Chapter I: INTRODUCTION Introduction

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 DEFINITION OF ECOTOURISM In 1980s, alternative forms of tourism have attracted the interest of governments, communities and scholars. These were given different names like nature tourism, soft tourism, responsible tourism, green tourism, ecotourism (Schaller, 1999). Among these, the term ecotourism has become prominent, although a consistent definition is by no means found. Most definitions do, however, incorporate concepts associated with sustainable development. Sustainable development attempts were made to integrate economic development with ecological sustainability ( Redclift, 1987) The researchers like Zurick( 1992), Dearden (1991) and Hunter and Green (1995) accepted the definition of ecotourism given by World Commission on Environment and Development. According to them development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987) is known as ecotourism. Many research workers now agreed that ecotourism is a two-way link between tourism and environmental conservation (Valentine, 1993; Cater, 1994). As the understanding of the close relationships between tourism and environmental conservation increased, the researchers are now calling on ecotourism industry to incorporate economic development as a fiindamental element of conservation (West and Brechin, 1991). According to Healy (1988) nature tourism is based directly on the use of natural resources in a relatively undeveloped state, including scenery, topography, water features, vegetation and wildlife. It is also based upon the desire of people to experience nature in their leisure time. Eagles (1995a) proposed that nature-based tourism has at least four sub-markets, differentiated according to the travel motives of the tourists. (Fig. 1.1) Ecotourism involves travel for the discovery of and learning about wild natural environments. Wilderness travel is the personal re-creation through the traveling in natural environments that are devoid of human disturbances. While the adventure travel is personal accomplishment through the thrills of dominating Introduction

dangerous environments. Among the various subdivisions of nature based tourism ecotourism is the fastest growing tourism submarket. The growth of ecotourism primarily involved the travel by Europeans and North Americans to all parts of the world. Eagles and Wind (1994) reported that Canadian ecotour companies visited fifty different countries in 1992. Recently, with rapidly developing economies in Asia, ecotourists from these countries are entering the market as consumers. The experience is expanding with the increase in number of parks. There is now a worldwide increase in nature travel market, (Zurick, 1992). Ecotourism has an idealistic agenda, defined by Drumm (1991) as progressive, educational travel, which conserves the environment and benefits local communities. The synonyms of eco-tourism are given below: environment friendly tourism , nature tourism, green tourism, scientific tourism, cottage tourism, wildlife tourism, wilderness tourism, safari tourism, designer tourism, hard tourism, risk tourism, adventure tourism etc. In 1987, Ceballos-Lascurain defined the ecotourism as ecological tourism or ecotourism involving traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas, with the specific aims of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspects found in these areas. In fact, train journeys to the first North American national parks in the late nineteenth century were called as ecotourism (National Audubon Society, 1991). Johnson(1967 )reported heavy over-use of the North American national parks, with traffic congestion and the resulting impacts was erosion and the loss of wilderness. In recent years Blamey (1997), Fennell (1998), Fennell and Eagles (1989), Orams (1995), Swarbrooke and Homer (1999) and Valentine (1993) have modified, extended and developed many new definitions of ecotourism. The definitions of ecotourism are broad in scope. Ecotourism includes conservation, education, local ownership, and economic benefit for local communities, the relevance of cultural resources, minimum impacts and sustainability. The ecotourism must determine a visitor's status as an ecotourist and encompass the social motive. Introduction

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Fig. 1.1 Tourism sub-markets

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Fig. 1.2 Ecotourism opportunities Introduction

These definitions of ecotourism must remain faithful to the ideals of ecotourism and concentrate on positive overall balance in environment. The sustainable ecotourism development should have also economic viability.

1.2 ECOTOURISM AT GLOBAL LEVEL In western society, travel to experience wild nature is an old and well- accepted tourism since 1872.These governments had set aside the natural areas for protection and recreation in the form of national parks. Many Afiican national parks originated as game reserves. The first national parks were Albert National Park, created in the Belgian Congo in 1925, and Kruger National Park, created by South Afiica in 1926 (Luard, 1985). Parts of Kruger had been a game reserve since 1898. In Tanganyika, now Tanzania the Selous Game Reserve was assembled, in 1922, from several smaller reserves (Luard, 1985). Later the Ngorongoro Highlands were made into a game reserve in 1928, soon followed by the Serengeti in 1930. In 1940 the two areas were combined into the Serengeti National Park (Turner, 1988). Kenya's first national park, Nairobi, was created in 1946 (Luard, 1985). There is now a world-wide system of thousands of protected areas in all parts of the globe. Several Afiican countries with savanna ecosystems have assigned substantial land of their territory to protected areas. Since the last century, tourism use of parkland changed from a few hundred hardy fravelers to tens of millions. The number of travelers increased due to expanding affluence, cheaper travel costs and increasing interest in the environment. The higher level of environmental consciousness in western society is a primary factor in the higher demand for nature-based tourism. All of these factors pushed up the ecotravel growth. Ecotourism may be the fastest growing tourism sub-market (Fig. 1.3 and Fig. 1.4). Recently, with rapidly developing economies in Asia, ecotourists from various countries are entering the market as consumers. The number of eco- destinations expanded with the increase in park numbers. Introduction

