A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AND MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Healthy populations of fisheries species at Cape Kri, Dampier Strait MPA. Image: © Awaludinnoer, TNC. A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AND MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Directorate General for Marine Spatial Management Directorate for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity Republic of Indonesia 2020 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AND MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA
This publication was jointly produced by the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project and the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia.
USAID SEA Project Office Sona Topas Tower, Floor 16, Jl. Jendral Sudirman Kav.26, Jakarta 12920, Indonesia Chief of Party: Alan White, PhD ([email protected]) Deputy Chief of Party: Tiene Gunawan, PhD ([email protected])
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Directorate for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity Gedung Mina Bahari 3 Lt 10, Jl. Medan Merdeka Timur No. 16 - Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia
Citation: Green, A.L., Fajariyanto, Y., Lionata, H., Ramadyan, F., Tighe, S., White, A., Gunawan, T., Rudyanto, and Minarputi, N. 2020. A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia. Report prepared by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project, 90 pp.
Contributors: TNC Indonesia Oceans Program Alison Green, Yusuf Fajariyanto, Hilda Lionata, Fachry Ramadyan. USAID SEA Stacey Tighe, Alan White, Tiene Gunawan, Rudyanto, Noorafebrianie Minarputri. KKHL Andi Rusandi, Firdaus Agung, Ihsan Ramli.
Editing and Layout: Melva Aritonang and Asuncion Sia
Printed in: Jakarta, Indonesia
Intellectual property rights: In accordance with ADS, Chapter 318, ownership of this publication is vested in USAID SEA on behalf of USAID Indonesia. USAID SEA reserves all rights thereto until the project concludes. These rights include reproduction and dissemination of the materials contained herein to government counterparts and/or working partners for wider distribution and promotional purposes.
Disclaimer: This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American People through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Project No. AID-497-C-16-00008 with the close collaboration of the Government of Indonesia. The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of USAID SEA Project and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.
Front cover photo: Coastal communities benefit from well-designed and managed MPAs through improved fishing near protected areas in Indonesia. Image: © Tommy Schultz. Back cover photo: Healthy, high biodiversity coral reef in Misool MPA, Raja Ampat Islands. Image: © Awaludinnoer, TNC. CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES...... 5 FOREWORD...... 6 PREFACE...... 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... 10 CHAPTER 1. MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 15 Background...... 15 Definitions...... 16 Status...... 16 Legal Framework...... 18 CHAPTER 2. A Framework for Designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 20 Step 1. Define Goals and Objectives...... 21 Step 2. Define Design Criteria to Achieve Goals and Objectives...... 23 Step 3. Compile Data Needed to Apply Design Criteria...... 28 Step 4. Design the MPA or MPA Network...... 29 Step 5. Use Performance Indicators to Evaluate and Refine the Design...... 30 Steps 6. Review MPA or MPA Network Design for Adaptive Management....30 CHAPTER 3. Using the Framework to Design MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 31 Designing MPAs and MPA Networks at Regional, Provincial and Local Scales...... 31 An Example: Designing an MPA Network for Fisheries Management Area 715 and the Six Associated Provinces...... 32 Introduction...... 32 Methods...... 33 Results...... 35 Discussion...... 37
3 ANNEX 1: Rationale for Biophysical, Socioeconomic and Cultural Criteria for Designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 39 ANNEX 2: Information and Data Needed for MPA and MPA Network Design in Indonesia...... 54 ANNEX 3: Evaluation Tool for MPA and MPA Network Design in Indonesia....63 ANNEX 4: List of Existing and Proposed MPAs and AOIs in FMA 715...... 83 REFERENCES...... 86
4 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA LISTS OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figures Figure 1. Marine Protected Areas in Indonesia...... 17 Figure 2. A logical framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia, showing how the six steps in the scientific process align with those in the three-step management process of Initiation, Establishment, and Management...... 20 Figure 3. MPA Network design for FMA 715 and six associated provinces, consisting of the existing and proposed MPAs in the provincial Marine Spatial Plans and Areas of Interest for establishing new MPAs...... 36
Tables Table 1. Biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural goals for MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia, and some examples of SMART objectives for each goal...... 21 Table 2. Biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 24 Table 3. Socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 27 Table 4. Scientific rationale (and explanatory notes) for the biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 39 Table 5. Rationale (and explanatory notes) for the socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 50 Table 6. Information and spatial data needed to apply biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 54 Table 7. Information and spatial data needed to apply socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 59 Table 8. Evaluation tool for the biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 67 Table 9. Evaluation tool for the socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia...... 77
5 FOREWORD
As an archipelagic country, Indonesia is blessed with high marine and coastal biodiversity. Our country has 16% of the world’s coral reefs, more than 2,000 marine fish species, and abundant and diverse mangrove and seagrass species. These resources generate significant economic benefits for our people, particularly our coastal communities. To ensure their sustainability, the Government of Indonesia has set aside large areas of marine and coastal waters for protection in accordance with our international and regional commitments. These include our commitment under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) to conserve 10% of our marine and coastal waters as marine protected areas (MPAs). As a demonstration of this commitment, we have officially targeted to allocate 10% of Indonesian marine and coastal waters to MPAs by 2030.
