden’ (afternoon snack), the fourth one is pidvechirok (snack before supper), and the fifth meal is vecheria (lit., evening meal, supper)". When invited, visitors always made it for the dinner. For the hosts, it was a matter of honour to treat their guests to the full with both food and drinks, inviting them to savour every dish. A common invitation was, "I humbly ask you to help yourselves, as a kindness to us! Welcome to all we have. Forgive us if the food is scanty". No visitor could excuse themselves from tasting every dish offered. Hrechanyky are buckwheat pancakes or perepichky (rolls, podplomyki, a simple kind of flat bread). Batter for buckwheat pancakes was prepared with sourdough oryeast with an addition of at least a quarter of rye or wheat flour, some egg and whey (or milk, or water). The batter was whipped similarly to making pancakes and left to rise double. Then the batter was poured into the preheated frying-pan to spread evenly making big hrechanyky. Hrechanyky were served with cracklings, milk, curdled milk, or sour cream. In the vicinity of Poltava, though, they refer the name "hrechanyky" to varenyky, stuffed dumplings of unleavened buckwheat dough. Halushky, a traditional variety of thick, soft dumplings, or gnocchi, can be made from unleavened dough mixed with egg and water or whey. The dough is rolled out with a rolling pin to a thickness of 1 – 1.5 cm and cut with a knife into sausages. Then, the sausages are cut into smaller pieces and dropped into salted boiling water (or boiling milk, or meat or vegetable broth). In central Ukraine, halushky were cooked almost every day, mostly for supper. Kysil' (kissel, a viscous fruit drink) is one of the oldest Slavic dishes. In old recipes, oat grain was roasted, milled, and sifted off. The flour was then diluted with boiling water and cooled to lukewarm temperature; a lump of bread was added to the mixture and left overnight, in a warm place, to ferment. The concoction then acquired a sourish taste, hence the name "kysil' " (lit.: something sour). Kysil' can be seasoned with ground poppy seeds, berries and fruit. It was consumed fresh at one seating, as it was not before long that the water would surface. Incidentally, because of that tendency of kysil' the phrase "the seventh water on kysil'" came denote someone's distant relative.

198 Kvasha is a dish made of buckwheat and / or rye flour with malt, reminiscent of thick kysil'. The most common recipe was as follows: rye flour was steamed with a kettleful of hot water, and left for a day in a warm place, i.e., on the pick, to ferment and soak with malt till "the bubbles looked like necklace beads". Then, a kettleful of cold water and pshono (millet), ground with a rolling pin into flour, was added and the mixture was boiled till the kvasha became red. For an extra flavor, dried fruit (cherries and/ or prunes) could be added. In some locations, they made kvasha with solodushka (sugar beet root syrup). Oksha or tokshyna (noodles). In the time of fasting, lokshyna, which otherwise was mixed with milk, egg and soda, was cooked on water. The dough was kneaded, rolled out into a thin layer and shredded into thin strips to dry out in the oven for a long storage. Lokshynawas often addec into kandior, a thin millet broth. Varenukha is a non-alcoholic or low-alcohol beverage made on the basis of stewed fruit, mainly, dried pears and prunes, aged for a night, and strained before adding red hot pepper (to take one's breath away), mint, thyme, oregano and, if possible, overseas spices such as cloves, cinnamon, allspice or Jamaican pepper. Then, the concoction was laden with honey and simmered in the pich; served hot or cool. Some enthusiasts would add a little horilka. Read the text and complete the task: - Make a report on the topic "Traditional Ukrainian Food". Ukrainian cuisine is varied and rich in taste and nutritional value. Its development was influenced by the same factors as the development of material culture: geography and climatic conditions, plant cultivation and animal domestication, technological change, cultural influences, and economic relations with other countries. Since ancient times Ukrainians have practiced a settled form of life based on farming. Archaeological evidence shows that wheat, barley, and millet were grown in Ukraine 3,000 years ago. Rye was introduced about 2,000 years ago, and then buckwheat was imported from Asia in the 11th century AD. Already at that time cattle, sheep, hogs and poultry were raised. Beekeeping, hunting and fishing were practiced. The exceptional fertility of Ukraine’s soil and its climate were favourable for the development of agriculture, which had a marked influence on the type of food eaten by Ukrainians. It is evident from the chronicles and other sources that even in Kyiv Rus’ food was choice, varied and plentiful. There were professional cooks at princely courts and monasteries, and in the homes of wealthy families. Until the 17th and 18th centuries, the Ukrainian cuisine was mostly characterized by peasant and rural made dishes. Simple and economical soups, without much ornament and very easy to cook meals were the main parts of the Ukrainian diet. Things changed when the tsars began calling French and Italian chefs to cook for their banquets and celebrations. The luxury and festive style of the dishes prepared by foreign chefs soon began to influence the existing Ukrainian cuisine. Although most dishes were kept in their traditional form, modern variations of those dishes are present in most Ukrainian homes today. New spices and herbs were used to improve the flavour of the existing traditional Ukrainian dishes and today you shouldn’t be surprised to find plants that are not characteristic to Ukraine used in traditional, home made dishes. There are no distinguishable cuisine types in Ukraine, but a variety of different influences can be noticed by a careful eye. The neighbouring countries have influenced the Ukrainian cuisine, much as the Ukrainian cuisine influences the regional and national cuisines of the neighbours. The Lviv or Lutsk regions of Ukraine, for example, display a cuisine that resembles the Polish cuisine, with pork meat being the main ingredient for most dishes. The north-eastern provinces, such as Sumy, Kharkiv or Luhansk show influences from the Russian cuisine, while the southern part of Ukraine has several recipes that are specific to Moldova and Romania. Since ancient times bread has held a special primary position in the cuisine of the Ukrainian people. Long ago the grain for flour was ground manually between two rounded grindstones. Then, beginning in the 13th century, water mills and windmills appeared.

199 Today flour milling is highly developed. As milling technology was improved, white flour was produced by repeated grinding and sifting. This type of flour is used in baking white-wheat bread or light-rye bread. Besides ordinary bread Ukrainians bake various ritual breads from special dough: the braided bread (kalach), Easter bread (paska), wedding bread (korovai), sweet bread (babka) and egg bread (bulka). Ukrainian bread with its many variations has become quite famous. Cooked or baked cereal – whether wheat, barley, buckwheat, millet, oats, or corn grits – is an ancient Ukrainian food. The most commonly eaten cereals are buckwheat (kasha), millet, and in the Hutsul and Transcarpathian regions, cornmeal (mamalyha). The same grits boiled in water or milk to produce a thin gruel is called yushka; a thicker gruel of millet is called kulish. In recent times rice has been added to the list of cooked cereals. There are also dishes prepared by boiling dough. The favourite dish made of flour is filled dumplings (varenyky) with various types of filling: cheese, potato, cabbage, meat, fish, buckwheat. Potato is the most widely used vegetable in Ukrainian cooking. It is a necessary ingredient in all soups, particularly borsch and cabbage soup. Boiled or baked potatoes are served alone or with meat, fish, cheese, cabbage, mushrooms, and so on. Another important element in Ukrainian cooking is cabbage, particularly sauerkraut, which is used to make cabbage soup (kapusniak) or is served with meat or potatoes. Other vegetables such as onions, garlic, carrots, radishes and cucumber are frequently eaten raw. Sunflower and pumpkin seeds are usually dry-fried. In the Ukrainian tradition a soup or borsch must be served with dinner. Various soups – made with meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, or milk – are popular, but borsch remains the favourite. It is made of vegetables, among which beets and cabbage are predominant, and meat or fish stock. Meat is usually eaten on feast days, Sundays, or at family celebrations. The most popular meat is pork and its products, such as ham, sausage (kovbasa), blood sausage (kyshka), smoked bacon and salt pork. Foods prepared with milk, dairy products, and eggs have long been a part of Ukrainian cooking. Soured milk is a favourite drink throughout Ukraine; a variant of this is riazhanka, made by souring boiled milk with sour cream. Cottage cheese is eaten mixed with sour cream or as a filling in varenyky or pyrohy. Fruit and berries, when in season, are eaten fresh or made into custards (kysil) and compotes. There are significant regional variations in Ukrainian cuisine that resulted the availability of different agricultural products, foreign influences, or even the conservatism of the common people in regard to change. Omplete the following sentences on the basis of the information given in the text: 1. Ukrainian cuisine is noted for... 2. Ukrainian dishes have been devised from .... 3. Ukrainian borsch has .... 4. Many meat and fish dishes are ... 5. Especially tasty are ... 6. Cutlets "a la Kyiv" are ... 7. Ukrainian national cuisine is rich in ... 8. Ukrainian national drinks are ... 9. The invention of new dishes is ... 10. The national essence of Ukrainian dishes has been preserved despite ... Read the text. Make a list of the special equipment used for cooking in Ukraine Here are a few of the equipment items you might find in a Ukrainian kitchen: cake pans, can openers, colanders, egg rings, poachers and holders, food dishes and portioners, food pans and food containers to other kitchen utensils, such as food scales, food scoops and fryer baskets and accessories. The Ukrainian cuisine needs a diverse cooking equipment set in order to produce the most sophisticated Ukrainian dishes, but the traditional recipes can be cooked with only a fire source and a few pots and pans.

200 Essential utensils like serving spoons, spatulas, forks, turners, scrapers and tongs should also be part of your cooking "toolbox", especially if you are determined to make the most out of any meal you prepare and serve. Here are a few other items that will come handy while cooking Ukrainian food: juicers, kitchen knives, kitchen slices, kitchen thermometers, measuring cups and measuring spoons, miscellaneous utensils, mixing bowls and skimmers and strainers. All of the enumerated items can and will be useful at some point, but they are more likely to be specific to restaurants, rather than traditional Ukrainian homes. Read the text and complete the task The food industry occupies one of the lead position in Ukraine’s economy and accounts for three-fourths of all retail goods turnover. Ukraine boosts over 22,000 enterprises operating in the food processing industry. This sector includes such branches as flour-milling, sugar, liquor and sugar distilling, brewing, confectionary, dairy, fishing, meat processing, starch-and-syrup, wine- making, canning, salt and others. Ukraine’s food industry has witnessed strong growth over the past several years thanks to surging domestic consumer demand. In 2006, consumer spending on food and beverages increased to $17 billion, representing 20.6% of gross domestic product. Since 2001, Ukraine has more than doubled its output of domestically produced food products. Food processing ranks among the fastest growing domestic industries. The highest growth is posted by vegetable products, beverages and dairy products all of which are targeting both domestic sales and export. In 2006, exports accounted for 10.8% of domestic food production, which represented 3.7% of Ukraine’s total exports. In some segments, however, such as dairy production, exports accounted for 48% of total production. The Ukrainian food sector’s competitive environment is mixed. Of the country’s 1,500 meat processing companies, the top ten producers account for about 40% of total output. Of more than 3,000 baking and milling companies, the largest 20 control about 40% of the market. And of more than 100 non-alcoholic beverage companies, the top ten control 60% of the market. In the cheese segment, which consumes half of total milk output, the top ten producers account for about 50% of total output. But competition is much stronger in sunflower oil processing, confectionary, brewing, milk and ice-cream and distillery segments. Per capita consumption of most food staples in Ukraine is still below the corresponding average figures for developed countries. The rise in consumer spending and domestic consumption combined with growth in agricultural and food exports will continue to provide a strong impetus to food processors. The industry is expected to grow faster than other sectors. 1. Make a report on the food industry of Ukraine. 2. Complete the following sentences. - Ukrainian’s food industry accounts for ______- There are ______food enterprises in Ukraine. - The food industry includes ______- The industry has shown ______- Exports account for ______- Competition is strong in______- The food industry is expected to ______3. Answer the questions - What does the food industry involve? - What does the term food industry cover? - What activities did food production include in the past? - What does the modern food industry rely on? - What does the food industry include? - Does the food industry offer good opportunities for employment? What are they?

