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Home , American Canadians, English Canada, Latin American Canadians

lasaforum fall 2015 : volume xlvi : issue 4

DEBATES: GLOBAL LATIN(O) AMERICANOS

Settling North of the U.S. Border: ’s Latinos and the Particular Case of Québec by Victor Armony | Université du Québec à Montréal | [email protected]

The case of Latin American 1970s and the 1990s, most immigrants If we take the narrowest definition possible offers an exceptional opportunity to from came to Canada for and consider a Latin American to be any examine and compare how minorities are political reasons (i.e., fleeing military person born in a Latin American country constructed and transformed in different dictatorships in and civil (that is, a first-generation immigrant), we host societies. Minorities are shaped wars in Central America). However, since see that this group represents just about 6 differently by their societal context, and the 1990s, and even more clearly during percent of all immigrants in Canada. Canada is especially relevant in that regard the following decades, most Latin However, its growth rate is roughly three because of the existence of two main in Canada have been admitted times higher than that of the overall dominant cultural environments— under the “economic category”: 70 percent immigrant population (32 vs. 10 percent grounded on political and territorial in 2012. This means, in general terms, that between 1996 and 2001; 47 vs. 12.7 configurations—within the same country: they have been granted permanent percent between 2001 and 2006; 49 vs. an English-language Canadian majority at residency on account of their prospective 12.9 percent between 2006 and 2011), due the national level and a French-language employability as skilled workers in Canada, to the increasing share of Latin American Québécois majority in Canada’s second a condition evaluated on the basis of their newcomers, most of them having arrived most-populated province. Indeed, Canada’s level of education, demonstrable work from , , , and El can provide unique experience in eligible occupations, and Salvador during the last decade and a half. insights into diasporic citizenship, as this sufficient knowledge of official languages, Interestingly, Latin Americans represent rapidly growing population settles and among other factors. However, almost 11 percent of all immigrants in grows as part and parcel of a multiethnic Canadians’ more middle-class origins do Québec, proportionally twice the size of immigrant society, one with a highly not necessarily translate into a higher this community at the national level. Given decentralized state and a constitutionally socioeconomic status once they settle in the such inflow, the Latino population in enshrined bilingual character, and marked host society. Latin Americans show a higher Canada with respect to national origins by the presence of a large number of prevalence of low income than other reflects a much wider diversity than what indigenous communities whose self- immigrant groups (except black and Arab we see in the , where 63 determination claims are recognized on the Canadians) and, interestingly, this gap is percent of Hispanics declare Mexican basis of their own distinctive culture. Not much wider in Québec. As a minority origin, 9.3 percent Puerto Rican origin, and surprisingly, compared to most other group, Canadian Latinos show one of the 3.5 percent Cuban origin. In Canada, the countries, Canada projects a weaker core lowest average employment incomes: three main nationalities—Mexican, identity, and its collective life is framed, to $26,241 (in 2006 Canadian dollars), Colombian, and Salvadorian—only a large extent, by the phenomenon of compared to $28,231 among black represent, respectively, 17.8, 14.2, and 11.9 “nations within a nation.” Furthermore, Canadians, $29,441 among Arab percent of the total Latino population. Let given the increased linkages across the Canadians, and $31,102 among South us also consider that seven out of ten , Canada holds a very particular . However, unemployment (the predominant origin and often overlooked position as a major rates are lower among Latin Americans (9 among first-generation Latino Canadians) country that is not contained in the United percent) than among blacks (10.6 percent) immigrated after 2001, making it a States–Latin America oppositional system, and Arabs (13 percent), a fact that seems to markedly “young” community. In a larger which underlies how the hemispheric confirm qualitative evidence suggesting that time frame, the growth rate of the Latino reality is commonly understood. That is Latin Americans in Canada may be more population in Canada is even more why Canadian Latin Americans can help us prone to accept lower wage (and sometimes striking: for example, between 1971 and think about the Latino diaspora formation undeclared) jobs. This pattern also appears 2011, the number of individuals with in ways that are not necessarily tied to a among highly educated Latin Americans Spanish as their mother tongue grew more single, strong nation-state or subject to a (with university diplomas): their average than tenfold both in (7,155 and sole hegemonic cultural framework. income is $42,636 ($32,836 in Québec), 75,305 respectively) and in while the average income for all minority (8,210 and 82,935). In brief, Latino Latin Americans in Canada have settled workers with a university diploma is Canadians are a relatively newly settled, over several decades, not gradually but $47,113 ($39,582 in Québec). still coalescing group, very diverse in terms rather through several waves. Between the of national origins, and rapidly growing,

