UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology

Title Reduction Assemblage Models in the Interpretation of Lithic Technology at the Tosawihi Quarries, North-Central Nevada

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Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 13(2)

ISSN 0191-3557

Author Bloomer, William W.

Publication Date 1991-07-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 13, No, 2, pp. 204-216(1991). Reduction Assemblage Models in the Interpretation of Lithic Technology at the Tosawihi Quarries, North-Central Nevada

WILLIAM 'W. BLOOMER, Intermountain Research, Drawer A, Silver City, NV 89428.

X RELIMINARY results of the ongoing tech­ occupied during tool stone procurement are nological analysis of debitage recovered from mostly located around the periphery of the main the Tosawihi Chert Quarries illustrate how rep­ quarries. Archaeological testing and data re­ lication experiments are being used to model covery projects conducted by Intermountain technologically variable lithic reduction assem­ Research have focused on residential sites, blages. Three cases are presented to exemplify reduction stations, and quarrying localities on the use of reduction assemblage models in the the southern margin of the quarries (Fig. 2).' technological interpretation of archaeological Research questions directing archaeological data. work at the Tosawihi quarries were designed to The Tosawihi quarries are a source of white investigate the economics of opalite procurement chert (technically known as opalite, a mixture of and processing, with the overall goal of inter­ opal and chalcedony) located approximately preting the place of the Tosawihi quarries in the sixty kilometers northeast of Battle Mountain, regional economy. To that end, the techno­ Nevada (Fig. 1), in an area occupied ethno- logical analysis of the debitage assemblages has graphically by the "White Knife Shoshone" sought to characterize the predominant biface (Steward 1938). The initial step in tool stone reduction activities which produced the assem­ procurement was to quarry the raw opalite by blages and, hence, interpret the organizational excavating pits to expose subsurface bedrock variability of biface production within the outcrops, or, less commonly by reducing surface vicinity of the Tosawihi quarries. The inter­ cobbles. Tool stone procurement generally preted organizational relationships between vari­ proceeded from the production of large flake able biface production and residence patterns blanks by core reduction or by direct removal will eventually come together to form the basis from the bedrock, through a reduction con­ for interpretations of the mobility strategies em­ tinuum to produce large nonheat-treated Stage 3 ployed in the procurement of Tosawihi opalite. bifaces for transport out of the quarry vicinity. The residential loci and reduction stations To a lesser extent, heat-treated Stage 3 and currently under study are the primary analytic Stage 4 bifaces were also produced near the universes for investigating the systemic nature quarries. of biface manufacture and the amount of time The central quarry area (formally recorded spent in the procurement of opalite. Most of as 26EK3032), is an extensive complex of inten­ the reduction stations are discrete loci that lend sive quarrying and reduction loci covering ap­ themselves as controlled sampling universes. proximately nine square kilometers of opalite Likewise, the residential areas are composed of deposit. Reduction stations and residential sites isolated reduction loci and palimpsests of re- INTERPRETATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 205

