Technology: in Historical Review
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TECHNOLOGY: IN HISTORICAL REVIEW November 2019 Edition One CONTENTS 3 LETTER FROM THE EDITOR 14 ‘ADVANCEMENT THROUGH ANNIHILATION’ Toni Stephenson Joe Gazeley 4 TO THE MOON AND BACK WITH 36 KILOBYTES: THE TECHNOLOGY OF 15 WEAPONS OF WAR: THE GLOBAL APOLLO 11 DISTRIBUTION OF IMPERIALIST VIOLENCE David Ball Annabel Cook 6 TECHNOLOGY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 16 THE MYTH OF THE GERMAN PANZERS Joana Teixeira Brandao Bessa Ribeiro IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR WERE ANCIENT TECHNOLOGICAL Matthew Hough ADVANCES PURELY USEFUL FOR THE ANCIENT WORLD? 17 SHOWERING SMALLPOX: JAPAN, BRITAIN AND THE TESTING OF Imogen Bird BIOLOGICAL WEAPONRY 7 DA VINCI: A GENIUS BEFORE HIS TIME? Meghan Takwani George Helliwell 18 THE RADIUM GIRLS 8 BRITISH INVENTIONS THAT CHANGED Faye Gavin THE WORLD 19 THE T ON ‘COM-PAT’IBILITY Alice Harrison Devon Hutchinson A CLOSER LOOK: THE SAINT PETERSBURG-MOSCOW RAILWAY GENDER ROLES REVERSED: HOW WOMEN USED TO DOMINATE THE Miri Hodnett COMPUTING INDUSTRY IN BRITAIN 9 MAGNETIC El DORADO Kate Woodmass George Cooke 20 DNA: ‚THE SECRET OF LIFE!‛ 10 A HISOTRY OF FILM IN SEVEN OBJECTS Philippa Luck Hannah Cocker 21 THE FIRST COMPUTER 12 LOUIS LE PRINCE: THE FIRST TRAGEDY Chloe Vialou-Clark OF FILM 22 CHERNOBYL: TECHNOLOGY, MEDIA Joe Everitt AND THE PERCEPTION OF DISASTER RADIO WARS: JAMMING TO THE Phoebe Kirkland BEATLES 23 HELLO FROM HISTSOC Millie Scott Emily Wiffin 13 THE ROARING TWENTIES AND THE ’NEW WOMAN’ A THANK YOU TO THE 2019/20 ISSUE 1 HISTORY STUDENT TIMES TEAM Zoe Glasspool https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aldrin_Apollo_11.jpg 2 TECHNOLOGY IN HISTORICAL REVIEW Letter from the Editor This summer marked 50 years since the first moon landing; a „giant leap for mankind‟ which marked a penetration in the expected limits of technology. In celebration of this event, 2019/20‟s first issue is dedicated to looking at technology in historical review. Our opening feature takes a look at the intricacies behind the Apollo 11 mission before the articles stretch from antiquity to modernity. Our writers explore the contributions of individuals and societies to key technological developments and consider themes of industrialisation, militarisation, the rise of media and the role of women. It has been an incredible first issue to edit. I‟d like to thank all those involved, writers and assistant editors, for their contributions and dedication to supporting the History Student Times. It has allowed us to put together a substantial issue showcasing 21 articles, all students in the School of History. Toni Stephenson 3 TO THE MOON AND BACK WITH 36 KILOBYTES: The Technology of Apollo 11 David Ball n the 16th of July 1969, we took circuits, meaning computers could be both our first steps on The Moon with smaller, and more powerful; essential attributes of computing power equivalent to Apollo‟s onboard Guidance Computer (AGC). that of a modern-day pocket Unsurprisingly, this advancement did not solve all Ocalculator. Since this incredible achievement, of NASA‟s issues with this temperamental great strides have been made in the realm of technology, which was still in its infancy. It is computer technology, whilst the world we know often said that had developers known the spec of has been moulded by the silicon-based circuits the computers to be used for the mission, they which brought the landing into fruition. We will would likely have deemed it impossible. To begin, however, with the computer hardware and demonstrate the reality of computational software of the Swinging Sixties and the problems restraints, we can compare the AGC to a 2014 overcome in using such early computer Samsung Galaxy S5, which is around ten thousand technology. times faster, or the new iPhone 11, which has a fixed memory storage of 256GB, over 7 million The two main limitations at this time were times greater than the 36KB capacity of the AGC. computer size and computer power. Both of these Limited memory meant programmers had to issues were aided by the 1962 development of the convey as much information in as little code as „integrated computer‟, shrinking its size from that possible, provoking innovative solutions. The of a large room to a small briefcase. This was result was coding that was considerably more thanks to the advancement of compact integrated advanced than some in use today. