Interculturalism, Intermediality and the Trope of Testimony in Novels By

“Alla människor har sin berättelse”: Interculturalism, Intermediality and the Trope of Testimony in Novels by Ekman, Ørstavik and Petersen By Suzanne Brook Martin A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Scandinavian in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in Charge: Professor Linda Rugg, Chair Professor John Lindow Professor Hertha D. Sweet Wong Professor Troy Storfjell Fall 2010 Abstract “Alla människor har sin berättelse”: Interculturalism, Intermediality and the Trope of Testimony in Novels by Ekman, Ørstavik and Petersen by Suzanne Brook Martin Doctor of Philosophy in Scandinavian University of California, Berkeley Professor Linda Rugg, Chair This study focuses on Kerstin Ekman’s Vargskinnet trilogy (1999-2003), Hanne Ørstavik’s Presten (2004) and Martin Petersen’s Indtoget i Kautokeino (2004). The premise of this dissertation is that these novels provide a basis for investigating a subcategory of witness literature called witness fiction, which employs topoi of witness literature within a framework of explicitly fictional writing. Witness literature of all types relies on the experience of trauma by an individual or group. This project investigates the trauma of oppression of an indigenous group, the Sami, as represented in fiction by members of majority cultures that are implicated in that oppression. The characters through which the oppressed position is reflected are borderline figures dealing with the social and political effects of cultural difference, and the texts approach witnessing with varying degrees of self-awareness in terms of the complicated questions of ethics of representation. The trauma that is evident in my chosen texts stems from interactions between Sami and non-Sami communities, and I discuss the portrayal of interculturalism within these texts. Homi K. Bhabha’s conceptualization of the Third Space and the enunciation of productive difference between cultures build the foundational analysis of representations of Sami and non-Sami in the novels. In Vargskinnet in particular, intersections of difference also play out discursively through ekphrasis and intermediality. I discuss the convergence of media that echoes the productive difference of interculturalism via visual-verbal and musical-verbal ekphrasis. Of primary importance is the description of the Sami joik in Vargskinnet and the aligning of intermediality with Sami- Swedish relations and traumatic history of oppression of Sami cultural expression. The conclusion provides the implications of this study for future research, including the interrelatedness of oppression of indigenous peoples and other peripheralized groups, and land and the environment. I look at the relevance of the budding field of cognitive approaches to fiction and conclude with statements of the continued importance of fiction to exposing readers to cultural difference and helping readers envision and empathize with experiences of human and non-human trauma. 1 This dissertation is dedicated: to the memory of my grandparents, the origin of the caring family in which I grew up. Although I didn’t know all of you very well, the impact of your love resonates through generations. Gramps, you were the start of everything, and Granny, you were, in spirit, so often beside me when I needed you; to my parents, who lovingly gave me both roots and wings, supported me in following my dreams and instilled in me a deep love of education; and to Mike, who has shared with me his love and patience, and who has given me endless support and encouragement. i Acknowledgments I have many people to thank for the fact that this dissertation has been completed. First of all, I thank my advisor and committee chair, Professor Linda Rugg. You have been an amazing mentor, reader and teacher. I also want to thank my other committee members: Professors John Lindow (UC-Berkeley), Hertha D. Sweet Wong (UC-Berkeley), and Troy Storfjell (Pacific Lutheran University). Your careful reading of and thoughtful feedback on my manuscript were invaluable. The Scandinavian department’s Graduate Student Affairs Officer, Sandy Jones, and the ISSA support staff (Moriah, Elizabeth, Kathi, Laurie, and others) form an amazing team without which at least one corner of Dwinelle would very likely crumble. My current colleagues at Minnesota State University, Mankato have been amazingly supportive as I embarked on my first full-time faculty teaching position at the same time as I was finishing this dissertation. I especially thank Dr. Claudia Tomany, whose warmth and enthusiasm have made me feel very welcome even as I attempt to meet very high expectations as her replacement. The Women’s Literary Society has provided a needed diversion, and I am thankful for the many new friends who have offered their support and encouragement. During the course of researching for and writing this dissertation, I was supported by fellowships and grants from the Fernström Foundation, the Graduate Division at UC- Berkeley, and the American-Scandinavian Foundation. I am indebted to my friend and colleague