Fig. 1. Location of project area. duction and residential activity that are isolated bifaces and served as the basis for replicating as discrete sets of activity remains. and modeling debitage assemblages produced during distinct stages of biface reduction. Col­ TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS lectively, the archaeological biface data have Methods indicated the general Tosawihi reduction trajec­ tory, but because most of the bifaces from any The technological analysis of debitage has one locus are fragments broken during reduc­ focused on reduction loci as its main analytical tion, they comprise a data set lunited in its universe. Attention was paid to sampling loci reflection of the reduction activities which that would reflect the distribution and diversity occurred at that locus. Biface data do not of staged biface reduction relative to reduction indicate the morphology of the bifaces at the stations and residential activities. Data gener­ initiation of reduction, which bears upon mate­ ated through the analysis of bifaces collected rial transport and the amount of time spent at a from the same loci were used to supplement the locality. Biface data also do not indicate how results of the debitage analysis. Callahan's many bifaces were actually reduced at a locality (1979) five stage scheme was used to classify or the last stage to which they might ultimately 206 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 2. General vicinity of the Tosawihi quarries. have been reduced. However, biface data, kinds of reduction activities. Debitage has been along with the debitage analysis, provide classified by four technologically diagnostic specific data concerning the general morphology flake types and as nondiagnostic flake fragments of the manufactured product, and in light of and shatter. Diagnostic flakes include whole biface breakage models, allow another avenue flakes classified as interior flakes, edge prepara­ for estimations of manufactured quantities. tion flakes, early percussion biface-thirming In contrast, debitage assemblages are the flakes, and late percussion biface-thirming flakes result of all reduction activities occurring at a (Flenniken 1987; Flenniken and Ozbun 1988). given locus and, so, are viewed as a complete Replication experiments, many of which archaeological reflection of the numbers and were conducted during the 1989 Tosawihi field INTERPRETATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 207 season, were technologically analyzed as control core reduction to the final stages of secondary assemblages for the development of reduction biface-thinning (Stage 4 reduction). The cumu­ models.^ The analysis of replication data has lative line graph in Figure 3 illustrates the shown that the relative proportions of debitage variability of flake type proportions between types vary with the stages of biface reduction different reduction activities. These cumulative (e.g., the ratio of edge-preparation flakes to curves can be thought of as profiles of the re­ early-stage biface-thinning flakes and the ratio duction character of each assemblage. Flake of interior flakes to early-stage biface-thinning types are graphed left to right along the X-axis flakes). In addition, the proportions and ratios as interior flakes, edge preparation flakes, early- associated with core reduction are distinct from stage biface-thinning flakes, and late-stage those of biface reduction. Therefore, propor­ biface-thinning flakes. The relative proportions tional and ratio data can be used to distinguish of interior flakes and edge preparation flakes are core reduction and general stages of biface greatest as a result of core reduction and the reduction. earliest stages of biface reduction. They de­ To date, the analysis of replication data has crease with a proportional increase in biface- allowed only the general distinction of early- thinning flakes as reduction proceeds through stage biface reduction (Stage 1 to Stage 3.3) secondary thinning (Stage 4). from late-stage biface-thinning (Stage 3.4 to Replicating core reduction to produce large Stage 5.0). This limitation is the result of opalite flake blanks resulted in relative frequen­ analyzing replication debitage that was collected cies of diagnostic debitage illustrated by the only at the end of each replicated reduction uppermost cumulative line graph (profile) in continuum. The replication debitage was not Figure 3. The proportion of interior flakes and collected at the end of each stage of reduction, edge preparation flakes are high relative to the and therefore mixing of potentially distinctive number of flakes with biface reduction attri­ data sets took place. Nevertheless, the dis­ butes. That biface-thinning flakes were pro­ tinction between early- and late-stage biface duced at all during core reduction illustrates the reduction is useful to the Tosawihi analyses slight typological overlap between core- and because most of the archaeological samples to biface-reduction debitage. The overlap is mini­ which the replication-derived reduction models mal, but draws attention to the necessity of were applied also are the result of mixed reduc­ emphasizing the analysis of proportional data tion events. General conclusions satisfy the sets. Ahler's criticism of the typological clas­ analytical goal to interpret the predominant sification of debitage stems from his recognition reduction activities which occurred at any given of the same phenomena, but the fact that a small locus. number of biface-thinning flakes are produced during core reduction does not outweigh the Reduction Models overwhelming predominance of flake types in­ Technologically distinct reduction activities dicative of core reduction. The replication data have produced technologically distinct debitage from Abler himself (1989:86-88; Table 1) sup­ assemblages. The distinctions were measured port the assertion that flake type proportions by the variability of the proportions of diag­ vary distinctively between each reduction nostic flake types. Importantly, the relative technology. proportions of flake types vary somewhat ordin- The middle profile represents the pro­ ally through the reduction continuum from the portions of flake types resulting from replicating production of flake blanks (Stage 1 bifaces) by the early stages of biface reduction, in this case, 208 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

%

INT BT-EP BT-LP

Fig. 3. Reduction assemblage profiles represented by cumulative debitage proportions. Debitage types: INT = interior; EP = edge preparation; BT-EP = biface-thinning, early percussion; BT-LP = biface-diinning, late percussion.