As of end-2019, Indonesia has established 23.14 million hectares as MPAs covering 7.12% of our total marine area, but many of these MPAs are not effectively managed because of a lack of funding and human resources. As part of our strategy for addressing this challenge, we have adopted an approach that involves designing and establishing MPA Networks. This approach will allow our MPA planners and managers, along with other conservation practitioners, to share with each other data, information and knowledge related to their MPA programs, as well as to leverage funding and human resources. To support this approach, the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF), through the Directorate for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity of the Directorate General for Marine Spatial Management, issued Ministerial Regulation No. 13/2014 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks. This regulation will be accompanied by Technical Guidelines (Petunjuk Teknis or Juknis) to assist our personnel in the design and management of MPAs, so as to ensure that it is properly implemented and that we can achieve our national targets for MPA and MPA Network expansion and effective management.
6 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA This document, A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia, is intended to serve as a supplement to support the Technical Guidelines of Ministerial Regulation No. 13/2014 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks (MMAF, in prep). We expect that it will enhance understanding of MPA and MPA Network design and management among MPA planners and managers, as well as supporting government agency personnel responsible for MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia.
This document provides a practical example to guide readers through a logical set of steps toward the design and establishment of MPAs and MPA Networks. It also includes an integrated set of biophysical criteria to help practitioners design Networks of MPAs to achieve fisheries sustainability, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem resilience in the face of climate change.
This document is tailored specifically to the Indonesian marine environment, providing a succinct and user-friendly synthesis of the best available scientific information for practitioners who may not have access to, or the time to review, the increasing amount of research literature on this topic. It will serve as an excellent reference for our ongoing work in Indonesia on MPA Network design.
As a final note, we express our highest appreciation to USAID SEA and its partners for their valuable contribution in developing this document. We encourage all MPA planners and practitioners to make good use of it as a reference in improving our Indonesian MPA and MPA Network design and implementation.
Andi Rusandi Director for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity Directorate General for Marine Spatial Management Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
7 PREFACE
The Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, with technical assistance from The Nature Conservancy (TNC) through the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project (USAID SEA), has developed a clear logical guide and framework for field practitioners to use to design MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. The guide and framework were developed through a process that involved:
▪ Reviewing the guidance in the existing Ministerial Regulations (Peraturan Menteri or PERMEN) and updating and refining this guidance based on the latest science and best practices in Indonesia and worldwide (e.g., Savu Sea Marine National Park and Raja Ampat Islands MPA: TNC/SEA 2018a). ▪ Adapting and refining this guidance with input from 243 representatives from 69 national, provincial or local level governments, non-governmental organizations and university scientists at 12 national and provincial workshops (e.g., see TNC/SEA 2018a,b,c; and Acknowledgments).
This document, A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia, is the result of that process. It provides overall context for MPA and MPA Network design for Indonesia, and guides managers through a simple, easy-to-use scientific process for designing MPAs and MPA Networks that takes the unique biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural considerations of Indonesia into account. It provides a logical framework (goals, objectives and design criteria) for designing new MPAs and MPA Networks and a tool (with performance indicators) for evaluating the design of existing MPAs or MPA Networks. It serves as supplementary information to support the Technical Guidelines of Ministerial Regulation No. 13/2014 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks (MMAF, in prep.).