Protected Area/Site Manogers ( play a facititoHon role in: )

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Fig.1.3 Ecotourism Partnerships

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Fig. 1.4 Potential of Tourism Introduction

Since people travel domestically before traveling to foreign areas, the domestic park infrastructure is better developed and more popular in Canada, Europe and Australia. In most destinations the experience is always very positive. Australia is a good example of nature-based tourism, due to its recognized leadership and rapidly developing industry. Tourism in Australia is the largest export industry (Shea and Sharp, 1993). The domestic tourism market is three times larger than the inboimd market (Moore and Carter, 1993). Much of this tourism is based on the superb natural features of the country, with ecotourism a major component (Shea and Sharp, 1993). The national parks and protected areas, and especially those designated as world heritage sites, are important destinations for national and international ecotourists (Dowling, 1991; Driml and Common, 1995). Australia is an important area for the study of tourism and parks. It is the first country in the world to develop and approve a national ecotourism strategy (Allcock et. al., 1994). It has become top most industry because government and environmentalists are paying attention for long-term implications of increasing tourism use in sensitive parks, reserves and world heritage sites. Kenya and Tanzania are well-documented examples of nature-based tourism in Africa starting with only a few thousand tourists in the early 1950s. Throughout eastern and southern Africa park-based tourism is a very important economic activity. The nature-based tourism is only a small part of the overall tourism industry, possibly 7%.But only Kenya has its tourism predominately nature-based. The link between environmental protection, international tourism and economic development became widely recognized in eastern Afiica in the early 1970s (Thresher, 1972; Thresher, 1981).Research workers like Filani (1975) and Western and Henry (1979) proposed the need for development of national tourism policy, closely linked to national development strategies. Kenya and South Africa have been successftil leaders in the development of ecotourism industries, based upon a comprehensive structure of national legislation, policy planning and site management. Ankomah and Crompton (1990) identified the five factors inhibiting ecotourism such as being negative

10 Introduction

market image, lack of foreign exchange for capital development, lack of trained personnel for tourism, weak institutional frameworks for planning and management and political instability.

1.3 ECO-TOURISM IN INDIA Tourism is considered as one of the major industries in India. The concentration of tourism in India is on the historical as well as religious places, hill stations and to some extent the beaches. Eco-tourism is a new concept being considered in India. India has several biosphere reserves, marine parks and sanctuaries having different eco-biological components and uniqueness in flora and fauna. These reserves have attracted several local and foreign ecotourists. However, in spite of the very interesting scenic spots with rich biodiversity, these areas have not received much attention for eco-tourism due to the lack of tourists' oriented spots/recreation as well as infrastructural facilities and poor media coverage highlighting the unique and varied biota of the region. It is however, necessary to have proper management plan with stringent measures to control pollution and minimize the impact of tourism on the coastal ecosystems, keeping in view the total carrying capacity of the area. India has primarily an agricultural economy with a vast range of natural diversity. The industrial sector is now playing a major role in the countries economy. After the economic liberalization in 1991. The industrial and services components of the economy have shown a high rate of growth and today services contribute 46% of GDP. India is rated as the fourth largest economy in the world, based on the purchasing power party method of calculating per capita GDP. India has spectacularly and attractive natural and cultural tourism potential .It has a rich, over 5000-years-old culture visit age and thousands of monuments and archeological sites for tourists to enjoy. India offers enormous diversity in topography, natural resources and climate. The land-locked regions, lush valleys and plains, deserts, coasts and islands are the major ecotourism places, (fig. 1.5)