Table 1 In addition to the profiles of cumulative KS' STATISTICS flake type proportions, ratios of flake type proportions discriminate between core reduction Comparison between: Maximum Probability and early and late stages of biface reduction. Difference of Normality The ratio of edge-preparation flakes to early core reduction and 0.401 0.173 biface-thinning flakes has proved to be the most stages 1 - 3,3 discriminating. The analysis of flakes from 14 stages 1-3,3 and 0.232 0.179 biface reduction replications indicated that ratios stages 3,4-5 of edge preparation (ep) flakes to early biface-

core reduction and 0.632 0,156 thinning (ebt) flakes greater than 0.35 to 1 (ep: stages 3,4-5 ebt=0.35:1.00) are associated with early stages of biface reduction. Ratios less than 0.25:1.00 were associated with generally later stages of Kolomogorov-Smirnov tests biface thinning. Intermediate ratios are inter­ Stage 1 to Stage 3.3. The lower profile repre­ preted as early/late reduction. Ratios of interior sents proportions from replicating the late stages flakes (int) to early biface-thirming flakes (int: of biface-thinning (Stage 3.4 to Stage 5.0). ebt) are not as discriminating, but can be used Comparing these three reduction profiles illus­ either to support or refine interpretations of the trates the significant diversity between the three reduction character of an assemblage. The ep: technologically distinct reduction activities ebt and int:ebt ratios for the three models (Table 1). Kolomogorov-Smirnov tests (Table profiled in Figure 3 are listed in Table 2. 1) show the observed differences between each The cumulative profiles and ratio models for pair of replicated reduction profiles to be core reduction, early-stage biface reduction and significant (p-0.05}. late-stage biface-thinning are used in the analy- INTERPRETATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 209

Table 2 RATIOS OF FLAKES IN SELECTED ASSEMBLAGES

Number of Heat- Heat- Number Heat- Raw treated Raw treated Assemblage Reduction of Raw Ireated eprcbt' ep:ebt int;ebl inl:cbt Replication Core reduction 165 0 5,08:1.00 -- 6.62:1.00 - Replication Biface stages 1-3.3 98 0 0.79:1,00 - 0.30:1,00 - Replication Biface .-Plages 3 4-5 142 0 0,18:1,00 - 0.26:1,00 -