The audience for this detailed Guide, Framework and Example includes senior MMAF technical staff, staff in the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (marine units), universities, non-governmental organizations and others
8 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA interested to learn more about how to plan for effective marine conservation through MPAs and their networks.
Recognizing the need for concerted action at the regional scale for marine conservation and resource management, Indonesia, along with five other countries that form the biogeographic core of the Coral Triangle, endorsed in 2009 a 10-year (2010-2020) Regional Plan of Action (RPOA) that defines the establishment and effective management of MPAs as one primary goal. There is one target under this goal: A region-wide Coral Triangle MPA System (CTMPAS) in place and fully functional. A first step toward achieving this target is to scale up the initiatives of each national MPA Network program. This Guide, Framework and Example for Indonesia is in line with the CTMPAS and will assist Indonesia to move toward improved MPA Network design and contribute directly to the system of MPAs for CTI-CFF.
We in USAID SEA are proud of our contribution to the improvement of MPAs in Indonesia. We hope that this Guide, Framework and Example will serve to build more and better MPA Networks in the country to achieve fisheries management and biodiversity conservation and enhance the resilience of our coastal resources amid climate change and local human pressures. We thank all those who contributed to this work and look forward to seeing the results in action.
Alan White Chief of Party USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project
9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This document was produced as part of USAID SEA support to the Government of Indonesia’s effort to improve the governance of fisheries and marine resources and conserve biological diversity. The authors thank Andi Rusandi, MMAF Director for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity, and Firdaus Agung, Deputy Director for Convention and Conservation Network, for leading this process, and USAID for supporting the project.
In 2018 and 2019, USAID SEA through TNC facilitated a series of 12 workshops at the national and provincial levels to develop the framework provided in this document for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. We thank the 234 participants from 69 institutions who contributed their data and knowledge to these workshops, including experts and partners from government agencies (district, provincial, and national), universities, NGOs, and local communities. Workshop participants and other substantive contributors to this process included representatives of:
▪ Directorate General for Marine Spatial Management-MMAF (DGPRL-KKP) ▪ Directorate General for Capture Fisheries-MMAF (DJPT-KKP) ▪ Directorate General for Surveillance for Marine and Fisheries Resources-MMAF (PSDKP-KKP) ▪ Marine and Fisheries Research and Human Resources Development Agency-MMAF (BRSDM-KKP) ▪ Bureau for Legal and Organization-MMAF (BHO-KKP) ▪ Directorate for Marine Conservation and Biodiversity-MMAF (KKHL-KKP) ▪ Directorate for Coastal and Small Islands Utilization-MMAF (DP4K-KKP) ▪ Directorate for Fishing Port-MMAF (DPP-KKP) ▪ Directorate for Marine Services-MMAF (Jaskel-KKP) ▪ Center for Fisheries Research-MMAF (Pusriskan-KKP) ▪ Center for Marine Research (Pusriskel-KKP)
10 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ▪ Coastal and Marine Resources Management Sorong Agency (Loka PSPL Sorong) ▪ Social and Economic Research Center-MMAF (BBRSE KKP) ▪ Center for Marine and Fisheries Training and Extension-MMAF (Puslatluh-KKP) ▪ National Agency of Marine Protected Areas of Kupang (BKKPN Kupang) ▪ National Agency of Marine Protected Areas of Kupang - Raja Ampat Unit (BKKPN Kupang Satker Raja Ampat) ▪ Natural Resources Conservation Agency of West Papua (BBKSDA Papua Barat) ▪ US Department of the Interior International Technical Assistance Program (DOI-ITAP) ▪ German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ, or Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) ▪ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of West Papua Province (DKP Papua Barat) ▪ Regional Technical Management Unit of Raja Ampat (UPTD Raja Ampat) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Province (DKP Maluku) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Island Cluster II (DKP Maluku GP II) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Island Cluster III (DKP Maluku GP III) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Island Cluster IV (DKP Maluku GP IV) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Island Cluster VI (DKP Maluku GP VI) ▪ Department of Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Island Cluster VII (DKP Maluku GP VII) ▪ Department of Tourism of Maluku Province (Dispar Maluku) ▪ Regional Development, Planning, Research, and Construction of Bintuni District (BP4D) ▪ Regional Development Planning Agency of Fakfak District (BAPPEDA Fakfak)