201 Food Quiz 1. What can you say about Ukrainian hospitality? 2. What is NOT considered bad luck in Ukrainian culture? 3. What factors influenced the development of the Ukrainian cuisine? 4. What grain crops did the ancient Ukrainians grow? 5. What was the food in the times of Kyiv Rus like? 6. Did foreign cuisines influence the Ukrainian one? 7. Are there any distinguishable cuisine types in Ukraine nowadays? 8. What holds a special primary position in the cuisine of the Ukrainian people? 9. What cereals are commonly eaten by the Ukrainians? 10. Potato is the mostly widely used vegetable in Ukraine, isn’t it? 11. What other vegetables are used in Ukrainian cooking? 12. What is borsch made of? 13. What is the most popular meat? 14. Do the Ukrainian people consume milk and its products? 15. In what way are fruit and berries eaten? 16. What is a typical breakfast in Ukraine? 17. What is the main meal of the day? 18. What does the main meal consist of? 19. When do the Ukrainian people have supper? What does it usually include? 20. What is the difference between meals and meal-times in England and Ukraine? 21. Do the national Ukrainian dishes differ from the English ones? 22. In Ukrainian cuisine, what is babka? 23. Do you know any typical meals from the Ukraine? 24. What do you think influences a country's food? 25. What influences the food in country? 26. Paska is a type of bread eaten during which holiday? 27. What other method of Potato Oladkyi cooking do you know? 28. What Ukrainian dish made from cabbage? 29. Ukrainian famous drink ____? 30. Ukrainian soup ______? 31. The fish that fill with water ______? 32. Milk fermented by both yeast and lactobacillus bacteria and having a similar taste to yoghurt______?

Theme 11 Painting. Sculpture. Architecture – 2 hours

Plan 1 Painting - Vasyl Kasiian - Socialist realism in soviet Ukrainian art - Ukrainian artists of the shistdesiatnyky generation - Ukrainian nonconformist (unofficial) art in the ussr (1960s–1980s) - Nonconformist art - Marchuk Ivan Painting Quiz 2 Sculpture - Pinzel Johann Georg - Martos Ivan - Balavensky Fedir - Archipenko Alexander

202 - Kavaleridze Ivan - Borodai Vasyl 3 Architecture - Temple architecture - Monasteries - Masterpieces of rococo architecture in Ukraine

1 Painting Vasyl Kasiian Vasyl Kasiian, born 1 January 1896 in Mykulynsti, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia, died 26 June 1976 in Kyiv. Graphic artist of the realist school: from 1947 full member of the USSR Academy of Arts and the Academy of Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR. A graduate of the Prague Academy of Arts (1926), he assumed Soviet citizenship and in 1927 immigrated to the Ukrainian SSR, where he taught at the Kyiv State Art Institute, the Ukrainian Printing Institute in Kharkiv, and the Kharkiv Institute of Arts. A prolific and versatile artist, he excelled in all the graphic techniques – wood engraving, copper engraving, lin-ocut, and lithography – as well as pen drawing and watercolours. During his Prague period Kasiian dealt with social themes, depicting the poverty and hard life of the lower classes in Europe. Coming to Ukraine, he created several series of wood and copper engravings about collective-farm life, the building of the Dnipro Hydroelectric Station, mining in the Donbas, and the building of the . The most valuable part of his rich, technically flawless legacy consists of the works on industrial themes, which document the economic transformation of Ukraine, and the illustrations to works by T. Shevchenko, Lesia Ukrainka, I. Franko, M. Kotsiubynskyi, V. Stefanyk, and O. Kobylianska. He wrote many works on graphic techniques. He was the editor of "Taras Shevchenko: The Artist Legacy", 4 vols, which contains all of Shevchenko's known works, and a coeditor of the six- volume "History of Ukrainian Art", 1966–1968. From 1927 Kasiian's numerous artistic works were displayed at one-man exhibitions, including six in Kyiv, three in Kharkiv, two in Odesa, and one each in Lviv, Moscow, Prague, and Bucharest. His works were included in most official Soviet exhibitions abroad, including the Venice Biennale. Spot the factual mistakes. 1. Kasiian was a graphic artist of the impressionist school. 2. He was a graduate of the Prague Academy of Arts in 1947. 3. He taught at the Kharkiv Academy of Arts. 4. He excelled in engraving, watercolours and oil-painting. 5. His works were displayed at several exhibitions, including Moscow, Prague, and Budapest.

Socialist realism in soviet Ukrainian art In the 1930s all avant-garde activities in Soviet Ukraine came to a halt with the introduction of socialist realism as the only literary and artistic method permitted by the communist regime. Painting was limited to naturalistically rendered thematic canvases of the Bolshevik of 1917 and its champions, glorification of the Soviet state and its leaders, portraits and genre scenes of happy workers and peasants, and romanticized depictions of war and its heroes. Particularly in its first period (1934–1941) socialist realism's range in painting was restricted to depictions of industrialization and collectivization and to numerous portraits and monuments to Joseph Stalin. Landscapes and still-life compositions were discouraged and all departures from the socialist-realist canon were condemned as 'formalist.' Sculpture was particularly pompous during the Stalinist period, in which thousands of monuments to Vladimir Lenin, Karl Marx, Joseph Stalin, and Maxim Gorky were erected.

203 Socialist realism was enforced by means of repressions. Some modernist painters, such as Anatol Petrytsky, survived the terror, but their works were destroyed (an extensive series of Petrytsky's portraits). Many others, including Mykhailo Boichuk, Sofiia Nalepinska, Vasyl Sedliar, and Ivan Padalka, were shot. Departures from the norm were labeled 'formalism,' 'abstractionism,' or 'modernism' and proscribed. The narrow confines of socialist realism were widened somewhat after the death of Joseph Stalin, particularly during Nikita Khrushchev's cultural thaw. But even in its last stages socialist realism was praised for its Party orientation and its 'populism' (narodnist). Those terms continued to be used as synonyms for devoted service to the interests of the Party. Socialist realism also demanded isolation from the art of the West. Among the more prominent socialist-realist artists were Volodymyr Kostetsky, Karpo Trokhymenko, Mykhailo Bozhii, Serhii Hryhoriev, Dmitrii Shavykin, and Oleksii Shovkunenko. The style of socialist realism in graphic art was developed under the influence of Vasyl Kasiian. Notable Ukrainian sculptors who have worked in the socialist-realist manner are Mykhailo Lysenko, Ivan Makohon, Valentyn Znoba, Teodosiia Bryzh, Vasyl Borodai, and others. Union of Artists of Ukraine [Spilka khudozhnykiv Ukrainy]. The only official organization of artists and art scholars that existed in Soviet Ukraine after the Party banned all other artistic organizations in 1932 and set up an organizational committee. In 1938 the union was officially founded at its first congress. Subsequent congresses were held every five or six years from 1956. The union was divided into sections (painting, sculpture, poster design, graphic art, large-scale decorative art, applied art, artistic design, stage design) and commissions (art criticism and art scholarship). The Art Fund of the Ukrainian SSR was administered by it. The union was divided into 20 oblast organizations. In 1983 their combined membership was 2,200. The union’s official organs have been Maliarstvo i skulptura, later Obrazotvorche mystetstvo (1935–1941), and then Obrazotvorche mystetstvo (1970–). Its presidents have been I. Boichenko (1938–1941), Oleksandr S. Pashchenko (1941–1944), Vasyl Kasiian (1944–1949), Oleksii Shovkunenko (1949–1951), M. Khmelko (1951–1955), Mykhailo Derehus (1955–1962), Vasyl Borodai (1968–1982), Oleksander Skoblykov (1982–1983), Oleksandr Lopukhov (1983–1989), and Volodymyr Chepelyk (elected in 1990). In the late 1980s the union freed itself of Party control, and it no longer propagates socialist realism as the only artistic approach. Many of Ukraine’s talented artists have never been members of the union. In 1998 the union was granted the status of a national union and changed its name to National Union of Artists of Ukraine. Trokhymenko Karpo, born 25 October 1885 in Sushchany, Vasylkiv county, Kyiv gubernia, died 1 October 1979 in Kyiv. Painter. He studied at the Kyiv Art School (1902–1910), the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (1906–1907), and under Mykola Samokysh at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts (1910–1916). He worked in Kyiv as an instructor for the Commission for the Protection of Historical and Artistic Monuments (1918–1920) and taught at the Kyiv Art School (1918–1919), the Kyiv Artistic-Industrial Professional School and Kyiv Art Tekhnikum (1926–1933), and the Kyiv State Art Institute (1933–1974). He belonged to the Association of Artists of Red Ukraine (1926–1932) and became vice-chairman of the Arts Council of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR. Trokhymenko worked in watercolors, oils, and pencil. He painted murals in the church at the Swedish Grave in Poltava; realistic historical scenes, such as Cossacks’ Supper at Their Battle Posts (1917); and landscapes such as The Dnipro from Ivanova Mountain (1926), The Dnipro and the Museum from Chernecha Mountain (1953), and Barley in Bloom (1965). He also created Soviet genre paintings in the style of socialist realism. Taras Shevchenko and his works inspired his canvases Shevchenko and Engelhardt (1939), Kateryna (1954), and Shevchenko on Chernecha Mountain (1954). Books about Trokhymenko have been written by P. Musiienko (1946) and Ivan Vrona (1957), and an album of his works was published in 1969.

204 Ukrainian artists of the shistdesiatnyky generation The very narrow confines of socialist realism that were forced upon all art in Soviet Ukraine during the Stalinist terror of the 1930s were widened somewhat only after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. A brief period of very relative artistic freedom began in the second half of the 1950s, during Nikita Khrushchev's 'de-Stalinization' campaign, and reached its most important stage in in the early 1960s, during Khrushchev's cultural 'thaw'. First, artists of the older generation, such as Roman Selsky, Margit Selska, and Vitold Manastyrsky in western Ukraine, or Tetiana Yablonska in Kyiv turned to Ukrainian folklore and folk themes, more vibrant colors in landscape paintings, and a flattened rendering. Then younger artists of the shistdesiatnyky generation, including Viktor Zaretsky, , Halyna Sevruk, Opanas Zalyvakha, and Stefaniia Shabatura, rediscovered the Ukrainian art of the 1920s, and in particular, became influenced by the monumental art of Mykhailo Boichuk and his school. Other younger artists, such as Karlo Zvirynsky and Valerii Lamakh, experimented with abstraction; Liubomyr Medvid, Ivan Zavadovsky, and Ivan Marchuk, with surrealism; and Volodymyr Patyk and Volodymyr Loboda, with expressionism. However, the curtailing of artistic freedom in 1965 and again in 1972, as well as the arrest and sentencing of prominent Ukrainian writers and artists, including Zalyvakha and Shabatura, marked the end of this relatively liberal period of the development of Ukrainian art. Forced 'underground,' the innovatve representatives of the next generation of Ukrainian artists later created the nonconformist movement in Soviet Ukrainian art. Yablonska Tetiana, born 24 February 1917 in , Russia, died 17 June 2005 in Kyiv. Ukrainian painter and teacher, of Belarusian descent; full member of the USSR (now Russian) Academy of Arts from 1975. She studied at the Kyiv State Art Institute (1935–1941) under Fedir Krychevsky and later taught there (1944–1952, 1966–1973). Her canvases, most of which are painted in the realist tradition, are often bathed in light and show a highly developed sense of color. They have more in common with impressionism than with socialist realism, even though some have depicted happy farmers at a collective farm (eg, her famous Bread, 1949) and workers (eg, Evening on the Dnieper, 1946). In the 1960s, as a result of her interest in Ukrainian folk art and ethnography, her paintings became more decorative, with simplified forms and flattened space (eg, Young Mother, 1964; Widows, 1964). Ukrainian elements appeared, in works such as Betrothed (1966) and Swans (1966). By 1969 Yablonska was creating canvases that synthesized her two previous styles, a synthesis that culminated in the powerful, symbolic Youth (1969) and Silence (1975). In the 1980s she created portraits and numerous landscapes, including Winter in Old Kyiv (1975), The Source (1983), and Old Apple Tree (1986), peaceful compositions painted in a subdued, pearly gray palette. A monograph about her by E. Korotkevich was published in Moscow in 1980, and a large retrospective of her paintings was held at the Kyiv Museum of Ukrainian Art in 1987. Horska Alla, born 18 September 1929 in Yalta in the Crimea, died 28 November 1970 in Vasylkiv, . Monumentalist painter, graduate of the Kyiv State Art Institute, and wife of Viktor Zaretsky. She was a founder and active member of the Club of Creative Youth (est 1962) in Kyiv, which played an important role in the cultural movement of the 1960s. She designed the stage sets for 's Otak zahynuv Huska (Thus Huska Perished), whose premiere at the Lviv Ukrainian Drama Theater was banned. In 1964 she collaborated with Halyna Sevruk and Liudmyla Semykina on a stained-glass panel designed by Opanas Zalyvakha for Kyiv University. Because of its unconventional style and patriotic message, the panel, which depicted an angry Taras Shevchenko, was destroyed by the authorities, and Horska was expelled from the Union of Artists of Ukraine. To find work she had to leave Kyiv, but she continued to defy the authorities by protesting against their repressive measures. She was murdered in 1970. Although the crime remains officially unsolved, circumstantial evidence points to the KGB's involvement. Horska's main works are monumental internal and