26E1O170F8/LB Early biface 851 46 0.55:1,00 0.88:1,00 0.42:1,00 0

26EK3192 Late biface 955 129 0,22:1 00 0.17:1,00 0,14:1.00 0,03:1,00

26EK3160F1 Late biface 1,146 388 0,11:1,00 0.20:1.00 0,15:1,00 0,10 1.00

ep:ebt = ratio of edge preparation flakes to early bifacc-thinning flakes; int:ebt = ratio of interior flakes to early biface-thinning flakes. sis of archaeological debitage assemblages as Case 1. Within the Tosawihi project's East controls for the interpretation of the predomi­ Subarea, bordering the southeastern margin of nant reduction activities that produced those the main quarry area (Fig. 2), sources of good assemblages. At Tosawihi, many debitage as­ quality opalite are limited and quarrying is semblages are distinct reduction loci or resi­ sporadic with only 18% of the 155 reduction dential/reduction loci. Sites at Tosawihi often loci resulting from quarrying activity. Only 3% are composed of numerous loci, and the geo­ of the loci contain artifactual evidence of resi­ graphically distinct project subareas encompass dential activifies. However, discrete biface re­ geographically associated sites. Therefore, in­ duction stations are abundant (76.5% of the terpreting the reduction character for each locus total). During the 1988 and 1989 field seasons, provides the basic data set for the analysis of the 1,301 complete and fragmentary bifaces were organization of biface manufacture, relative to recovered from the East Subarea. Large Stage various permutations of spatial contexts and 2 bifaces comprised 19.6% of the collection reduction activities, throughout the vicinity of while 69.5% were large Stage 3 bifaces, reflect­ the Tosawihi quarries. ing the early part of the reduction continuum. Feature 8/Locus B at site 26EK3170 is repre­ Analytical Results sentative of the generally early reduction The application of technological data character of the East Subarea. collection methods and reduction assemblage Feature 8/Locus B is a concentration of models to the analysis of archaeological debitage opalite reduction debitage within a sparsely dif­ has resulted in well-defined character distinc­ fuse lithic scatter, located approximately 300 m. tions for numerous intrasite and intersite reduc­ from the edge of the main opalite source and tion loci that reflect the diversity and intensity within 160 to 200 m. of two isolated quarry of reduction activities within variable residential pits. Locus B measured approximately 16 m." contexts. Three cases were selected as exam­ on the surface with a depth of 20 cm., although ples of the methodological value of using assem­ the vast majority of the debitage was recovered blage models in the interpretation of reduction within the upper two cm. of the surface sedi­ activities. ments. The major part of Locus B was field 210 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY sampled with 16 1-m.^ units surface scraped to Subarea. Large Stage 2 bifaces comprise a depth of two cm. The technological sample of 11.1% of the collection, 75.1% were large the Locus B debitage assemblage consisted of a Stage 3 bifaces, and 5.1% were Stage 4. 25% random sample of the 16 field collection Hence, in contrast to the biface data from the units. East Subarea, the West Subarea exhibits a rela­ Proportional typological debitage data tively late-stage biface reduction character. The indicate a generally early-stage biface reduction reduction of a much greater proportion of heat- assemblage profile, resulting from the produc­ treated bifaces is also evident in that 54% of the tion of Stage 2 and early Stage 3 bifaces. The recovered bifaces were heat-treated as opposed early character of biface reduction at Locus B is to just 26.5% from the East Subarea. illustrated by the cumulative curve and histo­ The late character of biface reduction in the gram in Figure 4. Relatively high ep:ebt ratios West Subarea is exemplified by the reduction and int:ebt ratios also indicate early biface profiles of the debitage recovered from Feature reduction (Table 2). The possibility that biface 1 at residential/reduction site 26EK3160 (Fig. production was initiated as core reduction to 6). Site 26EK3160 is a large lithic scatter produce flake blanks is indicated by the low located approximately half a kilometer south­ frequencies of whole flakes (Fig. 4) as com­ west of the quarries in an area where opalite pared to the much greater proportion of flake does not occur at or near the surface (Fig. 2). fragments. These results are comparable to the A spatially bounded debitage concentration, proportions of flake types from the replicated designated as Feature 1, is the largest and most reduction of a large opalite core (Fig. 5). The dense of the 23 featured reduction loci that relative proportions of nondiagnostic flake frag­ comprise site 26EK3160. The site as a whole is ments (approximately 65%) reflected in both classified as a residential/reduction site, but the instances (Figs. 4 and 5) are greater than the Feature 1 scatter probably represents the most 40% to 60% usually resulting from the reduc­ concentrated residential activity on the site. tion of opalite bifaces (Figs. 6 and 7). Like most of the reduction loci in the The analyzed debitage proportions recov­ Tosawihi region, subsurface debitage throughout ered from Locus B indicate that biface produc­ Feature 1 decreases drastically between 10 and tion was initiated on large flake blanks removed 20 cm. below the surface, with more than 50% from opalite cores or on large irregular blanks recovered in the upper 2 cm. The analysis of probably produced at the quarry and transported debitage recovered from 0 to 2 cm. below the to Locus B. Most reduction then proceeded surface of Feature 1 documents the reduction of through Stage 2, and in a number of cases, into bifaces to late Stage 3 and into Stage 4. The the early phases of primary thinning (Stage 3 cumulative curves at the top of Figure 6 illus­ biface reduction). If late-stage biface thinning trate a predominantly late-stage reduction pro­ occurred at the locus it did not contribute file. The differential proportions between edge significantly to the sample debitage assemblage. preparation flakes and early percussion biface- Case 2. Within the West Subarea (Fig. 2) thinning flakes indicate reduction to probably many of the sites are large diffuse lithic scatters late Stage 3 and into Stage 4. The same rela­ with 15.1% of their total reduction loci exhibit­ tionship is expressed as an ep:ebt ratio of ing artifacts that indicate a residential function, 0.11:1.00 (Table 2). The occurrence of late- a substantial increase over the East Subarea. stage biface-thinning flakes is more direct Two seasons of fieldwork recovered 2,289 com­ evidence of Stage 4 biface production (second­ plete and fragmentary bifaces from the West ary thinning). INTERPRETATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 211