11 ▪ Regional Development Planning Agency of South Sorong District (BAPPEDA Sorong Selatan) ▪ Regional Development Planning Agency of Bintuni District (BAPPEDA Bintuni) ▪ Regional Development Planning Agency of Maluku Province (BAPPEDA Maluku) ▪ Provincial Marine and Fisheries Affairs of North Maluku Province (DKP Maluku Utara) ▪ Provincial Marine and Fisheries Affairs of Maluku Province (DKP Maluku) ▪ Provincial Marine and Fisheries Affairs of West Papua Province (DKP Papua Barat) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Bintuni (DKP Bintuni) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Fakfak (DKP Fakfak) ▪ District Fisheries Office of South Sorong (DKP Sorong Selatan) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Raja Ampat (DKP Raja Ampat) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Central Maluku (DKP Maluku Tengah) ▪ District Fisheries Office of West Ceram (DKP Seram Barat) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Morotai (DKP Morotai) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Central Halmahera (DKP Halmahera Tengah) ▪ District Fisheries Office of East Halmahera (DKP Halmahera Timur) ▪ District Fisheries Office of North Halmahera (DKP Halmahera Utara) ▪ District Fisheries Office of South Halmahera (DKP Halmahera Selatan) ▪ District Fisheries Office of West Halmahera (DKP Halmahera Barat) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Sula (DKP Sula) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Taliabu (DKP Taliabu) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Ternate (DKP Ternate) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Tidore (DKP Tidore) ▪ District Fisheries Office of Tidore Islands (DKP Tidore Kepulauan) ▪ Marine and Fisheries Resources Study Center of Bogor Institute of Agriculture (PKSPL IPB) ▪ Saint Lucia National Trust ▪ Academy Fisheries of Sorong
12 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ▪ University of Darussalam ▪ University of Leeds ▪ University of Muhammadiyah of Ternate ▪ University of Khairun (UNKHAIR) ▪ Christian University of Papua (UKIP) ▪ University of Papua (UNIPA) ▪ University of Pattimura (UNPATTI) ▪ Community Development Participation Institution of Maluku (LPPM Maluku) ▪ Lamina ▪ Nazareth Foundation – West Papua ▪ Papua Turtle Foundation (YPP) – West Papua ▪ Conservation International (CI) ▪ Coral Triangle Center (CTC) ▪ Rare ▪ Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS Indonesia) ▪ World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF Indonesia) ▪ The Nature Conservancy (TNC Indonesia)
We also thank others who may have contributed to developing the information contained in this document through informal discussions or other means.
13
CHAPTER 1 MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS IN INDONESIA
Background Indonesia comprises some of the world’s most diverse tropical marine ecosystems, which are a global priority for conservation (Allen & Erdmann 2012, Veron et al. 2015). These rich marine resources provide food security and livelihoods for coastal communities (ADB 2014). Unfortunately, many of these critically important resources and the ecosystem services they provide have been lost or seriously degraded, or are threatened by a combination of local anthropogenic threats (e.g., destructive or overfishing, mass tourism, coastal development and land-based runoff) and global changes in climate and ocean chemistry (Burke et al. 2012, ADB 2014).
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), particularly no-take zones (NTZs), can be powerful tools to address local threats and enhance fisheries productivity, protect biodiversity, and increase resilience to changes in climate and ocean chemistry (Green et al. 2014, Roberts et al. 2017). They can also enhance food security and sustainable livelihoods for communities and other stakeholders.
MPA Networks can deliver additional benefits by acting as mutually replenishing networks to facilitate recovery after disturbances (see review in Green et al. 2020), allow crucial spatial links needed to support ecosystem connectivity, and reduce socioeconomic impacts but still consider
15 conservation and fisheries benefits. Additionally, MPA Networks also prevent effort duplication on resource management, which in the end contributes to more cost-effective management (WCPA-IUCN, 2008).