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Introduction

1.4 ECO-TOURISM IN THE STATE OF MAHARASHTRA The geographical diversity of Maharashtra state provides opportunities for a wealth of outdoor activities, from the soft to fast-paced thrills and there is something for every level of experiences of ecotourism development. The geographical diversity of Maharashtra makes it the home of a wealth of ecosystems, which are well protected and conserved with rich biodiversity. These ecosystems have become the major potentials for ecotourism .There is many ecosystems and resources and important biosphere reserves in the state of maharashtra. The biospheres are protected areas for preservation of the genetic diversity of plants and animals including various microorganisms. The major ecotoxorism places in Maharashtra are shown in fig 1.6

1.5 ECO-TOURISM IN DISTRICT Pune, earlier famous as Poona is one of the most important cities of Western India, aptly called as Queen of Deccan. The city is nicknamed variously such as Pensioners' paradise, the Oxford of East, Detroit of India, the Cultural Capital of Maharashtra, once the Cycle City and now the Two Wheelers' City of India and upcoming as IT-BT Center of India. Pune is said to be the fourth greenest city in India. Currently it has more than thirty-four lakh trees. The major-forested areas of the city include , valley, , Kandrala, Mulshi ,Bhimashankar and Ane-malsei Ghats. Beautiful natural green areas are surrounding the city,the Queen of Deccan. These natural attractions consist of some hills , green areas and specially some lakes like Mulshi, Khadakwasala , Lonavla, Katraj, Valvan, , Bhugaon etc.which have become the famous natural eco tourism view points of . A total of 102 flowering plant species, 130 bird species, 15 mollusks and uncountable forms of insects have been recorded in and around the Pune district. The important ecotourists places in Pune district are shown in Figl.7 and Fig 1.8

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T^ V ..• Introduction

Sinhagad Fort It is the most dominant feature in Sahyadri ranges, which is the great monument of epic battle fought by Tanaji Malusare. It is a steadfast symbol of courage, rock-like determination, bravery and spirit of sacrifice. Therefore this cradle of heroism becomes the fort of Lion: Sinhagad. It has great biodiversity of flora and fauna. Ecotourists are always attracted towards Sinhagad fort to experience wildness, natural sites and for rock climbing. The local people have taken interest to utilize its ecotourism potential to a large scale. These people are providing tribal food, medicines and many other things to ecotourists.

Pataleshver Caves This rock cut caves date back to 8* century which has a Shiva temple inside. The specialty of the caves is the numerous stone pillars on both sides in a row. In front of Lord Shiva there is a grate Bull "Nandi" surrounded by rock pillars, covered with circular slab. People largly visit this temple during month of August. About one-lakh lamps are kindled on the eve of Tripura Paumima in this temple. Parvati hills, Lonavala, Katraj, Mulshi, Bhimashankar, Caves like Karla, are other very interesting places for ecotourism in Pune district. These ecotourism sites have their own specialties and they attract typical groups of ecotourists.

Dams and Lakes around Pune Lakes always attract the ecotourists. The important lakes of Pune, with high ecotourism potential are described below. Panshet is set in an idyllic location between and Varasgaon Dam. Its major attraction is the water sport complex, which offers facilities for wind surfing, kayaking and exciting rides in speedboats giving one a thrilling experience. , Bhatgar Dam on the river Valvandi, Mulshi lake are the other attractive ecotourism sites. The Khadakwasla lake is on a confluence of two rivers the Mutha and Mula. Masonry dam built in 1960-70 brought this lake into existence. This dam was built during 1880-85. The enormous lake as it is seen today was rebuilt in

17 Introduction

1962-65.More than a Kilometer wide and 17km long lake ripples through an idyllic setting among the several rolling hills, slopes and gradients .The NDA academy uses this lake for swimming competitions, sailing, rowing, boat pulling and wind surfing championships, the peacock bay was established in Julyl952 which has become an attraction to the ecotourists. Many ecotourists visit this lake every day to experience native, diversity of flora and especially the huge numbers of peacocks as the name indicate.

1.6 GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF PUNE DISTRICT The main system of the hills is the Sahyadries' ranges, which run north- south in the western portion of the district in the gradual change roughly hilly west to the bare open east, Pune city comes in this belt. The geology of the Pune consists of Deccan traos with inter-trapped beds. The rocks are dark or dark gray to greenish gray in color and are generally of two types. The non-vesicular type is hard, tough, compact and medium to fine-grained. The vesicular type is comparatively soft and breaks more easily. Pune consists of different types of soils namely black, red and brown.