205 external paintings and mosaics decorating schools, museums, and restaurants, done in collaboration with other artists. A collection of Horska’s letters and essays as well as reminiscences about her, edited by Oleksii Zaretsky and Mykola Marychevsky, was published in Kyiv in 1996 as Chervona tin’ kalyny (Red Shadow of the Viburnym).

Ukrainian nonconformist (unofficial) art in the ussr (1960s–1980s) From the time of Joseph Stalin's terror of the 1930s, the officially prescribed style of socialist-realism was the only state-sanctioned so-called 'creative method' in Soviet art. Ukrainian nonconformist art, that broke with this tradition, had its beginnings in the Khrushchev 'thaw' of the mid-1950s. At that time the socialist-realist framework was widened, and Ukrainian ethnographic and folk-art themes became popular. Artists began exploring hitherto forbidden styles and trends in Western art and Eastern philosophy, as well as Ukrainian art of the 1920s, and developing their individual visions and means of expression. In the 1960s some artists became part of the growing dissident movement, and Opanas Zalyvakha and Stefaniia Shabatura were arrested for their involvement and imprisoned. Unlike their colleagues in Kyiv and in western Ukraine who signed petitions and attended political trials, the Odesa nonconformists pursued only artistic concerns. During the crackdown on the dissident movement in Ukraine in 1965 and again in 1972, nonconformist art went underground. Thereafter, some artists led a double existence, earning a living by creating socialist-realist art while continuing to paint nonconformist works in private. In 1975 the First Exhibition of Ukrainian Nonconformist Artists (with five participants) was held in Moscow in a private apartment. In the Second Exhibition of Ukrainian Nonconformist Art, held in Moscow in 1976, 16 artists participated. These exhibitions gave an opportunity for Ukrainian nonconformist artists living in different parts of the USSR to join forces. They could do so only in the Russian capital – the only place in the USSR where such a gathering was possible.

Nonconformist art (aka unofficial art) A term for art created in the USSR that, until the period of glasnost and perestroika in the 1980s, did not meet official approval and recognition. The creators of this art did not adhere to the prescribed program of socialist realism formulated at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934. They did not, however, constitute a movement, nor did they represent one style, ideology, or worldview. In most cases their art was not an expression of political dissent. What unified them was their belief in and insistence on the freedom of creative individual expression. Strictly speaking, nonconformist art was not forbidden as long as it was kept private; when it was shown publicly, however, its creators were often subjected to reprisals and persecution. This state of affairs forced nonconformist artists to work in solitude and without official recognition. Ukrainian nonconformist art had its beginnings in the Khrushchev ‘thaw’ of the mid-1950s. At that time the socialist-realist framework was widened, and Ukrainian ethnographic and folk-art themes became popular. Artists began exploring hitherto forbidden styles and trends in Western art and Eastern philosophy, as well as Ukrainian art of the 1920s, and developing their individual visions and means of expression. In the 1960s some artists became part of the growing dissident movement, and Opanas Zalyvakha and Stefaniia Shabatura were arrested for their involvement and imprisoned. Unlike their colleagues in Kyiv and in western Ukraine who signed petitions and attended political trials, the Odesa nonconformists pursued only artistic concerns. In 1967, long before the infamous bulldozing of the exhibition of nonconformist art in Moscow in September 1974, two Odesa artists, Stanyslav Sychov and Valentyn Khrushch, displayed their art outside the Odesa Opera and Ballet Theater. Even though their exhibition lasted only a few hours before it was closed down by the police, it brought artists' disenchantment with officially sanctioned art into the open and made public the distinction between official and nonconformist art.

206 During the crackdown on the dissident movement in Ukraine in 1965 and again in 1972, nonconformist art went underground. Thereafter, some artists led a double existence, earning a living by creating socialist-realist art while continuing to paint nonconformist works in private. In 1975 the First Exhibition of Ukrainian Nonconformist Artists was held in Moscow in a private apartment. Of the five participants, Feodosii Humeniuk from Leningrad, Volodymyr Makarenko from Tallinn, Vitalii Sazonov and N. Pavlenko from Moscow, and Volodymyr Strelnikov from Odesa, four had been forced to live and work outside their homelands. In the Second Exhibition of Ukrainian Nonconformist Art, which was held in Moscow in March 1976, 16 artists participated. These exhibitions gave an opportunity for Ukrainian nonconformist artists living in different parts of the USSR to join forces. They could do so only in the Russian capital, however – the only place in the USSR where such a gathering was possible, and where their work would be seen by foreign diplomats and correspondents. Works by some Ukrainian nonconformist artists eventually made their way to the West, as did three of the artists themselves (Volodymyr Strelnikov, Volodymyr Makarenko, Vitalii Sazonov). The first traveling group exhibition of such art in the West was organized by the Ukrainian American Ihor Ciszkewych and mounted in Munich, London, New York, Cleveland, and Washington, DC, in 1979–1980. A second exhibition was organized by Daria Zelska-Darewych in Toronto in 1982, and traveled to Winnipeg, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and New York. This show included works done by V. Makarenko, V. Sazonov, Anton Solomukha, and V. Strelnikov in the USSR and after their emigration to the West, and its opening was attended by three of the artists. Ukrainian nonconformist artists who remained in the USSR were unable to exhibit their work publicly until the early 1980s. At that time shows by some more prominent nonconformists, such as Ivan Marchuk, were sponsored by official organizations, such as the Writers' Union of Ukraine. By 1987 many unofficial artists had been invited to exhibit in alternative spaces. By 1988 many of them, including Feodosii Humeniuk and Marchuk, had been accepted as members by the Union of Artists of Ukraine. Articles about Opanas Zalyvakha and Volodymyr Loboda as well as others appeared in the official press. Because national exhibitions organized by the Union of Artists since the late 1980s have included artworks which formerly would have been labeled decadent, the distinction between official and nonconformist art became blurred and has ceased to exist.

Marchuk Ivan, born 12 May 1936 in Moskalivka, Kremianets county, Volhynia voivodeship. Painter and sculptor. He graduated from the Lviv Institute of Applied and Decorative Art in 1965 and then moved to Kyiv. Until 1988 he was denied membership in the Union of Artists of Ukraine because his themes and style did not conform to socialist realism. In Kyiv he created the wall-size ceramic-tile relief compositions (1969–1972) in the Institute of Theoretical Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Marchuk paints fantastic figural and floral compositions with elements of surrealism, hyperrealist portraits (eg, R. Selsky, 1981), enigmatic landscapes, and abstract expressionist compositions (eg, the series ‘Colored Preludes’ [1978]). His figural tempera paintings of the ‘Voice of My Soul’ series depict seemingly irrational situations with skeletal, often grotesque, persons cut off at the waist and surrounded by sinister objects and creatures set in a vast empty landscape (eg, Empty Nest [1975] and Dialogue without Words [1976]). Marchuk's palette borders on the monochromatic, and the unreality of the imagery is thereby reinforced. His realistic landscapes have a peculiar, dense texture consisting of weblike layers of pigment that, combined with the dramatic use of light and dark, create an atmosphere of unease and mystery (eg, Willows in the Embrace of a Moonlit Night [1978] and Apple in the Snow [1979]). After the 1986 Chornobyl nuclear accident Marchuk created nightmarish compositions depicting the total destruction of our planet (eg, Warning [1986]). He has had numerous solo exhibitions, starting in Moscow in 1979 and Kyiv in 1980. His 43 canvases inspired by the poetry of Taras Shevchenko were exhibited at the museum in the Shevchenko National Preserve in Kaniv. Since 1989 he has had several exhibitions in Australia, Canada, and New York.

207 Painting Quiz 1. What are the oldest surviving paintings in Ukraine? 2. Where have the frescoes from the medieval Rus been found? 3. When did the Galician School of icon painting emerge? 4. What style of painting began to develop in the 17th c.? 5. In what century did secular portrait painting emerge? 6. What did T. Shevchenko paint? 7. Who were landscape painters of the 19th century? 8. What styles emerged and flourished in Ukraine in the 20th c.? 9. When was the Ukrainian State Academy of Arts established? 10. In what style did M. Pymonenko paint? 11. Whose poems did he illustrate? 12. In what technique did V. Kasiian excel? 13. What countries were O. Murashko's works exposed in? 14. What style influenced K. Malevych's painting? 15. Why are M. Pryimachenko's art creations unique?

2 Sculpture Pinzel Johann Georg, born ? died ca 1761. Eighteenth-century sculptor; the leading representative of the so-called ‘Lviv school’ of the late-baroque and rococo sculpture. Almost nothing is known of Pinzel’s origins and personal life. In the mid 1740s he appeared in Buchach at the court of the starosta of Kaniv Mikoáaj Bazyli Potocki and from that time he worked in Galicia, often in cooperation with the architect Bernard Meretyn. The most famous of his surviving works are the rococo stone statues of Saint Louis, Saint Athanasius, and Saint George on the façade of Saint George's Cathedral in Lviv (1759–1761), the monuments of Saint John of Nepomuk and Saint Anna in Buchach, and the wood statues of the side altars in the Roman Catholic churches in Horodenka (1750s) and (1761). The stone carvings on the façade of the Buchach town hall, the figures and bas-reliefs in the Buchach Holy Protectress Church, and the sculpted church decorations in the Trinitarian Church in Lviv are attributed to him. He carved several crucifixions, the most interesting of which was in Saint Martin's Roman Catholic Church in Lviv. His work had a powerful influence on many 18th century Galician sculptors and contributed to the establishment of the Galician tradition of rococo sculpture. The Pinzel Museum, a branch of the Lviv Art Gallery housing Pinzel’s sculptures, was opened in Lviv in 1996 in the former church of the Clarissines. In 2012 a large exhibition of Pinzel’s work took place at the Louvre Museum in Paris.