MPAs and MPA Networks play an important role in conservation and management in Indonesia. However, they can only achieve their objectives if they are well designed and effectively managed (Green et al. 2014, Gill et al. 2017, Giakoumi et al. 2018).
Definitions In Indonesia, MPAs are defined as marine areas that are protected and managed by a zoning system to manage fish resources and the environment in a sustainable manner (Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries [MMAF] Regulation No. 13/2014 and No. 30/2010).
An MPA Network, on the other hand, is defined as a management cooperation of two or more MPAs in a synergistic manner that have biophysical linkages (MMAF Regulation No. 13/2014).
Status The Government of Indonesia is committed to establish 20 million hectares (ha) of effectively managed MPAs by 2020, and 30 million ha by 2030. To date, there are 177 existing national and local government MPAs (and no MPA Networks) established in Indonesia (Figure 1), covering an area of 22,786,183 ha (MMAF 2018). These MPAs are managed at the national level by MMAF (5,578,816 ha) and the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (4,612,869 ha), as well as locally by Provincial Governments (12,594,497 ha). MMAF is now identifying and establishing new MPAs to achieve their target of 30 million ha in MPAs by 2030, and is interested in reviewing the design of existing MPAs.
Coastal communities have also established Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs)1 in many locations for conservation, fisheries management and
1 LMMAs are areas of nearshore waters and associated coastal and marine resources that are largely or wholly managed at a local level by the coastal communities, land-owning groups, partner organizations, and/or collaborative government representatives who reside or are based in the immediate area (http://lmmanetwork.org).
16 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Figure 1. Marine Protected Areas in Indonesia (MMAF 2018). environmental education. LMMAs are often used to enhance traditional conservation methods, particularly in eastern Indonesia (e.g., sasi), where they are used to regulate the use of specific natural resources, including giant clams, trochus, sea cucumbers and lobsters, by closing access to areas at a certain time or place (ADB 2014). At present, local communities have established 51 LMMAs in three eastern provinces: 29 in West Papua (Padaido Islands), 17 in Papua (Tanah Merah Bay) and 7 in Maluku (3 in the Banda Islands and 4 in the Kei Islands)2.
Unfortunately, many of Indonesia’s MPAs are not yet managed effectively. For example, Burke et al. (2012) found that less than 2% of 175 MPAs in Indonesia containing coral reefs were fully effective at managing fishing pressure, 24% were partially effective, 34% were not effective, and the effectiveness of the rest was unknown.
Factors inhibiting effective management of MPAs in Indonesia may include a high population of low-income people who depend on marine resources for their food and livelihoods, the lack of adequate community engagement and education in MPA establishment and management (leading to a lack of community support and compliance), and inadequate institutional capacity, technical capacity and governance mechanisms (Lowry et al. 2009, Green et al. 2011, White et al 2014).
To respond to these challenges, the national government developed technical guidelines for evaluating and improving management effectiveness of MPAs (e.g., E-KKP3K: DCAFS 2013). Further scientific advice is also required to ensure that MPAs are well designed to achieve their goals and objectives (Green et al. 2014).
Legal Framework In Indonesia, MPAs can be established by national and provincial governments under either fisheries legislation (Law 31/2004, amended by Law 45/2009) or coastal- and small-island management legislation (Law 27/2007, amended by Law 1/2014). These laws allow for multiple uses within MPAs through the application of zoning and management plans. MPAs can include zones with a variety of regulations and restrictions regarding access and activities (e.g., for fisheries or tourism). No-take zones (NTZs)
2 See http://lmmanetwork.org/who-we-are/country-networks/indonesia/
18 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA are usually core (no-go areas) or limited utilization zones (e.g., tourism subzones), where no extractive activities are allowed.
Currently, there are several Ministerial Regulations (Peraturan Menteri or PERMEN) that provide general guidance for establishing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia including, but not limited to: ▪ PERMEN KP No. 17/MEN/2008 on Coastal and Small Island MPAs; ▪ PERMEN KP No.02/2009 on MPA Establishment; ▪ PERMEN KP No. 30/2010 on MPA Zoning and Management Planning; and ▪ PERMEN KP No.13/2014 on MPA Networks.