Cumulative Debitage Proportions

INT EP BT-EP BT-LP

Debitage Proportions %

70 --

60 --

50 ••

40 -- = raw

30 -- = ht 20 -- n = 3,245 10 --

0 -- SD INT EP BT-EP BT-LP BT-P SH UFF

Fig. 4. Reduction assemblage profiles for debitage from site 26EK3170, Feature 8/Locus B. Debitage types: SD = secondary decortication; INT = interior; EP = edge preparation; BT-EP = biface-diinning, early percussion; BT-LP = biface-thinning, late percussion; BT-P = biface-thinning, pressure; SH = shatter; UFF = unidentified flake fragments.

Heat-treated debitage accounts for approxi­ the total sample. The relative proportions of mately 25% of the assemblage. The middle his­ heat-treated debitage indicate that flake blanks. togram (Fig. 6) shows the relative proportions Stage 2 bifaces and Stage 3 bifaces were often of raw and heat-treated flake types calculated by heat treated prior to continued reduction. The 212 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

70 J

60 --

50 --

40 -- n = 2,077

30 --

20 --

10 -- 0 -I- + -t- L SD INT EP BT-EP BT-LP BT-P SH UFF

Fig. 5. Debitage proportions by type from replicated opalite core reduction. Debitage types: SD = secondary decortication; INT = interior; EP = edge preparation; BT-EP = biface-thinning, early percussion; BT-LP = biface-diinning, late percussion; BT-P = biface-thinning, pressure; SH = shatter; UFF = unidentified flake fragments. bottom histogram (Fig. 6) shows raw and heat- reduction. The biface cache and its associated treated opalite debitage proportions calculated debitage also illustrate caching behavior, by their separate totals. The reduction of heat- probably common within the Tosawihi vicinity. treated specimens was more often initiated The indicated pattern is that large flake blanks slightly earlier in the continuum than for their and probably early Stage 2 bifaces were often nonheat-treated counterparts. The ep:ebt ratio transported away from the main quarry, reduced data (Table 2) expresses the same relationship. further at camp sites, and cached for future The histogram also shows that a greater propor­ transport out of the Tosawihi quarries. tion of heat-treated bifaces were being reduced The cache locus is located approximately further through the continuum than was the case half a kilometer east of the main quarries at site for raw specimens. Still, the relative propor­ 26EK3192 (Fig. 2). Poor to good quality opa­ tions of raw to heat-treated debitage (Fig. 6, lite is available nearby, but the material of the middle histogram) indicate that the majority of biface cache and the associated debitage is good the biface reduction occurring at Feature 1 to excellent quality and probably comes from produced late Stage 3 bifaces without the benefit sources within the main quarry area. The cache of heat treatment, with a probable ratio of 3 to of 41 large bifaces was recovered within a 0.5 1 (raw:heat treated). m.' area between the surface and a depth of 20 Case 3. This last case study is an analysis cm. The bifaces were stacked and appear to of the debitage associated with a large biface have been placed in a pit. cache and serves as an example of the effect of Analysis of the surface debitage, system­ flake blank morphology on the relative propor­ atically sampled over a 14 m." area surrounding tions of debitage that result through biface the cache, indicates that much of the debitage INTERPRETATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 213