Martos Ivan, born ca 1752–1754 in , Pryluky regiment, died 17 April 1835 in Saint Petersburg. Sculptor; father of Oleksander Martos. Born into a Cossack starshyna family of the Poltava region, Martos studied at the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts (1764–1773) and in Rome (1774–1779), where he became a proponent of Classicist style of sculpture. He taught at the Saint Petersburg Academy (1779–1835) and served as its rector (1814–1835). Martos created numerous sculptures in Russia and Ukraine, including the burial monuments of Hetman Kyrylo Rozumovsky in Baturyn (1803–1805) and Count Petr Rumiantsev at the Kyivan Cave Monastery (1797–1805) and statues of Count Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis duc de Richelieu in Odesa (1823–1828), Emperor Alexander I in Tahanrih (1828–1831), and Prince Grigorii Potemkin in Kherson (1829–1836). His works are noted for their monumental, but restrained and lucid classicist form that conform to the Classical ideal of beauty and idealize the virtues of courage, patriotism, and civic duty. His work had a considerable influence on many sculptors in the Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century.

208 Balavensky Fedir, born 31 December 1864 in near Kharkiv, died 8 November 1943 in the village of Lianozovo, Moscow oblast. Sculptor and pedagogue. He graduated from the Kyiv Drawing School in 1896 and the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1903. Balavensky lectured at the Kyiv Art School (1907–1920) and at the Ceramic Technical School in Myrhorod (1922–1930). Among his works are busts of Taras Shevchenko, Mykola Lysenko, Ivan Kotliarevsky, and Panteleimon Kulish; the Shevchenko monuments in Kyiv (which won second prize in a 1911 international contest and was demolished by Anton Denikin's troops in 1919), Lubny, Zolotonosha, and Myrhorod (1924–1926); and the bronze gravestone bust of Marko Kropyvnytsky in Kharkiv (1914). In Kyiv Balavensky executed a number of allegorical statues on the Red Cross building (1913), co-sculpted the bas-relief Triumph of Phryne on the Iserlis building (1909), and designed the hippodrome (1916). In his sculptures Balavensky combined classicism with Ukrainian folk elements. A study of Balavensky by H. Bohdanovych was published in Kyiv in 1963.

Archipenko Alexander, born 30 May 1887 in Kyiv, died 25 February 1964 in New York. Modernist sculptor, painter, pedagogue, and a full member of the International Institute of Arts and Literature from 1953. Archipenko studied art at the Kyiv Art School in 1902–1905, in Moscow in 1906–1908, and then briefly at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His first one-man show took place in 1906 in Ukraine. He moved to Paris in 1909. In 1910 he exhibited his works with a group of Cubists at the Salon des Artistes Indépendants and then exhibited his works there annually until 1914 (photo: Repose [1912]). In 1911 his works appeared also at the Salon d'Automne. In 1912 Archipenko joined a new artistic group – La Section d'Or, which numbered among its members P. Picasso, G. Braque, J. Gris, F. Léger, R. Delaunay, R. de la Fresnaye, J. Villon, F. Picabia, and M. Duchamp – and participated in the group's exhibitions. In 1912 Archipenko opened his own school of sculpture in Paris. At his individual exhibition at the Folkwang Museum in Hagen, Germany, in 1912, Archipenko displayed Médrano I, the first modern sculpture made of various polychromed materials (wood, glass, and metal fiber). It was followed by Médrano II (1913–1914). At this time he also created the first so-called sculpto- peintures (carved and painted plaster reliefs, such as Woman before a Mirror [1916]) and the first modern sculpture composed of concave forms contrasted with convex ones and incorporating elements of color and the void – Walking Woman. In 1913 Archipenko’s works appeared at the Armory Show in New York, and he held his first individual exhibition at Galerie der Sturm in Berlin. In the following year he participated in a cubist exhibition in Prague and a futurist exhibition in Rome, and exhibited such works as Carrousel Pierrot and Boxing at Salon des Artistes Indépendants. During the First World War he lived in Cimiez near Nice, where, in 1917, he developed a cubist play, La Vie Humaine; he returned to Paris in 1918. From 1919 to 1921 Archipenko's works were exhibited in many cities throughout Europe. In 1920 he was given a separate pavilion at the Venice Biennale, and in 1920 and 1921 his work appeared at the exhibitions of La Section d'Or in Paris, Brussels, Geneva, Rome, and several cities in the Netherlands. In 1921 Archipenko moved to Berlin, where he established a school of sculpture. He held a retrospective exhibition at Potsdam and his first individual exhibition in the United States, at the Société Anonyme in New York. In 1923 Archipenko moved to the United States. He established a school in New York, and in the following year, he moved it to Woodstock, New Jersey. In 1927 he created and received a patent for changeable pictures (peinture changeante) known as Archipentura and Apparatus for Displaying Changeable Pictures (Archipentura was lost in 1935). Besides working at his art, Archipenko devoted much time to teaching. He was in constant contact with various universities, among them those in Oakland, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Chicago (the New Bauhaus School). In 1927 an exhibition of his works was arranged in Tokyo. In 1929 he established a school of ceramics, Arko, in New York. In 1933 his work appeared in the Ukrainian Pavilion at the

209 Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago. The Nazi regime confiscated 22 of Archipenko's sculptures in German museums in the 1930s. In 1937 he moved to Chicago, where he opened his Modern School of Fine Arts and Practical Design. In 1947 Archipenko created the first sculptures out of transparent materials (plastics) with interior illumination (modeling light) – l'art de la réflexion. In 1948 he exhibited his new plexiglass works at the Associated American Artists Galleries in New York. In 1952 and 1953 his work was exhibited in São Paulo, Brazil, and in Guatemala. In 1955 and 1956 his exhibitions toured Germany. In 1956 Archipenko tried his hand at moving figures (figures tournantes), which were mechanically rotating structures built of wood, mother of pearl, and metal. In 1959 he received the gold medal at Biennale d'Arte Trivenata at Padua, Italy. In 1960 his largest monograph, Fifty Creative Years, 1908–1958, appeared. Parts of it had been published previously in Ukrainian art journals. In 1962 Archipenko was elected to the Department of Art of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in the United States. His last works were two large bronzes, Queen of Sheba (1961) and King Solomon (1964), and 10 lithographs entitled Les formes vivantes. In 1963 and 1964 large retrospective exhibitions of Archipenko's sculptures, drawings, and prints were held in Rome, Milan, and Munich. From 1967 to 1969 posthumous retrospective exhibitions of his work were organized by the University of California (Los Angeles) at 10 American museums and by the at various European museums, including the Rodin Museum in Paris. In 1974 a large retrospective exhibition "Alexander Archipenko – A Pioneer of Modern Sculpture" took place in Tokyo, and was followed by numerous exhibitions in the United States and Europe. As a cubist, Archipenko utilized interdependent geometrical lines and introduced new concepts and methods into sculpture. Juan Gris wrote about Archipenko’s influence on the art of the early 20th century: "Archipenko challenged the traditional understanding of sculpture. It was generally monochromatic at the time. His pieces were painted in bright colors. Instead of accepted materials such as marble, bronze or plaster, he used mundane materials such as wood, glass, metal, and wire. His creative process did not involve carving or modeling in the accepted tradition but nailing, pasting and tying together, with no attempt to hide nails, junctures or seams. His process parallels the visual experience of cubist painting". Although cubism formed the basis of Archipenko’s art, it was not the only style he worked in. He himself referred to it in the following way: "As form my art, the geometric character of three-dimensional sculptures (e.g., Boxing, 1913, Gondolier, 1914) is due to the extreme simplification of form and not to Cubist dogma. I did not take from Cubism, but added to it". Archipenko's purpose was to discover the laws of formal relationships through a precise examination of the great historical styles and to preserve the old foundations of the plastic arts while transforming them in his own way. His creative and logical thought was also opposed to his dynamic personality, and this dramatic conflict endowed his art with an intriguing vitality. Archipenko never severed his ties with his countrymen. During his first years in Paris he was a member of the Ukrainian Students' Club; in Berlin, a member of the Ukrainian Hromada; and in the United States, a member of the Ukrainian Artists' Association in the USA. His works appeared at the association's exhibitions. He belonged to the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Ukrainian Institute of America. Many of his works have Ukrainian themes, eg, the relief Ukraine (1940), four busts of Taras Shevchenko (one of them in the Park of Nationalities in Cleveland), busts of Ivan Franko and Prince Volodymyr the Great, and portraits of Ukrainian public figures. Some of Archipenko's exhibitions, such as the one at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago, were sponsored by Ukrainian groups. In Soviet Ukraine Archipenko's name was never mentioned before his death. Five of his sculptures and paintings at the Lviv Museum of Ukrainian Art were destroyed in the 1950s. Although his name began appearing in the artistic press during the post-Stalin Thaw, Vitalii Korotych's monograph about him was suppressed.

210 With the lessening of censorship and Party control during the perestroika period in the late 1980s, Archipenko quickly acquired recognition as one of Ukraine’s most prominent twentieth- century artists. The first Soviet book devoted to his works appeared in Kyiv in in 1989. The first exhibition of his works in post-Soviet Ukraine, entitled "Preserved in Ukraine", took place in Kyiv in 2001.

Kavaleridze Ivan, born 26 April 1887 at Ladanskyi khutir near Romny, Kharkiv gubernia, died 3 December 1978 in Kyiv. Sculptor, film director, dramatist, and screenwriter. He studied art at the Kyiv Art School (1907–1909), the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts (1909–1910), and with N. Aronson in Paris (1910–1911). His sculptures include busts of famous people such as F. Chaliapin (1909), and over 100 monuments in various cities of Ukraine: eg, the monument to Princess Olha in Kyiv (1911), which was destroyed in 1934; the Taras Shevchenko monuments in Kyiv (1918), Romny (1918), Poltava (1925), and Sumy (1926); and the Hryhorii Skovoroda monuments in Lokhvytsia (1922) and Kyiv (1977). In the 1920s his work was influenced by cubism, as exemplified by his monument to Artem in Artemivsk (Donetsk oblast). His group compositions – Bohdan Khmelnytsky Sends the Kobza Players into the Villages (1954), A. Buchma in the Role of M. Zadorozhny (1954), and Prometheus (1962) – are somewhat stylized. In 1928 he became interested in filmmaking. He scripted and directed a number of innovative historical films marked by stylization and monumentalism: Zlyva (The Downpour, 1929), Perekop (1930), Koliïvshchyna (1933), and Prometei (Prometheus, 1936). Accused of ‘nationalist deviation’ and formalism, he was forced to turn to popular themes and a simplified style. He adapted the operas: Mykola Lysenko’s Natalka Poltavka (Natalka from Poltava, 1936) and Semen Hulak-Artemovsky’s Zaporozhets’ za Dunaiem (Zaporozhian Cossack beyond the Danube, 1938) for film. After the Second World War he directed the films Hryhorii Skovoroda (1960) and Poviia (The Strumpet, 1961) based on Panas Myrny's novel. A retrospective exhibit of his sculptures was held in 1962. He wrote several heroic dramas: Votaniv mech (Wotan's Sword, 1966), Perekop (1967), and Persha borozna (The First Furrow, 1969).