1.7 CLIMATE OF PUNE DISTRICT The climate is typical monsoon, with three district seasons-summers, rains and winter, as elsewhere in India. The height above sea level and the leeward location with reference to the Western ghats have made the city climate moderate and salubrious. The mean daily maximum and the mean minimum for the hottest month-May is 37 degree Celsius and 23 degree Celsius respectively. The evening sea breeze from west/northwest keeps the city summer nights at bearable levels. The same for the coldest month of December are 30 degree Celsius and 12 degree Celsius respectively. The relative humidity ranges from 36% in March to 81% in August. There fourth of the annual rainfall of 70 cm occurs in just four months from June to September.

18 Introduction

1.8 GENERAL INFORMATION AND POPULATION IMPACT ON ECO- TOURISM IN PUNE DISTRICT The city gradually expanded during the British rule with the formation of Pune Municipality and the establishment of Pune, and Dehuroad cantonments. The city expanded explosively in the post independence period. The Pune urban area has grown from a mere 5 sq.km to an Urban agglomeration (Pune Region) about 700 sq.km, which is 140 times more than original area, between 1901 and 2001.(Ref 149) Pune' s urban population has grown from 1.64 lakh to about 42 lakh ,which is 25 times the original figure, whereas Pune city proper grew to 243.84 sq.kms with an estimated population of thirty lakh. The population density of Pune city at present is 13,203 persons per sq.km (2001), which was previously about 5000 persons per sq.km. Pune urban area or agglomeration as recognized by central govt, includes the areas under Pune and - corporations. Pune, Khadki and Road Cantonments and a few semi- urbanised villages on the periphery. The total Pune urban area is about 700 sq.km. The was established in July, 1967. The total area of Pune metropolitan region is 809 sq.km. The area under settlement has increased 2-4 times during these 30yrs. The area under agriculture and grassland- scrub has decreased by 31% and 39% respectively. The area under hills and forests and water sheets remain apparently same, though there are encroachments over some hill slopes, the urban sprawl appears to be at the cost of agriculture and grassland-scrub.

1.9 EMPLOYMENT IN THE ECOTOURISM SECTOR Since tourism is essentially a service industry, it provides relatively more jobs than any other economic sector. This industry is labor-intensive and, consequently, its expansion generates more job opportunities than an equivalent expansion in other sectors of the economy (Teye, 1987). In addition, allied improvements in tourism infrastructure also catalyze other economic activities. It was estimated that well over 219,000 people are currently deriving their livelihood from tourism in Uganda (Ringer, 1996).The various opportunities

19 Introduction

provided by ecotourism are shown in fig. 1.2. Income fi-om tourism contributes to exports and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Foreign exchange earnings have been increasing steadily over the past ten years representing an appreciable growth rate. Tourism is sensitive to the level of economic activity in the country; it provides higher and stable earnings than those fi-om primary products. Tourism earnings tend to increase at a higher rate than earnings fi-om other export commodities. Tourism contributes greatly to government revenue through license fees, customs and exercise duty, value added taxes (VAT) on tourism services, landing fees, passenger service charge, and entry fees to game parks, as well as income tax levied on employees in the tourism industry. The generated revenues play a pivotal role in the overall development of a country's economy (Moore and Carter, 1993).

1.10 DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE FOR ECOTOURISM The benefits fi-om investments in infi-astructure such as hotels and restaurants, road network and superstructure such as airports, communications, power and water supply as well as other related public utilities, are widely shared with other sectors of the economy. The development of above inirastructure facilities enhances the overall development at the local level and also encourages greater economic diversification. It has been argued by Schaller (1999) that ecotourism has larger multiplier effects than any other sectors. For instance, money spent by a tourist on hotel accommodation, food and beverages, shopping, entertainment and transportation, does not stagnate, but provides income to hotel staff, taxi operators, shopkeepers and suppliers of goods and services. Part of this income is spent on these individuals' daily requirements of goods and services.

1.11 ECOTOURISM AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT The ecotourism industry has been described as a major promoter of international goodwill and understanding (Moore and Carter, 1993), as well as a prime means of developing social and cultural understanding at the local level. Accordingly, foreign visitors are considered to be the best ambassadors of their

20 Introduction

respective countries. In view of the fact that we are living in a global village, the industry contributes significantly to international commerce and good relation among nations. The development of tourism may serve as an important vehicle for promoting economic advancement of less developed countries (Sanchez, 1998).The ecotourism activities will definitely help for the regional development by various ways and means.