Dr. Krister Stoor, who served as my host in the Sami Studies Department at Umeå University. Librarians and curators assisted me in gaining access to research materials at Västerbottens museum (Umeå), Ájtte and Ája (Jokkmokk) and Nordiska museet (Stockholm) in Sweden; and Sametingets bibliotek in Karasjok, Norway. I want to extend across the ocean a huge thank-you to Linda Schenck for providing me with translations for this dissertation, for making so many wonderful Swedish novels available in English, and for being a treasure of a friend. I served a year with AmeriCorps while I was working on my dissertation, and I feel this should not pass without mention. Thank you to Connie Bettin at Dane County Human Services; Becky, Meme, Collen, Norma-Jean, Kathleen and the rest of the staff at the Goodman Community Center in Madison, WI; my AmeriCorps colleagues; and especially the young women I worked with in the Girls Inc. program and the teens in the East High School VIP program. I learned so much from all of you and will carry the impact of this experience with me always. ii Chapter One – Introduction In this dissertation, I discuss representations of the Sami in Vargskinnet (The Wolfskin), the 1999-2003 trilogy by Kerstin Ekman, and the 2004 novels Presten (The Pastor) by Hanne Ørstavik and Indtoget i Kautokeino (Entry into Kautokeino) by Martin Petersen. I use theories of witness literature to examine how testimony is used as a trope for displaying indigenous experience in literature written by members of majority populations. These texts provide the basis for an investigation of the relationship between witnessing, the portrayal of traumatic human experience, and fiction. I emphasize in my study topoi of witness literature as a genre, witnessing as a theoretical approach, testimony as a trope, and the fictional portrayal of a Sami-focused historical experience. Most often, investigations of witness literature focus on first-hand testimony of trauma; the object of study is an account, usually written in first person, by an actual (vs. fictional) witness of a specific traumatic event. I am investigating texts that use testimony as a trope, as a means of representing historical Sami experiences in a way that depicts emotions and everyday events, thereby inviting the reader to empathize with and learn from those suffering from trauma. In my dissertation, I do three things: investigate the representation of the Sami people in Scandinavian literature through the lens of interculturalism, investigate the ways in which interculturalism can be reflected through intermediality, and establish a subcategory of witness literature called witness fiction. This subcategory aligns with the tenets of witness literature while using fictional characters and, to some degree, fictionalized settings, events and reactions to these experiences. My work seeks to broaden further the study of types of witness literature, which has been dominated largely by study of the Holocaust novel, to other fiction based on historical, collective trauma. Who are the Sami? This project relies on an understanding of the indigenous Sami1 and the general tone of the relationship between the Sami and the majority cultures and governments. While Scandinavian and Scandinavianist readers of this dissertation will likely be familiar with the Sami as an ethnic group, other readers will benefit from a brief introduction. The Sami are the indigenous people of northern Europe, inhabiting northern areas of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and a small part of Russia (the Kola peninsula). The Sami have previously been known as “Lapps” or “Laplanders,” however, these labels are now considered derogatory. The area inhabited by the Sami is called Sápmi, and in the areas of Sápmi within the Norwegian and Swedish borders, the Sami people have exclusive reindeer-herding rights. Only ten percent of the Sami population consists of reindeer herders, though it is through this occupation that the Sami community is most visible in today’s media. The total number of Sami is impossible to know, since censuses in Scandinavia do not question Sami ethnic identification and because there is no concrete definition of who is Sami (Sámediggi 5). John B. Henriksen theorizes that estimating the population size is 1 Other spellings include “Saami” and “Sámi.” I use “Sami” because this is the version used by the Sami parliaments in their English-language materials. 1 problematic because “so many people still do not acknowledge their Saami background, mostly because of the historical discrimination and stigmatization of the Saami. Earlier periods’ state assimilation policy toward the Saami has also meant that the two possibly strongest self-identification factors, the Saami language and culture, have died out in several Saami areas” (24). In Samer – ett ursprungsfolk i Sverige, the number of Sami is estimated to be 80,000. About half of this population (40,000) lives primarily in Norway, a quarter (20,000) lives primarily in Sweden, about 6,000 in Finland and about 2,000 in Russia (4).

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