Borodai Vasyl, born 18 August 1917 in Katerynoslav, died 19 April 2010 in Kyiv. Sculptor. Borodai studied at the Kyiv State Art Institute (1947–1953). In 1966 he became lecturer, and in 1971 professor, at the institute. He was a full member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR from 1973 and was chairman of the Union of Artists of Ukraine from 1968 to 1973. Among his sculptures are the following compositions: Youth (1951), Ivan Bohun (1954), Lesia Ukrainka (1957), and Bandura Player (1960). He also sculpted portraits of Petro Panch (1960), (1963), Lev Revutsky (1963), and Tetiana Yablonska (1974), as well as the series Through Egypt (1961–1964) and some monuments – busts of Juliusz Sáowacki in Kremianets (1969) and of Taras Shevchenko in Arrow Park, New York State (1970), and Lesia Ukrainka’s monument in Kyiv. Borodai’s works usually meet the demands of socialist realism; a good example of that is his giant monument Motherland (1981) in Kyiv. His monument depicting the legendary founders of Kyiv, Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv, and Lybid, has become one of the symbols of Kyiv. Borodai’s perhaps most interesting sculptures are adaptations of the ancient Egyptian style (eg, Silence). Monographs on Borodai by B. Lobanovsky (Kyiv 1964) and Z. Fogel (Moscow 1968) have been published.

3 Architecture Temple architecture An Orthodox temple has always been and still is a place of spiritual unity with Ukrainians. That is why they have always approached its construction with an exceptional zeal.

211 Vadym Scherbakivskyi, a renowned scholar of the early XX c, once obser that "with our peasantry a church that arouses interest, above all, must be one which is tall. With them, a tall church is nice. This intrinsic quality of Ukrainian church architecture to arouse the feelings of elevation with a beholder is worth emphasizing. Indeed, whenever people recall church, their eyes raised, they always use the attribute "tall". V. Scherbakivskyi maintains that visual effects pertaining to temple architecture were specifically conceived to elevate the church both inside and outside. In the interior this sensation is supported with light coming through intentionally tall windows. Prevalent in the rural areas were churches made of wood whereas in towns they could afford stone edifices. Carved work is part and parcel of the church interior, adding to the decor of the iconostasis itself, as well as the kliros banisters, beams and door interior frames. A preferred material for an iconostasis, from five up to seven tiers, was dried-up lime whereas icons, most of them painted, were usually placed in openwork frames styled as vines and painted gold.

Monasteries Communities and settlements of monks with attendant buildings and estates. Depending on the monastic order that the particular monastery belonged to or the monastic typicon that was followed (see Monasticism), life ranged from strictly anchoritic, to semicommunal (where monks lived in individual cells but ate and prayed together), to communal or idiorrythmic. Novices also lived in the monastery before being tonsured. Monasteries were generally formally headed by a council of all the monks or nuns, which chose an abbot or overseer (an archimandrite or hegumen). Historically, depending on various political, legal, and economic conditions, monasteries enjoyed differing degrees of autonomy. Lavry (of which there were three in Ukraine, the Kyivan Cave Monastery, Pochaiv Monastery, and the Sviati Hory Dormition Monastery) and stauropegion monasteries were subject only to the highest church authority (initially the Patriarch of Constantinople, later the Patriarch of Moscow and the Holy Synod) and were independent of the local bishop. Cathedral monasteries were directly subordinate to the bishop of the eparchy to which they belonged. Other types included self-administering monasteries (the majority) and hermitages (skyty, skytyky, pustyni) that were dependent on larger monasteries. Larger monasteries had a main church and bell tower, as well as smaller chapels, baptismal alcoves, and separate . Apart from the shrines and monks' residences (cells), monasteries typically had an array of administrative buildings and workshops and sometimes their own hospitals, schools, and printing presses. The monasteries were often surrounded by fortified walls or palisades, with defensive ramparts, towers, and trenches, and some monasteries even grew into large complexes that served as fortresses (especially in Slobidska Ukraine and in areas bordering the Tatar-controlled steppes). Monastic life in Ukraine began before the official adoption of Christianity, but the first monasteries were not built until after the baptism of Kyiv and its environs in the late 10th century. The first formal monasteries were established under Yaroslav the Wise – the men's Saint George's and the women's Saint Irene's monasteries in Kyiv (both mentioned in 1037). Other early monasteries included Saint Demetrius's Monastery (later Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery), the Monastery, and Saint Cyril's Monastery. In the 11th to 13th centuries the number of monasteries in the Kyiv region rose to 20. Monasteries were founded in other parts of Ukraine, primarily in such princely capitals as Pereiaslav, Chernihiv (the Yeletskyi Dormition Monastery and Trinity-Saint Elijah's Monastery), Novhorod-Siverskyi, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, princely Halych, Kholm, and Lviv (Saint George's Monastery). Smaller monasteries were established throughout Ukraine. Although information about these is often incomplete, a partial list of smaller monasteries in the 11th to 13th centuries includes the Zarubyntsi (Zarub) Monastery near Kaniv, the Saints Borys and Hlib Monastery near Pereiaslav, the Zahoriv Monastery near Volodymyr-Volynskyi, the Zhydychyn Saint Nicholas's Monastery in Volhynia, Saint Daniel's Monastery in Uhrovske (Kholm

212 region), the Synevidsko and Polonynskyi monasteries in the Carpathian Mountains, and the Rata Monastery near Rava-Ruska. Other monasteries that were probably established in the Princely era became known only in the late Middle Ages – the Mezhyhiria Transfiguration Monastery near Kyiv, the Novhorod- Siverskyi Transfiguration Monastery, the Peresopnytsia and Dorohobuzh monasteries in Volhynia, the Byblo Monastery near Peremyshl, the Monastery near Sokal, Saint Onuphrius's Church and Monastery in Lviv, and the Lavriv Saint Onuphrius's Monastery and Spas Monastery near Sambir. Monasteries were established mainly by princes and boyars, although some were founded by spiritual leaders and churchmen. Noble patrons oversaw the monasteries: they cared for their growth and development and often donated estates, valuables, and money. They were thereby guaranteed certain rights over the organization and administration of the monasteries, extending to the approval of charters and the appointment of hegumens or hegumenissas. Patrons also maintained family crypts in their monasteries. In the Princely era, monasteries became firmly established as important centers of religious, educational, scholarly, cultural, and artistic life. Their influence extended throughout Ukraine, and in some cases (eg, the Kyivan Cave Monastery) throughout Eastern Europe. Their importance in the economic life of the country was also great, particularly as a result of their colonization of outlying territories. Church peasants, essentially serfs, worked on the large monastery estates that were the basis of their wealth. Many monasteries owned mills and even workshops and small factories. In addition the defensive fortifications of monasteries made them important military installations, and they did much charitable work. The largest institutions came to exercise considerable authority in state affairs. The Tatar invasions in the 13th and 14th centuries brought devastation to monasteries. Many were wiped out, and the monks forced to hide in cliff-side monasteries (eg, in Bakota and Bubnyshche). Only a small number (notably the Kyivan Cave Monastery) managed to survive. After the annexation of Ukraine by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and then by Poland, new monasteries began to emerge, particularly in Galicia, where by 1500 there were 44 of them. The 16th and 17th centuries saw a revival of monastic life in Volhynia and central Ukraine. Through the efforts of Metropolitans Yov Boretsky, Isaia Kopynsky, and Petro Mohyla, and with support from the Cossacks, a series of monasteries founded in the Princely era were revived. New monasteries were also established, including the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood Monastery and Saint Nicholas's Monastery in Kyiv, the Hustynia Trinity Monastery near Pryluky, the Mhar Transfiguration Monastery near Lubny, the Krasnohiria Monastery near Zolotonosha, and the Moshnohiria Monastery near Cherkasy. In the Cossack era, monasteries again played an important role in the religious, cultural, and economic life of the country. The Cossack elite, especially under Hetmans Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Ivan Mazepa, assisted in the revival or the establishment of many monasteries, particularly in Left-Bank Ukraine. These included the Krupytskyi Saint Nicholas's Monastery near Baturyn, the Maksaky Transfiguration Monastery, the Saints Peter and Paul Monastery in Hlukhiv, the Elevation of the Cross Monastery in Poltava, the Ascension and Saint Michael's monasteries in Pereiaslav, the Annunciation Monastery in Nizhyn, and the Nativity of the Mother of God Monastery in Domnytsia near Mena. The Saint Mary the Protectress Monastery in Kharkiv and the Sviati Hory Dormition Monastery on the Donets River were established in Slobidska Ukraine, and the Samara Saint Nicholas's Monastery was founded in the Zaporizhia. Hetman Mazepa was a generous benefactor of monasteries: he donated much money, valuable religious objects, and estates with rights for industry and trade, and granted the monasteries exemptions from taxes. After the mid-18th century, however, centralist Russian imperial policies led to a decline in the economic position of monasteries, and in 1786 Catherine II issued a ukase confiscating all their

213 assets. Only a few were selected for state support; the rest had to generate their own income. Many smaller monasteries were closed outright. In the century of the Church Union of Berestia (1596), most monasteries in Right-Bank Ukraine and Belarus accepted the Union and joined the Basilian monastic order, which in the 17th and 18th centuries grew to encompass approx 150 monasteries in the Ukrainian territories under Polish rule. The exceptions were the Maniava Hermitage and the so-called foreign monasteries of the Orthodox Kyiv metropoly. After the , however, Joseph II introduced reforms in the Habsburg Empire that confiscated land and property from the orders and closed all but 14 of the Basilian monasteries. In Right-Bank Ukraine, which came under Russian rule, monasteries were either closed or given to the Russian Orthodox church. In 1908 there were 67 men's and 43 women's monasteries in the nine Ukrainian gubernias in the Russian Empire, plus several more in the Kuban and the ethnically Ukrainian territories in neighboring gubernias. In Transcarpathian Ukraine the first monasteries date from the 14th century. Hrusheve in the Maramureú region and the Chernecha Hora near Mukachevo were important centers, where more than 20 monastic communities of varying size were eventually established. After the Josephine reforms only seven of them remained, including the Krasny Brod Monastery, Mariapocs Monastery, and Imstycheve Monastery. These later joined with the Roman Catholic church to form a separate Basilian province. In Bukovyna there were about 30 monastic settlements, including ones in Suceava, Putna, and Drahomirna. In the late 18th century the authorities confiscated all of their holdings and abolished many of them. In Right-Bank Ukraine and, until 1648, Left-Bank Ukraine there were also a number of Roman Catholic monasteries (of the Bernardines, Dominican order, Jesuits, Carmelites, and others) established under Polish rule. Throughout history monasteries exerted a great influence on Ukrainian culture. In the Middle Ages and Cossack era they were the principal centers of education and scholarship. The Povist’ vremennykh lit, the Mezhyhiria Chronicle and Hustynia Chronicle, and important manuscripts, such as the Horodyshche Apostolos and Horodyshche Gospel, the Byblo Apostolos, the Putna Gospel, and the , were all compiled in monasteries. With the introduction of printing, many monasteries (especially in Derman, Chernihiv, Pochaiv, Suprasl, Univ, Kyiv, and Lviv – Derman Monastery, Trinity – Saint Elijah's Monastery, Pochaiv Monastery Press, Kyivan Cave Monastery Press, Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press) became the earliest and most important publishers in Ukraine; they issued secular as well as religious works in a variety of languages. Many of the earliest schools were established at monasteries or in affiliation with them: the Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood School and Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School; the Chernihiv College, Pereiaslav College, and Kharkiv College; and even the Kyivan Mohyla Academy. Liturgical singing, icon painting, the graphic art (esp engraving), fresco painting, embroidery (in women's monasteries), and other art forms flourished in monasteries, and many monasteries maintained important libraries and fostered the development of historiography and literature. Churches, bell towers, and other monastery buildings are important examples of . Shrines of the 11th to 12th centuries – eg, the Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery and Trinity Church of the Kyivan Cave Monastery, the cathedrals of the and Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, the Transfiguration Church in Berestove in Kyiv, the Dormition Cathedral of the Yeletskyi Dormition Monastery in Chernihiv, and Saint Panteleimon's Church in Halych – were generally three-nave buildings in the Byzantine style, although the last two show Romanesque influences. Monastery churches of the 12th century (eg, Saint Elijah's Church in Halych and Saint Basil's Church of the Zymne Monastery, near Volodymyr-Volynskyi) often included rotundas; in the 15th to 16th centuries three-conch shrines of the Byzantine Renaissance were common (eg, churches of the Lavriv Saint Onuphrius's Monastery and the SS Peter and Paul Church in Kamianets-Podilskyi).