Each PERMEN provides information to guide the design and establishment of MPAs and/or MPA Networks, mostly focusing on management aspects. In addition, the document Technical Guidelines (Petunjuk Teknis or Juknis) of Ministerial Regulation No. 13/2014 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks is in preparation.
These documents should be supplemented with additional information that describes a clear and easy-to-follow technical process for how to design MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. This document, A Guide, Framework and Example: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia, was developed specifically to provide such information to supplement the Juknis. It offers a simple guide, framework and a practical example for practitioners to use to design MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia.
This document contains three chapters. Chapter 1 provides the context regarding MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. Chapter 2 contains a step-by-step framework (goals, design criteria, data requirements and performance indicators) for designing MPAs and MPA Networks. Finally, Chapter 3 provides a case study for designing an MPA Network in Indonesia.
19 CHAPTER 2 A FRAMEWORK FOR DESIGNING MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS IN INDONESIA
A logical framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia is provided in Figure 2. The framework includes six steps in the scientific process that should take place in coordination with the MPA management process, where Steps 1-5 should take place during the Initiation Phase, and Step 6 should take place during the Management Phase (after the MPA or MPA Network has been established).
Figure 2. A logical framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia, showing how the six steps in the scientific process align with those in the three-step management process of Initiation, Establishment, and Management. The following provides an overview of each step in this process, and provides goals, objectives, design criteria and performance indicators for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia.
Step 1. Define Goals and Objectives MPA goals and objectives should be clearly defined and compatible with one another, which helps facilitate broader acceptance of MPAs by a range of stakeholders who may have different objectives with respect to their interests (Giakoumi et al. 2018).
Therefore, the first step in designing MPAs or MPA Networks is to clearly identify the goals and objectives, where: ▪ Goals are what you want to achieve by establishing the MPA or MPA Network; and ▪ Objectives are specific plans of action or milestones needed to achieve your goals. Objectives should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound).
Table 1 provides a summary of the goals, and some examples of SMART objectives for each goal, for MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia that address biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural considerations. Managers and key stakeholders should consider each of these goals, and then adapt and refine them to develop goals that suit their local context, where one MPA may have multiple goals, e.g., to protect biodiversity and enhance fisheries resources (biophysical goals), and to support sustainable community livelihoods and promote active community participation and support in MPA or MPA Network management (socioeconomic and cultural goals).
Table 1. Biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural goals for MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia, and some examples of SMART objectives for each goal. Biophysical Goals Examples of (SMART) Objectives Protect critical ecosystems, ▪ Within 5 years of the MPA being established, habitats, biodiversity, at least 20% of critical habitats have been species, and abiotic protected in NTZs. resources. ▪ Five years after the MPA is established, biodiversity and the status of biotic resources have been maintained relative to the 2019 baseline data. (Continued on next page)
21 Table 1 (Continued from previous page)
Biophysical Goals Examples of (SMART) Objectives
Maintain, enhance or restore ▪ Five years after the MPA is established, at least productivity and biomass of 4 targeted grouper and snapper species coastal fisheries. (demersal fishes) have spawning potential ratios (SPRs) maintained at a level of 30% or above for healthy stocks and increased to above 20% for depleted stocks. ▪ Five years after the MPA is established, at least 4 species of small pelagic fishes have SPRs maintained at a level of 30% or above for healthy stocks and increased to above 20% for depleted stocks. Rehabilitate ecosystems, For Coral Reefs: Five years after the MPA is habitats and populations of established, mean coral cover in the MPA is stable focal and protected or has increased by 5% relative to the 2019 species. baseline data.3 Adapt to and mitigate ▪ Two years after the MPA is established, coral changes in climate and reefs that are likely to be more resilient to ocean chemistry. climate change have been identified within the MPA. ▪ Five years after the MPA is established, at least 50% of resilient coral reefs are protected in NTZs. ▪ Five years after the MPA is established, at least 75% of resilient reefs within the MPA that are in close proximity to (and being impacted by) high levels of land-based impacts have a detailed land-based spatial plan that minimizes direct runoff (e.g., from sedimentation etc.) onto these reefs. Socioeconomic and Examples of (SMART) Objectives Cultural Goals Facilitate minimal or no ▪ Three years after the MPA has been conflicting use of marine established, the number of cases of resources and fisheries. conflicting use between resource users has decreased by 50%. ______3 It is important to note, though, that some factors may influence coral cover that are outside the control of MPAs i.e., coral bleaching
22 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Socioeconomic and Cultural Goals Examples of (SMART) Objectives Support sustainable ▪ Three years after the MPA has been community livelihoods established, 20 home industries processing based on (biotic and fish products in the MPA have been abiotic) marine resources. certified as sustainable.