Cumulative Debitage Proportions

BT-EP BT-LP

Debitage Proportions by Total Number

= raw = 993

EP BT-EP BT-LP BT-P SH UFF total n = 1,341

% Debitage Proportions by Separ

60

50 -

40 - raw

30 - 993 20 - B ht 10 • 348

0 • h^*==H-^"-^ SD INT EP BT-EP BT-LP BT-P SH UFF

Fig. 6. Reduction assemblage profiles for raw and heat-treated debitage from site 26EK3160, Feature 1. Debitage types: SD = secondary decortication; INT = interior; EP = edge preparation; BT-EP = biface-diinning, early percussion; BT-LP = biface-thinning, late percussion; BT-P = biface-diinning, pressure; SH = shatter; UFF = unidentified flake fragments. 214 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Cumulative Debitage Proportions

INT BT-EP BT-LP

% Debitage Proportions

50 •

40 -

30 - raw

20 • = ht

10 • n = 2,720

0 - yi SD INT EP BT-EP BT-LP BT-P SH UFF

Fig. 7. Reduction assemblage profile for cache area debitage from site 26EK3192. Debitage types; SD = secondary decortication; INT = interior; EP = edge preparation; BT-EP = biface-diinning, early percussion; BT-LP = biface-thinning, late percussion; BT-P = biface-thinning, pressure; SH = shatter; UFF = unidentified flake fragments. resulted from the reduction of the cached bi­ cluding the 41 cached specimens and the 14 faces. The biface and debitage material are recovered from the surrounding 14 m.^ area). comparably similar varieties of opalite.' The The bar graph (Fig. 8) shows a greater percent­ relative proportions of debitage types illustrated age of Stage 3 bifaces, but also reflects a by both the cumulative curves and the histogram relatively high proportion of Stage 2 bifaces; in Figure 7 indicate generally late-stage biface more than indicated by the debitage proportions. reduction. Figure 8 shows the relative propor­ At least two explanations for this are possible. tions of the 55 cache area bifaces by stage (in­ First, when the bifaces were brought to the INTERPRETATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 215

60 -p

50 --

40

30 -- n = 55

20 -- Cache = 41

10 --

0 -F -F -F

Reduction Stage

Fig. 8. Proportions of cache area bifaces by reduction stage from site 26EK3I92.