214 Later monasteries were built in various styles: the late Gothic style (eg, the Trinity Church in Mezhyrich, near Ostrih; the Dormition Church in Zymne; and the gate tower of the Derman Monastery), Renaissance (16th–17th century; eg, the monastic church in Zaluzhia, near ; the reconstructions of monasteries of the Princely era in Kyiv made under Petro Mohyla; the Church of the Protectress in the Nyzkynychi Monastery), Cossack baroque (17th–18th centuries; eg, the Trinity and Saints Peter and Paul churches of the Hustynia Trinity Monastery, the All Saints', Resurrection, and Saints Peter and Paul churches of the Kyivan Cave Monastery; and other five-domed monastic shrines), and rococo (18th century; eg, the bell tower of the Pochaiv Monastery). The wooden churches and bell towers of the Mezhyhiria Transfiguration Monastery (1611), the Krekhiv Monastery (1658), the Maniava Hermitage (1676), and the Moshnohiria and Medvediv monasteries also had a distinctive style. In the 19th and 20th centuries very few new monasteries were built in Russian-ruled Ukraine, and those were constructed according to local designs or in a Muscovite style (eg, the of the Kyivan Cave Monastery, 1900, and the Trinity Cathedral in Pochaiv, 1906) that stood in stark contrast to the style of the older structures. In Galicia and Transcarpathian Ukraine, notable monastery buildings included the Basilian churches in Hoshiv and at the Zhovkva Monastery, the churches of the Basilian women's monasteries in Lviv and Stanyslaviv, and the churches of the Redemptorist monasteries in Mykhailivtsi and the Prešov region. Generally, Ukrainian Catholic monasteries were smaller than Orthodox ones and much less ornate. The Bolshevik occupation of Ukraine brought ruin to virtually all monasteries. On the basis of a decree issued in January 1918, all monastic holdings were nationalized, and the monasteries were abolished and liquidated. The artistic valuables they held, including liturgical objects, icons, decorations, and books, were confiscated, and most were destroyed. Many valuable iconostases were demolished. Even the monastery buildings, of immeasurable historical and artistic value, were razed, particularly in the early 1930s. During the German occupation of Ukraine in 1941–1943, a number of Orthodox monasteries were reopened. After the Second World War, as a result of the new religious policy adopted by the Soviet government, some were allowed to stay open. All Ukrainian Catholic monasteries (over 150 of them) in the newly occupied territories, however, were closed. In 1954 there were approx 39 active monasteries and hermitagesin the Ukrainian SSR, as compared with 69 in all of the USSR. Of these, 14 were in Transcarpathia. There were few in central and eastern Ukraine, among them the half-ruined Kyivan Cave Monastery, two women's monasteries in Kyiv, and the Dormition Monastery in Odesa. In 1954 the antireligious campaign resumed, and most of the remaining monasteries were closed. The Kyivan Cave Monastery was closed in 1964, but part of it was returned to the Russian Orthodox church in 1988 on the occasion of the millennium of the Christianization of Ukraine. By 1970 there were only seven monasteries open (two men's and five women's), with a total of approx 800 (mostly elderly) monks and nuns. Many monasteries were re-opened after Ukraine gained independence in 1991. In the Ukrainian diaspora, there are now over 250 Ukrainian Catholic men's and women's monasteries and monks' communities. The Ukrainian Orthodox church has one in the United States.

Masterpieces of rococo architecture in Ukraine In some ways, rococo represented the continuation and conclusion of the baroque period in art and architecture. At the tame time, it signified a fundamental departure from the pathos and striving for the supernatural and spiritual that characterized the creative mind of a baroque artist. Rococo developed at first in a decorative art in the early 18th century in France. Lighter designs, graceful decorative motifs with many shell forms (rocaille in French) and natural patterns, as well as small-scale sculpture inspired by trivial subject matter progressively replaced the flamboyant forms of the baroque architecture, overloaded with unrestrained ornamentation. In Ukraine, where baroque influences were particularly strong and long-lasting, rococo and baroque architectural influences were often intermingled. Rococo influences in Ukrainian sculpture

215 can be seen particularly in iconostases, where carved shell motifs and interlace patterns replaced grapevines and acanthus foliage, often without structural logic. Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli and Bernard Meretyn were among the most important rococo architects in Ukraine. Rococo. An architectural and decorative style that emerged in France in the early 18th century. It replaced the plasticity of the baroque and was characterized by light, graceful decoration, trivial subject matter, and small-scale sculpture. In decoration the open shell (rocaille in French) motif became popular. Rococo was used in church architecture throughout Ukraine, but because baroque influences were strong the two styles were often intermingled. Examples of the rococo style in Ukraine are Saint Andrew's Church (1747–1753) in Kyiv; the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Mother of God (1752–1763) in Kozelets, Chernihiv gubernia; the Roman Catholic churches of the Dominican order in Lviv (Dominican Church in Lviv, 1747–1764) and Ternopil (Dominican Church in Ternopil, 1745–1749); Saint George's Cathedral (1745–1770) in Lviv; the Dormition Cathedral at the Pochaiv Monastery (1771– 1783) in Volhynia; and the town hall (1751) in Buchach, Galicia. Rococo influences in Ukrainian sculpture can be seen particularly in iconostases, where carved shell motifs and interlace patterns replaced grapevines and acanthus foliage, often without structural logic (eg, the Royal Gates in Saint George's Cathedral in Lviv). The iconostases of Saint Andrew's Church in Kyiv and the church of the Mhar Transfiguration Monastery (1762–1765) in Poltava gubernia have delicately carved rococo surface decorations. Three-dimensional carved heads of angels with wings were used to decorate Saint Andrew's Church in Kyiv. In religious painting the rococo style had little impact because of the strong hold of the baroque. A few still lifes, intimate in scale, appeared for the first time, however, and rococo design and decoration left a mark on furniture produced in Hlukhiv and Nizhyn in Chernihiv gubernia and in Olesko in Galicia. Furniture tended to be light, small, and curvilinear, with gold gilding over white. Porcelain with rococo motifs was manufactured in Korets and Volokytyne in Chernihiv gubernia. Saint Andrew's Church. A masterpiece of rococo architecture in Kyiv. It was designed for Empress Elizabeth I by Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli and built under the direction of I. Michurin in 1747–1753. Set on a hill above the Podil district on a cruciform foundation atop a two-story building, the church has a central dome flanked by four slender towers topped with small cupolas. The exterior is decorated with Corinthian columns, pilasters, and complex cornices designed by Rastrelli and made by master craftsmen, including the Ukrainians M. Chvitka and Ya. Shevlytsky. The interior has the light and grace characteristic of the rococo style. The iconostasis is decorated with carved gilded ornaments, sculptures, and icon paintings done in 1751–1754 by the Russian painter Aleksei Antropov. Hryhorii K. Levytskyi, and their assistant at the time, Dmytro H. Levytskyi. Other paintings in the church are by P. Boryspolets, I. Romensky, and I. Chaikovskyi. During the Seven Years' War the imperial court lost interest in the church, and it was unfinished when it was consecrated in 1767. Because of ground instability, the maintenance and preservation of the church have been a constant problem. Since 1958 the church has been a branch of the Saint Sophia Museum. Mariinskyi Palace. The tsarist palace in Kyiv. Using Count Oleksii Rozumovsky's palace in Perov, near Moscow, as his model, Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli designed it in the rococo style for Empress Elizabeth I. It was built above the Dnipro River in the Pechersk district under the supervision of the architects I. Michurin, P. Neelov, and Ivan Hryhorovych-Barskyi in the years 1747–1755. The palace consisted of a long central section with a stone ground floor and wooden second story (destroyed by a fire in 1819), two stone one-story wings, and a large adjacent park with an orangery and orchards. It was inhabited sporadically by visiting members of the royal family and various governors, including Petr Rumiantsev (in 1776), but otherwise stood empty. From 1834 to 1868 it was leased by a mineral-water company. The palace was renovated in 1870 according to K. Maievsky's Louis XVI-style design for the visit of Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria (hence its name). In 1918 it housed the

216 Hetman government's Ministry of the Interior and the National Guard headquarters, in 1919, the Soviet Council of People's Commissars, and in 1920, the Soviet military-district headquarters. From 1923 to 1925 an agricultural school was located there. Since 1925 the palace has housed an agricultural museum, a permanent industrial exhibit, and various official agencies. After being damaged and looted during the Second World War, it was rebuilt by 1949. Since the 1990s Mariinskyi Palace has served as the setting for high-level meetings with foreign dignitaries and it is slated to become the of the president of Ukraine.

Theme 12 Ukrainian decorative arts and crafts – 10 hours

Plan 1 General information 2 Pottery 3 Kylym and rushnyk 4 Embroidery (Vyshyvka) 5 Pysanky

1 General information The Ukrainian applied art is rooted deep in the past. From chronicles and other monuments of Kyivan Rus it is known that crafts already existed then to properly become Ukrainian later. For instance, the oldest types of folk applied arts and crafts are woodcarving (e.g., wood sculpture carving), carpet making, embroidery, pottery and ceramics. The wood sculpture cutting reached its climax during the heydays of the Cossack state in 17th and 18th centuries when talented Cossack artisans, whose names failed to reach us, created in Ukraine the unique Ukrainian style, the so-called Cossack Baroque. Throughout the entire territory of the Cossack state comparatively small churches were erected distinguished by precision of lines and artistic perfection. Quite a few of them have preserved intact until now. Evidently, it was from the Cossack Baroque style that the skillful and masterly woodcutting spread to folk architecture of the Central, Northern and Southeastern Ukraine. Such elements as odvirok (doorframe), svoloka (ceiling supporting frame) and cornices of wooden structures were decorated by carving and, henceforth, the household goods and things, furniture, chest boxes, plates and dishes, tools, arms and munitions. A special page in the life of Ukrainian arts and crafts is the woodcarving of the church iconostases and other religious objects. Here, polychromatic or gilded engraving predominates which is based on exigent floriated ornament comprising such skillfully conventionalized folk motifs as a stem of grapevine, sunflower, mallow, roses, etc. Compositions with groups of figures of saints, angels and so on arranged within the Baroque and Rococo ornamental forms and motifs are peculiar to the architectural forms of multi-tier iconostases. As of today, popular are the objects of home craft of the western regions, especially the Hutsul ornamental hatchets, pistols, guns, powder-flasks, small vessels for liquids, and wooden, predominantly decorative plates and dishes (ware). To embellish their makes the Huzul artisans are using techniques of incrustation and patsiorkuvannia (encrusting with glass beads). Woodcarving has succeeded to preserve regional diversity of ornaments characteristic to other genres of the Ukrainian decorative arts. Thus, in Halych and Volyn regions geometric forms of ornament dominate being in contrast to floriated ornaments in the central and eastern Ukrainian lands. Making carpets is another olden Ukrainian trade. Functionally, there are three in use for carpeting: kover, kylym and kots. The difference between them could lie in the techniques, ornamentation, size, and purpose. At present, they are distinguished only by territorial principle: kover and kylym originate from the central and northern Ukrainian industrial centers, while kots are handmade in the western, mainly Hutsul region. Moreover, variegated, often vegetative ornament