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/images/content/364215main_KSC-69P-0631_full.jpg 4 As the project progressed, however, eye but easily understood by computers, would be problems with the development of the guidance transferred onto six modules in the AGC which computer were close to jeopardising the whole stored the program data. Before this could mission. Tests in 1966 proved that it simply could happen, though, the tedious process of writing not be relied on as the primary mode of navigation this code had to take place. for the spacecraft. The solution was to operate the command module remotely using more powerful Cue Margeret Hamilton, the team leader for mainframe computers at mission control. Due to the development of Apollo‟s onboard flight the 1.5 second delay of this communication, the software, and the first ever software engineer AGC would still be tasked with lowering the NASA would hire. Her contribution to the project landing module onto the moon‟s surface, which, was immense, namely due to her innovative as we shall see, wasn‟t achieved without approach to programming which allowed the AGC complication. to take priorities into account, enabling it to complete important tasks and drop others in the Today, some of the highest paying roles in event of an overload. Although NASA was not tech firms are those of software engineers, while initially convinced this was necessary, they would in the Sixties, coding in itself wasn‟t considered a soon change their minds after the crew on Apollo profession. The process of coding, coined by the 8 wiped the data for the course home and had to team of MIT programmers as rope memory, was be sent replacement data during a nine hour equally alien to what we know today. A patchwork ordeal. A similar issue transpired on the Apollo 11 of wires would be weaved through small metal mission after Buzz Aldrin left the rendezvous radar cores, a „1‟ represented by threading the wire on, subsequently flooding the AGC with signals through the core and a „0‟ around the core, and setting off computer error alarms at the forming a physical expression of a computer closing stages of landing. With Hamilton‟s program. Factory workers, who were workaround encoded, the AGC instantaneously predominantly women, would weave these wires rebooted and performed a successful descent onto by hand, prompting the term „the little old lady the moon‟s surface as Armstrong orientated the method‟. This code, indecipherable to the human craft. Hamilton‟s contributions were not only fundamental to the success of the mission, but established computer programming as the crucial and complex field we know it to be today. This narrative did not end when the Apollo _restoration.jpg - 11 crew arrived safely back on earth. Instead, it opened up the floodgates to revolutionary technological developments and marked the beginning of an exponential growth of curiosity and ambition, stretching from Mars to galaxies far, far away. Just fifty years ago, the guidance computer onboard Apollo 11 was tasked with the final stages of the moon landing. Now, we are turning to a combination of AI and quantum computing to plan automated voyages to distant planets. In the words of NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine, „The moon is the proving ground; Mars is the horizon goal‟. Image: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margaret_Hamilton_ 5 TECHNOLOGY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE he use of technology in the Roman Empire can be seen Joana Teixeira Brandao Bessa Ribeiro through many public projects which the Romans undertook to make their empire strong, advanced and vast in the ancient world. The laws of the Twelve Tables from 450 BC – most notably in the construction of buildings, and the specified that a road should be 8ft straight and 16ft curved which T development of roads and aqueducts. encouraged Romans to develop the practice and standard for road building. They were built with gravel and brick, with a curved design The development of concrete and cement has left many allowing for water drainage. By 200 AD over 50,000 miles had been Roman structures still standing today; for example the Pantheon, the built, enabling efficient travel via the road highways, quick passing of Roman Forum and the Colosseum. Created with slaked lime, volcanic messages and successful military conquest. The roads included mile ash (pozzolana) and volcanic rocks (tuff) which makes it durable to markers, signs which showed the distance to a destination and decay, concrete was utilised in many constructions particularly highway patrol of soldiers. This is a similar system to the one we have bridges, monuments, aqueducts and buildings. Due to this endurance, implemented today. Moreover, roads were vital for the Romans to concrete was used underwater when building baths, harbours and communicate, collect taxes, trade and move armies. This allowed the piers, such as in the Roman baths that can be seen in the namesake empire to remain stabilised, the centre of the ancient world and thus southern city of Bath. helped with its expansion. Arches were also developed by engineers, flattening their An aqueduct was used to transport water along stone by a shape to strengthen their support. This allowed bridges and aqueducts pipeline. Evidence of this system is also seen in Egypt, Assyria and to be built with increased reinforcement which made them less likely Babylon. The Roman aqueduct was developed around 312 BC, civil to collapse.