Promote active community ▪ Three years after the MPA has been participation and support in established, 50% of local wisdom is MPA or MPA Network acknowledged and institutionalized in the management (including MPA through formal recognition. adat, by acknowledging ▪ Two years after the MPA has been local wisdom in planning established, adat institutions have and implementation). representatives in the collaborative management body of the MPA.
Step 2. Define Design Criteria to Achieve Goals and Objectives
The second step is to develop design criteria. These are guidelines that provide specific advice on how to design MPAs and MPA Networks to achieve their goals and objectives (Green et al. 2013).
There are two types of criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia: ▪ Biophysical design criteria aimed at achieving ecological objectives by taking key biological and physical processes into account (Table 2); and ▪ Socioeconomic and cultural design criteria aimed at maximizing benefits and minimizing costs to local communities and sustainable industries (Table 3).
Managers and key stakeholders should adapt and refine these design criteria to address the goals and objectives of their MPA or MPA Network (see Step 1), and to consider their local biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural context.
The scientific rationale for each of the biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia is provided in Annex 1 (Table 4), which is a
23 summary from the document Biophysical Criteria for Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia (Green et al. 2020). The rationale for the socioeconomic and cultural design criteria is also provided in Annex 1 (Table 5), based on input from workshop participants (see Acknowledgments).
Table 2. Biophysical criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. Please note that many of these criteria are designed to consider the ecology of focal species, including: key fisheries species (fish and invertebrates); endangered, threatened and protected species and/or migratory marine biota (sea turtles, marine birds, cetaceans, dugong and crocodiles); large charismatic marine fauna (sharks, manta rays, whale sharks and Mola mola); species important for maintaining ecosystem function, such as habitat-forming species (e.g., corals) or species important for reef resilience (e.g., herbivores). Consideration Biophysical Design Criteria Represent Habitats Protect at least 20% of each major habitat in NTZs (e.g., each type of coral reef, mangrove forest, estuary or seagrass bed). Replicate Habitats (Spread the Protect at least three examples of each major Risk) habitat in NTZs; and Spread them out to reduce the chances they will all be affected by the same disturbance (such as major storms, mass coral bleaching events and crown-of- thorns starfish outbreaks). Protect Critical, Special and Protect critical areas in the life history of Unique Areas focal fisheries species in NTZs (e.g., spawning and nursery areas). Protect critical areas or habitats for charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species (e.g., breeding, feeding or resting areas, or migratory corridors). Protect special and unique natural phenomena in NTZs, including areas with very high biodiversity, high endemism, unique marine communities or high productivity (e.g., unique pelagic habitats like areas of upwelling, fronts, and eddies).