20 even more so in the French-speaking developing in the North American context. Americans in the country, as measured by province of Québec. On the other hand, it is also possible to . This 3-percentage-point speculate that the Latino reality in the difference may point to a stronger sense of Data from the 2006 census show that United States is so massively important— belonging to a minority within the two-thirds of individuals who indicated a and becoming more so in the near future— French-language province. In other words, Latin American ethnic origin (in a question that Canadian Latinos will eventually the sense of community is affected by the about ancestry) also identified themselves gravitate toward the U.S. model of way in which the host society conceives as members of the Latin American pan-ethnicity. If Anglo-American in-group and out-group relations. Cultural community (in a question about so-called multiculturalism and even the racial- and language proximity does not visible, that is, nonwhite, minorities). The relations perspective gains ground in necessarily translate into an erasure of other third was distributed as follows English-speaking Canada, what will intergroup boundaries. (under categories defined by Statistics happen with Québec’s Latinos? Will they Canada): 29 percent “not a visible follow the continental trend, will they Data drawn from focus groups show that minority,” 2 percent “Black,” 1 percent assimilate into Québécois society, or will Latin American immigrants in Québec are “Aboriginal,” and 2 percent “multiple they create a different mode of diasporic generally aware of the idea of a “cultural .” But these proportions identity? Could language proximity play a affinity” between them and Francophone vary quite widely when national origins are role in those cultural and political society. Sometimes they see it as real (e.g., taken into account. Immigrants who affinities? language proximity, Catholic background, declared a Central American national etc.), and sometimes they discard it as a origin (Salvadorians, Nicaraguans, Survey data on Latin Americans in Canada myth (the Québécois would be as “cold,” Guatemalans, and Hondurans) are more show that the relative weight of those who “superficial,” “materialistic,” and prone to see themselves as members of the declare Spanish as their mother tongue is “individualistic” as other North Americans, Latin American minority (80 percent or affected by the place of residence: almost a as opposed to Latin Americans). Ironically, more), while those from the Southern Cone third (32.1 percent) of Canadians who have when Québec is considered as culturally (Paraguayans, , Argentinians, and Spanish as their “first language learned at and politically close to Latin America, some Uruguayans) generally do not identify home in childhood and still understood by Latin American immigrants express a themselves as such (43 percent or less). the individual” (as defined by Statistics preference for the “Anglo” world because and are somewhat Canada) live in Québec, but the proportion of its more dynamic economy, broader in the middle (51 percent to 53 percent). of immigrants born in Latin America in individual freedoms, and pragmatic Another difference emerges from the that province is 28.5 percent (if we exclude outlook (while Québec would be more like comparison between first-generation Latin Portuguese-speaking Brazilians). The Latin America: corrupt, bureaucracy laden, Americans (foreign born) and their 5-percentage-point gap could be evidence ideologically driven, etc.). In their view, offspring (the second generation): while 83 of a higher rate of first-language retention Anglos would be more open to others than percent of Latin American immigrants of Spanish among Latin Americans in “Francos” are, and would offer more declare themselves minority members, only Québec. The French-speaking Québécois opportunities to minorities and immigrants. 56 percent of second-generation Latin show, on their part, a predilection for Latin Americans are also keen on noticing Americans identify as such. It goes without Spanish when they chose to learn a second that community ghettos—too much saying that these results are impossible to language. On the other hand, an intriguing multiculturalism—are not socially compare to data from the United States. phenomenon transpires when we take into acceptable in Québec, and integration The concepts and social representation (of account the self-perception of Latin (including language learning) is considered “race”, “Latino”, etc.) are extremely Americans in Québec as members of a a civic duty. The reality of trilingualism different, as are the policy and visible minority: immigrants who were (Spanish as mother tongue, plus English methodological approaches to ethnic born in a Latin American country and live and French as both necessary for diversity deployed by government agencies in Québec represent 27.8 percent of the employment) is sometimes seen as a in each country. But the contrast may still total Latin American immigrant population burden, but many consider it an advantage, be useful as a way of exploring the nationwide, but they account for 30.8 particularly for their children. Even if they diverging forms of “Latino-ness” percent of all first-generation “ethnic” Latin criticize Québec’s shortcomings, Latin

21 lasaforum fall 2015 : volume xlvi : issue 4

Americans still see value in their cultural social fabric sets this province apart from affinity with Quebeckers: the French- all others, and Latinos may well play a language population usually holds positive significant role in its future evolution. stereotypes about Latinos, whom they recognize as reliable, hard-working, law-abiding citizens (especially when Note compared to other, less favorably perceived The survey results cited in this article were groups). obtained through a research project funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research In conclusion, if a North American Council of Canada (Standard Research Grant perspective needs to take into account a 410-2010-2120, held by the author in 2010– two-country reality (U.S./Canada), it can be 2013). The focus group data were collected in collaboration with Sébastien Arcand (HEC argued that, in fact, there are actually three Montréal), with support from the Latin host societies to consider. Canada has had a American Chamber of Commerce of Québec national multicultural policy in effect since through a grant from the Québec Ministry of the 1970s, while Québec has established an Employment and Social Solidarity. official “intercultural” policy (closer to assimilationist/secularist European models), linked to a more collectivist, state-centered public culture. Canada has a federal immigration policy based on a points system, open to all applicants, with an emphasis on economic factors, while Québec handles the selection of its own “skilled workers” (70 percent of all immigrants) with a similar system but with different weighing given to language skills (giving preference to the ) and other priorities (such as the provincial labor market needs). Overall in Canada, the top country sources of immigration in 2012 were China, the Philippines, India, Pakistan, and the United States, while in Québec the top sources were China, France, Haiti, Algeria, and Morocco. Naturally, given these national origins, the largest minorities in English Canada are South Asian and Chinese, whereas in Québec the largest are black, Arab, and Latin American. The most-spoken unofficial languages in English Canada are Cantonese, Punjabi, and Mandarin, while in Québec the most-spoken unofficial languages are Arabic and Spanish. In short, on the basis of current immigration trends, even putting aside language and institutional differences, Québec’s very

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