217 prevail in the former, while the latter, that is, Hutsul kots is grey or white or the color of undyed wool, and if the ornament is present, it is geometric. The most varied and, surely, the oldest in Ukraine is the pottery trade. In general, terracotta, grey, enameled, and black ceramics are singled out differing not only by territorial traditions of coloring and decor, but also in clay deposits. Historically, the centers of pottery emerged in accord to the natural location of deposits of the clay required with the names arising from the nearby settlements and perceived as brand names. As such, for instance, are known pottery of Horodysche and Plakhtian, as well as ‘black-smoke’ pottery from Havarechyna in Lviv oblast. Fired without access for air under special technology, the "black-smoke" pottery, , has emerged as alternative to the traditional antique ceramics, centering on the territory of Ukraine and present-day countries of Europe, and competed in Ukraine of 18th to 19th centuries with glazed ceramics. The black earthenware is made of special clay on potter’s wheel. After drying, ornaments are burnished or "drawn" on the articles using slip originating from the same deposit. Firing results in burnished surface having silvery tint, with the rest of it colored black. As a rule, traditional earthenware is ornamented and decorated by enameling or fliandruvahhia, a specific system of ornamenting, with characteristic for Ukrainian pottery combination of green and brown glosts. Painted dishes, plates, tykva (pitcher), kumanets, blyzniata (jugs for holding wine), and dzbanky (bowls), and imaginative figures of goats, rams, and stags with flowerpots on their back bear vegetative or plotline ornamentation. Peculiar for the Ukrainian folk pottery is making tiles for stoves and, from time to time, insertions for buildings in the form of relief and adorned with designs circle and rectangular ornamented slabs that create decorative friezes on the walls, etc. Tiles could be relief with green or brown glaze, or drawn; one may encounter tiles with blue enamel or even of two or three colors on a white background. In old buildings, it is common to see tiled stoves as pieces of art intact but still in working order. They have practical use and serve as a style detail of the room. Decorative painting as a vivid chapter went down in history of the Ukrainian culture. This type of folk art originated from mural painting spread widely since time immemorial in the Ukrainian villages. One of the centers that for ages were famous in Ukraine with the original art of painting is the village of in the (region). This original Petrykivka ornament evolved as far as 17th century from the distinctive decorative art of Zaporizhia with the fundamentals of the village interior and exterior decorative setting, household and domestic tools design passed from generation to generation, and local features of painting preserved. Here, until the end of the 19th century for the mural painting chalk, soot and color clays as well as self-made plant paints dissolved in yolk, milk and natural cherry-tree resin were utilized. The pattern was indented with a brush while petty details were shaped using homemade cat’s fur hair-pencils and guelder-rose clusters with fingertips. The characteristic feature of the Petrykivka folk artists’ creations was the use of vegetative and floral ornamentation distinguished by ease and expressiveness of the composition. Starting with the 20th century Petrykivka became the center of making maliovka, drawings executed with inexpensive aniline dyes on thin paper. Another unique phenomenon in the decorative art of Ukraine is painting of pysanka, the decorated Easter eggs. The Ukrainian pysanka springs from ancient beliefs of this people, and if at the time of paganism the eggs were painted to mark the Holiday of Spring, they were decorated to commemorate the Velykden, the Holiday of Christ’s Resurrection, under the Christianity. With the Slavs, an egg was the origin of everything typifying the Universe. They believed in the world created in similarity to a large egg: the shell representing the skies, membrane as the clouds, the white as water, and the yolk as the earth. As the symbol of origin of a new life, an egg has a ring of symbolism of the Sun. Worshipped by ancestors of the Ukrainians, they believed it to be the surety of nature and life revival. Depending on the region, differences exist concerning decor composition, color spectrum and division of a pysanka surface. Numerous crosses and intersections symbolize fertility, while

218 rings and right lines were associated with male and female conceptions and medley of color reflected the surrounding. Quite a few nations of the world have preserved until now the custom of using eggs for Easter commemorations, however, they are making predominantly dyed eggs, that is, single colored boiled ones. In contrast, pysanka painting in Ukraine scaled the heights of development becoming a separate form of art, and pysanka itself one of the cultural symbols of the country.

2 Pottery Pottery production is widespread in Ukraine because of the large deposits of various clays, particularly kaolin (china clay). Ceramic arts date back to prehistoric times. The elegant forms and polychrome designs of the clay artifacts of the Trypillian culture (5000 to 4000 ȼɋȿ.) indicate a high level of sophistication in the process of clay preparation, firing, and decoration. Later ceramics showed complicated geometric designs and were formed in the figures of birds and animals. The introduction of the potter's wheel after the Mongol period changed the craft. With the development of the stove in the 18th century, all ceramic-producing centers in Ukraine began to produce enameled tiles. Today ceramic centers turn out much functional ceramic ware – pitchers, plates, candle holders, and tiles, and also some ornamental sculpture and toys.

3 Kylym and rushnyk Weaving had developed into a cottage industry by the 14th century. Weavers produced various articles of folk dress, bed and table coverings, kylyms, and rushnyky, from flax, hemp, or woolen thread. Especially important is the kylym ɤɢɥɢɦ), an ornamental woven floor or wall covering. Folk carpet-making dates back to antiquity, but the opening of large mills in the 18th century made kylym production widespread. The basic designs of geometric and plant motifs show some oriental and southern European influence; over time individual weavers developed their own styles, composition, and harmonized coloration. In homes throughout Ukraine, walls are frequently covered with kylyms, but they are rarely used as floor coverings. Rushnyky Ɋɭɲɧɢɤɢ), literally meaning "towels", are about 3 to 8 inches wide and 3 to 12 feet long, with geometric or floral patterns primarily near the ends. Traditionally, the rushnyk was used in various folk rituals and religious celebrations. It played a role in every milestone of human life, from birth to death. You can find rushnyky hanging on walls in many homes, particularly in rural areas, where they're draped over icons or favorite paintings. Intricately embroidered ones are used in wedding ceremonies. Factories throughout Ukraine produce both kylyms and rushnyky.

4 Embroidery (Vyshyvka) Vyshyvka (or shyttia, or shyttiachko) is one of the oldest and, the same time, most common kind of adornment in Ukraine. A distinctive feature of Ukrainian folk embroidery is the use of up to 10–15 techniques combined in one work. The names of such techniques mostly derive either from ways of stitching themselves, e.g., vyrizuvannia (cutwork), vykoliuvannia (punchwork), nastyluvannia (satin stitch), zanyzuvannia (pattern darning), or zmerezhuvannia (needle lace), or from their place of origin, e.g., poltavs'ka glad' (Poltava satin stitch), starokyivs'kyi shov (old Kyivan stitch), or horodots'kyi shov (horodots'kyi stitch). Separate stitches acquired their names simply after their looks, e.g., kuriachyi brid (lit.; hens' ford), solovyini vichka (lit: nightingale eyes), kozlyk (lit:. goat kid), hrechka (lit.; buckwheat). All in all, experts distinguish over 200 types of stitch in Ukrainian traditional embroidery. Stitching with coloured thread used to be most popular; however, most precious samples today are those performed in the so called white-on-white technique (whitework). For colouring thread only natural dyes were used, such as tree bark, chopped root, foliage, blossom, and fruit. To attain fast colors, thread was baked in rye dough. The effect of a golden thread was achieved by soaking thread in vegetable oil with subsequent baking in dough.

219 In olden days, girls were taught to embroider at the age of 7–8, whereupon embroidering took up most of their pastime, up to the wedding day. Nowadays, it is hard to say why the prevailing type of embroidering today is that of cross stitching. Cross stitching is a relative newcomer in Ukraine, dating back to the mid-19th c. For its spread it owes much to embroidery workshops at panski maietky (lit.: landlords' estates), where they employed patterns borrowed from fashion albums much in demand at that time. Gradually, the then fashion trends sprawled into the countryside, thus ousting the century old original traditions of embroidery. Unfortunately, what they worldwide associate with Ukrainian embroidery nowadays, all these cross stitched red-and-black roses, is, in fact, a commercial project, nicknamed Brocard, after the perfume company which offered booklets with cross stitch patterns as a bonus to a purchase. As far vyshyvka is concerned, one cannot help mentioning a number of customs linked to the Ukrainian rushnyk. Incidentally, researchers at the National Centre of Folk Culture numbered over 70 rushnyk-related customs. Depending on their designation, either everyday use or ceremonial, ryshnyks may bear different names, e.g., utyrach or utyralnyk (lit.: wiper), plechovyi (lit.: shoulder-long, presented to the matchmakers by the girl who consents to the proposal). kilkovyi (lit.: on-the-peg, used to decorate mirrors or portraits), naobraznyk or bozhnyk (lit.: for images, or Gods, used to decorate the icon corner), vesilnyi (lit.: for the wedding), podarunkovyi (lit.: for gifts), and obrus (used at ceremonial meals). Literally, no ceremonial event could do without a relevant ryshnyk, with the biggest set required for the wedding. From the very matchmaking day and up to the wedding ceremony itself the bride-to-be had to present dozens of handmade rushnyks from her skrynia to the starosty (trad, masters-of the ceremonies), for the wedding korovay (a large round braided bread decorated with symbolic figurines), for the wedding church ceremony, and for decorating the future mother's-in- lawhut. Registed, in 2012, in the village of Polytsi (rn. Kamin'-Kashyrskyi, obl. Volyn'), was a peculiar custom of hanging the Easter rushnyk out at the entrance door for the entire summer as a charm against a thunderbolt. Recorded in the village Riabukhine (rn. Nova Vodolaha, obl. Kharkiv) was a custom of tying a rushnyk with a rooster embroidery onto the svolok (main bearing beam of the ceiling) when the hut was under construction, meaning that the rooster should wake up the family early in the morning so that they worked hard and acquire greater wealth. Questions 1. What embroidery designs are found in Ukraine? 2. What is the most popular method of embroidery? 3. What are popular embroidery motifs?