cache area, a high proportion could have already the Tosawihi quarries. Reduction assemblage been reduced to Stage 2 bifaces and possibly a models developed from experimental replication somewhat lesser number to Stage 3. Continued data were successfully used as controls to inter­ reduction would have produced the recovered pret the reduction activities which produced the debitage and a majority of late Stage 3 bifaces. archaeological assemblages. The three cases Many of the Stage 3 bifaces eventually would presented to exemplify the theoretical and meth­ have been removed and a high proportion of the odological basis for the ongoing technological Stage 2 bifaces cached. analyses also illustrate the reduction variability A second possibility illustrates the effect of evident in the Tosawihi archaeological record. flake blank morphology on debitage proportions. The observed variability is being analyzed for Analysis of the material of the cached bifaces linkages between residence patterning, mobility indicates that the blanks were of fine quality strategies, and tool stone procurement. opalite. Their symmetrical proportions would Case 1 has exemplified the frequent occur­ have required relatively little reduction before rence of early stages of biface reduction and the initiation of primary thinning. Therefore, probable core reduction within predominantly the relative proportions of interior flakes nonresidential contexts. Heat treatment and the resulting from the removal of irregularities reduction of previously heat-treated bifaces is would have been minimal, and few edge-prep­ evidently less common within nonresidential aration flake removals would have been required contexts. Case 2 investigated the nature of to prepare a platform edge for primary thirming. biface reduction within a residential context as a contrast to Case 1. Here the general profile DISCUSSION of reduction activities indicated the continuation The technological analysis of debitage from of biface production later through the continuum discrete assemblages has resulted in the inter­ and included the heat treatment and continued pretation of biface production activities which reduction of probably 25 % of the bifaces pro­ occurred at specific loci within the vicinity of duced at the locus. 216 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Case 3 was presented to illustrate the effect duction of large Tosawihi raw opalite bifaces, similar to those recovered from caches and other archaeo­ of flake blank morphology on the typological logical contexts. All replications have become part composition of a debitage assemblage. Replica­ of a comparative collection housed at the offices of tion data and archaeological assemblage data Intermountain Research. indicate that the morphology of the flake blank 3. Tosawihi opalite occurs in many distinct color and multicolor varieties. is a major nontechnological source of variability in the composition of a single event biface re­ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS duction assemblage. Recognition of its effect Special thanks to Robert G. Elston and Cashion necessitates the future incorporation of morpho­ Callaway for providing the opportunity to apply a logical variability into the development of technological method to the analysis of Tosawihi replication-derived assemblage models. This debitage assemblages. J. Jeffrey Flenniken is pri­ marily responsible for my perspectives on lithic case also demonstrates the usefulness of incor­ technology, and I am deeply grateful for his guid­ porating biface data into debitage analyses as ance, support, and exuberance. Responsibility for complementary evidence. any failings of the research and errors in the paper Characterizing the predominant lithic reduc­ are only my own. Thanks also to Peter Amsworth, John Fagan, Terry Ozbun, Jo Reese, Gene Titmus, tion patterns at loci across the quarries was the Phil Wilke, and Jim Woods who participated in the first step in what will eventually be a quantifica­ Tosawihi Knap-In and contributed their replication tion of the effort, measured in time and reduced assemblages to the analytical data base. tool stone mass, expended to procure Tosawihi REFERENCES opalite. Since quarrying and biface production were the main foci of human activities at Abler, Stanley A. Tosawihi, the technological variability in tool 1989 Mass Analysis of Flaking Debris: Study­ stone procurement efforts was linked to ing the Forest Radier Than the Tree. In: Alternative Approaches to Lithic Analy­ settlement and mobility strategies, whether sis, Donald O. Henry and George H. partially embedded or logistical. Odell, eds., pp. 85-118. Washington: Reduction assemblage models, based on Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association Number 1. multiple replications, will be the basis for additional analyses. Replications provide the Callahan, Errett 1979 The Basics of Biface Knapping in the control data sets for investigating the absolute Eastem Fluted Point Tradition: A frequencies and the relative proportions of diag­ Manual for Flint Knappers and Lithic nostic debitage resulting from technologically Analysts. Archaeology of Eastern North distinct reduction activities. The archaeological America 7(1). debitage comprises the essential representative Flenniken, J. Jeffrey data set for the interpretation of prehistoric re­ 1987 The Lithic Technology of the East Lake Site, Newberry Crater, Oregon. Report duction assemblages. on file at the State Historic Preservation Office, Salem, Oregon. NOTES Flenniken, J. Jeffrey, and Terry L. Ozbun 1. Four years of archaeological investigations 1988 Archaeological Investigations in New­ in the vicinity of the Tosawihi quarries were initiated berry Crater, Deschutes National Forest, in mitigation against proposed minerals exploration Central Oregon. Report on file at the and extraction. The work was funded by Galactic State Historic Preservation Office, Salem, Services, Inc. Oregon. 2. During the 1989 field season, seven flint­ Steward, Julian H. knappers, all lithic technologists (see acknowledge­ 1938 Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical ments), visited the Tosawihi field camp to participate Groups. Bureau of American Ethnology in a knap-in. The purpose was to replicate the pro­ Bulletin 120.