1.12 MANAGEMENT OF ECOTOURISM Most of the ecotourism activities are nature-based, requiring natural landscapes. The countries like Canada, United States and Australia have more than a century of experience in developing approaches for the management of tourists in natural areas. Previous researches were revealed that park visitors' satisfaction is more closely correlated with environmental quality, the adequacy of facilities and programs and the accuracy of expectations (Graefe et. al., 1984; Beaumont, 1993). For maintaining the visitors' satisfaction in crowded locales, protection of natural features must be assured, facilities must be capable of handling the numbers, services must be high quality, and visit expectations must be appropriate. The management of large number of visitors include abundant pre- trip inforination, quality transportation networks, scheduling of access, use limits, hardening of facilities in sensitive areas, visitor education, and law enforcement. A major challenge in future is the education of international ecotourists who come fi-om cultures where significant natural sites are not present. Within a park system and within an individual park, it is valuable to maintain a range of density and experience opportunities for the visitors. It is equally important to have information and allocation procedures in place, so that the visitors can be made aware of the range of opportunities available and the means of access.

21 Introduction

1.13 MANAGEMENT OF RECREATION CONFLICT IN ECOTOURISM In ecotourism recreation conflicts are usually created hence, it is essential that such conflict be kept to a minimum; so as to avoid tourists' dissatisfaction and their physical interactions. Conflict in outdoor recreation is defined as goal interference attributed to another's behavior. Recreation managers need to understand the diversity of visitors' motives, the outcomes necessary to attain the tourists' goals and the consequences of people interacting with others with different agendas (Schreyer, 1990). Recreation conflict is important in decision­ making. Reducing group conflict will help to minimize environmental damage. The feasible solution for reducing conflict is the redistribution of use across a wider area. In many countries the tourism use is concentrated in a minority of the available reserves. Other reserves can be utilized in order to spread out the environmental and economic impact of tourism.

1.14 FACILITY DESIGNIG FOR ECOTOURISM The international ecotourism market is expecting sensitive and sustainable facility design. Ecotourists require very wide range of facilities. A first priority is facilifies with minimum environmental impact, and the using of recycled materials. The use of minimum water and electricity is desirable, similarly the internal electricity generation, fi-om water and wind should be considered use of solar energy is the best alternative source of energy in ecotourism. Environmentally sensitive consumers expect their purchases to have low levels of negative environmental impact. However, given the short-term relationship between ecotourists and their destinafions, it is difficult for the consumers to check for sustainability. Hence it is important to have sustain ably designed and operated facilities for ecotourists. The facility designing for ecotourism is the key point in ecotourism development.

22 Introduction

1.15 ROLE OF ECOTOURISM IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Ecotourism, as it relates to sustainable development, is developed so that the nature, scale, location, and manner of development will be appropriate and sustainable over long time, where the environment's ability to support other activities and processes is not impaired (Fig. 1.9). The sustainable ecotourism is tourism, which continues to be viable over long time, without damaging the nature. It should maintain a full range of recreational, educational and cultural opportunities across generations of conservation; biodiversity and ecological systems and processes. It should achieve ecological sustainability and should be recognized as a positive activity, with the potential to benefit the community, place, and visitors. The relationship between ecotourism and the environment must be managed so ecotourism does not damage the resources, its future enjoyment, and bring unacceptable impacts. The activities and developments should respect the scale, nature and character of the ecotourism sites. In any location, harmony must be sought between the needs of the visitor, place and host community. The ecotourism industry, governments, and environmental agencies should respect above mentioned principles, and work together to achieve sustainable development. Sustainable ecotourism involves a challenge to develop quality tourism products without adversely affecting the natural and cultural environment, which maintains and nurtures them. At the heart of sustainable ecotourism is a set of implicit values related to striving to integrate economic, social and cultural goals (Wight, 1993). This relationship may vary due to the need to adapt, over time, to changing social norms and ecological conditions. Ecotourism is the part of sustainable tourism and its principles contribute to integrating social, economic, and environmental goals, and reflect the larger objective of sustainable tourism. Following are the main principles of ecotourism:

23 Introduction

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Fig. 1.9 Sustainable Tourism Goals

24 Introduction

1. Environmentally so\md development, without degradation of the resources, 2. Promotion of ethical responsibilities and behavior towards the natural and cultural environment, 3. Long-term benefits (economic and non-economic) to the resource, industry and the local community, 4. Responsible conservation practices related to both internal and extemal operations.

1.16 OBJECTIVES Considering the above mentioned aspects of ecotourism, the present investigation was undertaken with following objectives. i) To study natural attractions at different lakes as ecotourism sites in Pune district, ii) To investigate positive and negative impacts of ecotourists on ecotourism sites, iii) Long term planning and models for sustainable development and management of ecotourism potential at Bhugaon Lake.

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