5 Pysanky Pysanky: The Beautiful Tradition of Ukrainian Easter Eggs and How to Make Your Own The start of spring means that Easter is on the horizon, which for many people means one thing – it’s time to start decorating eggs. But did you know that in Ukraine, Easter egg decorating is an important art form that dates back centuries? Known as pysanky, these Ukrainian Easter eggs are decorated using the wax-resist (batik) method. Covered in stunning motifs often taken from Slavic folk art, you’ll also find these decorated eggs in many parts of eastern Europe. Creating these precious eggs takes focus and attention to detail, but the results are stunning works of art that are traditionally given as gifts to family members and community leaders. In fact, pysanka is so important to the culture that it’s thought that it was even produced in prehistoric Ukraine. Archaeologists have found decorated ceramic eggs to back up this theory and, according to folklore, pysanky can help ward off evil from overtaking the world. Later, this blended with Christian beliefs, though many people still feel that the decorative eggs works to scare off bad spirits from the home. So how does one create a pysanka? The word itself is taken from the Ukrainian word "to write", which gives a hint into how it’s done. After designs are drawn in pencil around the raw egg,

220 it’s hollowed out by drilling a small hole in the top and bottom and letting its innards seep out. Wax is then applied across the lines with a tool called a kistka, and the egg is dipped in the first dye. Just as in batik, the wax helps seal off the lines so that they remain free of the dye. Wax is continually added, and the egg is continually dipped in different colors to achieve the desired design. Once dry, the beeswax is melted off with a candle, revealing the colorful pattern. Pysanky are then varnished to preserve them before being displayed on special stands. For many families, creating pysanky is an important cultural ritual that brings them together each Easter. It’s the perfect creative project for all ages, so whether you want to pay homage to your Slavic heritage or simply take your Easter eggs to a new level, why not give it a try? Many community organizations also run workshops on how to decorate Ukrainian Easter eggs or you can try an online pysanky class. Pysanky Supplies If you want to get started creating your own pysanky, it doesn’t take much to get started. It’s even possible to find a wide range of pysanky kits that provide all the supplies you’ll need. Here are the essential tools you’ll need to start making your own Ukrainian Easter eggs. Kistka – This special pen has a receptacle for hot wax, allowing you to draw your designs across the egg. Traditionally made from a stick and a piece of brass around a needle, these days there are electric kistka that will hold more wax. They’re readily available in craft stores or online. But, if you are extra crafty, you can even make your own kistka. Tips of different widths are also available to produce a variety of lines. Beeswax – You’ll fill your kistka with melted beeswax in order to trace over the lines of your pattern prior to dipping the egg in each color of dye. In this way, the color below the wax is preserved, allowing you to create complex, colorful designs. Once the dying process is complete and the egg is dry, simply melt the wax away with the flame of a candle. Drop Pull Tool – In some Eastern European countries like Poland, Slovenia, Lithuania, and the , pysanky are made using a different stylus. This method, called drop-pull, uses pinheads dipped into hot wax to apply designs to the egg. This tool can be used both for the wax- resist method and created embossed eggs. Egg Blower – Traditionally, pysanky are created on raw eggs that have had the interior yolk and white drained. To do this, you’ll need to poke a small hole on the ends and blow out the inside. Pysanky Stand – After all the hard work in creating your decorative egg, you’ll want to show it off. You’ll find stands that you can set your egg in or others that allow you to hang your pysanky if you decide to add a tassel and loop through the hole. Ukrainian Easter Egg Dyes – Traditionally, pysanky dyes were created from plants and minerals, making it necessary to soak eggs for several hours in order to achieve a strong color. These days, synthetic dye drastically cuts down on time. You’ll want to pick up dye specifically made for pysanky rather than traditional Easter egg dye in order to achieve the vivid colors that these eggs are known for. Pysanky Sleeve – Like the look of these decorated eggs, but aren’t sure about going through the whole process? There are now a whole variety of egg sleeves in traditional patterns that will shrink wrap a design to your egg in seconds. In Ukraine, these sleeves are called Linyvky, which is derived from the Ukrainian word for lazy. Traditional Pysanky Patterns. There are many different ornamental patterns and colors that one can find on pysanky. Motifs are often taken from other Slavic folk arts and can be found throughout pottery, embroidery, woodwork, and metalwork. These provide important clues to understanding what ancient pysanky must have been decorated with, as the eggs are too fragile to survive. Different motifs can play on religious iconography – such as a commonly featured triangle symbolizing the Holy Trinity – or symbolize the changing seasons and societal roles. Different villages may have specialized in particular motifs, but some of the most common imagery includes depictions of the sun, birds, a ladder (to symbolize prayers making their way toward heaven), the tree of life, flowers, and geometric designs.

221 LIST OF RECOMMENDED SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Primary literature 1. Aleksieiev Y. History of Ukraine. – Kyiv: Caravela, 2012. – 216 p. 2. Aleksieiev Y. History of Ukraine: a textbook for the students of higher educational establishments. – Kyiv: Caravela, 2007. – 207 p. 3. Aleksieiev Y. The chronology of historical and cultural events in Ukraine from the early times till nowadays. – Kyiv: Caravela, 2006. – 112 p. 4. Dyagilev V. E., Kutya O. A., Lykhachova T. M. History of Ukraine: Exercise book for English-speaking students. – Kharkov: Kollegium, 2013. – 44 p. 5. Dyagilev V. E., Kutya O. A., Lykhachova T. M. History of Ukraine: Textbook for English-speaking Students. – Kharkiv: V. N. Karazin Kharkov National University, 2013. – 118 p. 6. Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Volume I: Ⱥ-F plus Map and Gazetteer. Edited by Volodymyr Kubijovycࡅ and Danylo Husar Struk. – University of Toronto Press, 1984. – 30 p. 7. Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Volume II: G-K. Edited by Volodymyr Kubijovycࡅ and Danylo Husar Struk. – University of Toronto Press, 1988. – 737 p. 8. Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Volume III: L-Pf. Edited by Volodymyr Kubijovycࡅ and Danylo Husar Struk. – University of Toronto Press, 1993. – 872 p. 9. Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Volume IV: Ph-Sr. Edited by Volodymyr Kubijovycࡅ and Danylo Husar Struk. – University of Toronto Press, 1993. – 864 p. 10. Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Volume V: St-Z. Edited by Volodymyr Kubijovycࡅ and Danylo Husar Struk. – University of Toronto Press, 1993. – 886 p. 11. Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Index and Errata. Edited by Volodymyr Kubijovycࡅ and Danylo Husar Struk. – University of Toronto Press, 2001. – 513 p. 12. Gritsuk V. E., Dyagilev V. E., Kornilova V. A. History of Ukraine: Textbook for foreign students. – Kharkiv: V. N. Karazin National University, 2004. – 50 p. 13. Martynenko N. History of Ukrainian culture. – Kharkiv: KNMU, 2013. – 116 p. 14. Petrenko I., Sarapin V. History of Ukrainian Culture. – Poltava, 2012. – 504 p. 15. Udovyk Serhiy.The History of Ukraine-Rus. – Kyiv: Vuckler, 2010. – 120 p.

Additional literature 1. All about Ukraine: Two-volumed illustrated edition contains all kind of facts about Ukraine in short. Vol. 2. – Publishing Home "Alternative", 1998. – 397 p. 2. An Orthodox Pomjanyk of the Seventeenth Eighteenth Centuries. – Camb.: H.Un.Pr., 1989. – 292 p. 3. Borys J. The Sovietization of Ukraine 1917–1923. – Edmonton: The Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1980. – 488 p. 4. Boshyk Y. Ukraine during World War II. History and its aftermath. A Symposium. Edmonton: University of Alberta, 1986. – 291 p. 5. Boyeva S.Y. The history of Ukraine and current realities: Collection of texts and exercises. – K.: NTUU "KPI", 2006. – 120 p. 6. Contemporary Ukraine on the Cultural Map of Europe / Edited by Larissa M. L. Zaleska Onyshkevych, Maria G. Rewakowicz. – NY: M.E. Sharpe. – 471 p. 7. Himka J. Socialism in Galicia: The Struggle for National and Constional Rights in the Last Years of Tsarism. – Cambridge; Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press, 1998. – 218 p. 8. Hrabjanka H. The Great war of Bohdan Xmel’nyc’kyj. – Cambridge: Harv. Un. Pr., 1990. – 588 p. 9. Hrushevsky M. A History of Ukraine / M. Hrushevsky; trans. by O. J. Frederiksen. – Yale : Archon Books, 1970. – 629 p. 10. Hunchak I. The Ukraine, 1917–1921: A Study in Revolution. – Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977. – 424 p.

222 11. Kubicek P. The History of Ukraine / P. Kubicek. – Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press, 2008. – 199 p. 12. Magocsi P. Ukraine: an illustrated history of / Paul R. Magocsi. – Toronto; London: University of Toronto Press Inc., 2007 – 336 p. 13. Nahayewsky I. History of the modern Ukrainian State 1917–1923. – Munich: Ukrainian Free University and Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1966. – 317 p. 14. Plokhy S. Tsar and Cossaks: A Study in Iconography. – C.H.U.P., 2002. – 102 p. 15. The Christianization of Kievan Rus’. – Cambridge, 1988. – 9 p. 16. The Old Rus’ Kievan and Galician-Volhynian Chronicles: the Ostroz’kyi (Xlebnikov) and Cetvertyns’kyj (Pogodin) Codices-Camb., 1990. – 761 p. 17. The Paterik of the Kievan Caves Monastery. – Camb.: Har. Un., 1989. – 262 p. 18. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine. An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995: Ed. Ralph Lindheim and George S.N. Luckyj. – Toronto, 1996 – 420 p. 19. Ukrainian Literature in the Twentieth Century: A Reader's Guide. By George S.N. Luckyj. – Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992. – 136 pp.

Electronic resources 1. Anders Aslund. How Ukraine Became a Market Economy and Democracy. – Peterson institute, 2009. – 162 ɪ. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source: https:// books. google. com.ua/ books?id =C8C3xuqd6aMC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false 2. Berkhoff Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule. Cambridge / London: Harvard University Press, 2004. P.1-79. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source:http:// books.google.com.ua/books?id=nd9WzIkTJrAC&pg=PA6&hl=ru&source= gbs_ toc_ r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false 3. Blaj L. Ukraine's Independence and Its Geostrategic Impact in Eastern Europe Debatte: // Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe 21 (2–3), 2013. P.165-179. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source: http://www. tandfonline.com /doi/pdf /10.1080/0965156X .2013. 841797 4. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine / Ivan Katchanovski, Zenon E. Kohut, Bohdan Y. Nebesio, Myroslav Yurkevich Second edition. – Scarecrow Press, 2013.– 992 p. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source: https://books.google.com.ua/books?id=-h6r57l DC4QC &printsec=f rontcover &hl= ru&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false 5. Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. History – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/History.asp 6. Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Culture – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/Culture.asp 7. History of Ukraine. Detailed narrative on the Ukrainian history // Toronto Ukrainian Genealogy – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.torugg.org/History/history _of_ukraine.html 8. History of Ukraine: Primary Documents – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Ukraine:_Primary_Documents 9. Kudelia Serhiy. Choosing Violence in Irregular Wars: The Case of Anti-Soviet Insurgency in West// East European Politics and Societies and Cultures Volum 27 Number 1, February 2013 SAGE Publications. P. 149–181. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source: http: // www. academia.edu /2222370 / Choosing_Violence_in_Irregular_Wars_The_Case_of_Anti- Soviet_ Insurgency_ in_Western_Ukraine. 10. Magocsi Paul Robert. A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. 2nd, rev. and expanded. ed.; Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2010. – 894 p. – [Electronic resource.] – Access to the source: https:// books. google. com.ua/ books?id =TA1zVKTT sXUC &printsec=frontcover&hl=ru#v=onepage&q&f=false. 11. Short history of Ukraine // Vesti – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.hf.uib.no/andre/vesti/Ukrainehistory.htm.

223 12. Subtelny Orest. Ukraine: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. – 2009 – [Electronic resource]. – Accessmode:https://books.google.com.ua/books/about/Ukraine.html?id= ktyM07I9HXwC&hl=en 13. The Ukrainian Canadian research & documentation centre – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.ucrdc.org/index.html. 14. Ukrainian collection. It contains a lot of images of books on the Ukrainian history, including Hrushevskyi's one // Simon Fraser University Library – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode:http://content.lib.sfu.ca/cdm/search/collection/ukr/searchterm/Ukraine!Ukraine%20history/fie ld/all!all/mode/all!all/conn/and!and/order/nosort/ad/asc. 15. Ukraine profile – Timeline. A chronology of key events – [Electronic resource]. – Access mode: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18010123. 16. Ukraine: History. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved 31 October 2011. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source:http: //www. britannica. com/ EBchecked /topic/612921/Ukraine. 17. Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine Resolution On Declaration of Independence of Ukraine // Vidomosti Verkhovnoyi Rady (VVR) 1991, #38, p. 502 – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source: http://static.rada.gov.ua/site/postanova_eng/Rres_Declaration_Independence_rev1 2.htm 18. Wanner Catherine. Burden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine.– Penn State Press, 2010. – 140 p. – [Electronic resource] – Access to the source: https:// books. google. com.ua/books?id=k44rN1V8W90C&hl=ru&source=gbs_navlinks_s

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