24 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Consideration Biophysical Design Criteria Protect areas that are important at the national, international or global scale for conservation or management of focal species (e.g., World Heritage Areas, RAMSAR Sites, critical habitats for globally endangered species, or critical areas for maintaining connectivity of fisheries species across national boundaries). Incorporate Connectivity: Consider variations in oceanography Abiotic Factors (currents, tides, temperature, salinity, acidity, etc.), substrate and bathymetry that affect the spread of biological and non-biological material. Incorporate Connectivity: Ensure NTZs are large enough to sustain Biotic Factors adults and juveniles of focal fisheries species within their boundaries. Movement of Adults and Juveniles Ensure NTZs are large enough to contain all habitats used by focal species throughout their life history (e.g., for home ranges, nursery grounds and spawning areas); or Establish networks of NTZs close enough to allow for movements of focal species among protected habitats (e.g., through ontogenetic habitat shifts and spawning migrations). Include whole ecological units (such as reefs or seamounts) in NTZs. If not, choose larger rather than smaller areas. Use compact shapes (e.g., squares) for NTZs, except when protecting naturally elongated habitats. Larval Dispersal Establish: ▪ NTZs large enough to be self-sustaining for focal species; or ▪ Networks of NTZs close enough to be connected by larval dispersal. Protect spatially isolated areas in NTZs. (Continued on next page)
25 Table 2 (Continued from previous page) Consideration Biophysical Design Criteria Protect larval sources in permanent or seasonal NTZs or by using fisheries closures during spawning times. Locate more NTZs upstream relative to fished areas if there is a strong, consistent, unidirectional current. Allow Time for Recovery Establish NTZs for the long term (>20 to 40 years), preferably permanently. Use short-term (<5 years) or periodically harvested NTZs in addition to, rather than instead of, long-term or permanent NTZs. Protect Healthy Areas and Avoid Protect areas where habitats and populations Local Threats of focal species are in good condition with low levels of local threats (e.g., from overfishing, destructive fishing, coastal development, mass tourism, land-based runoff of sediments and nutrients, marine pollution, and shipping, mining, oil and gas industries). Avoid areas where habitats and populations of focal species are in poor condition due to local threats. If this is not possible: ▪ Reduce threats; ▪ Facilitate natural recovery (e.g., by protecting larval sources and species like herbivores that play important functional roles in ecosystem resilience); and ▪ Consider the costs and benefits of rehabilitating habitats and species (e.g., by restoring structures, transplanting corals, or facilitating population recovery of focal species by restocking or using temporary closures). Adapt to Changes in Climate Protect sites that are likely to be more and Ocean Chemistry resilient to global environmental change (refugia) in NTZs. Protect ecologically important sites that are sensitive to changes in climate and ocean chemistry.
26 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Consideration Biophysical Design Criteria Increase protection of species that play important functional roles in ecosystem resilience (e.g., herbivores). Consider how changes in climate and ocean chemistry will affect the life history of focal species. Address uncertainty by: ▪ Spreading the risk (see above); and ▪ Increasing protection of habitats, critical areas and species most vulnerable to changes in climate and ocean chemistry.
Table 3. Socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia. Please note that many of these criteria refer to stakeholders, which include local, adat and traditional communities, governments, non-governmental organizations, civil society organizations, scientific institutions and industries (e.g., fisheries and tourism)
Consideration Socioeconomic and Cultural Design Criteria
Involve Stakeholders in Involve all stakeholders in each step of the Establishing MPAs and MPA process of establishing MPAs and MPA Networks. Networks. (MPA establishment includes Prioritize establishing MPAs in areas developing zoning and supported by stakeholders. management plans.) Consider opportunities for collaborative management among all stakeholders and implement as appropriate. Provide capacity building for stakeholders to help them engage more effectively in establishing MPAs and MPA Networks. Ensure Stakeholder Compliance Involve local community in compliance and within MPAs. enforcement, e.g., through joint patrols among government institutions and communities, and POKMASWAS (community surveillance groups). Support MPA management actions that maintain or increase ecosystem goods and services for local communities. (Continued on next page)
27 Table 3 (Continued from previous page)
Consideration Socioeconomic and Cultural Design Criteria
Support Multiple, Allow for multiple environmentally friendly Environmentally Friendly Uses in uses in MPAs (including sustainable fishing, MPAs. tourism, aquaculture, education and research). Support Community Welfare Support environmentally friendly livelihoods (Livelihoods and Food Supplies). of local communities, including community- based environmentally friendly fisheries, and aquaculture and marine resource-based tourism based on an area’s uniqueness (biotic and abiotic resources). Protect marine heritage sites (e.g., shipwrecks and airplane wrecks) that have important, archeological-historical value, and manage them for their potential to support community-based tourism. Ensure Fair and Equal Access Ensure local communities have fair and equal and Use. access to, and utilization of, marine and fisheries resources. Maintain or improve access to resources and markets to support community economies that comply with MPA management plans. Support Local Wisdom and Protect adat, local wisdom, traditional law, Practices. and culture that support conservation and sustainable resource management, which are still acknowledged and applied by the existing adat community or institution. Protect areas that have important traditional cultural value for local people/adat, including mystical (pamali) areas and important sites for traditional medicine.
Step 3. Compile Data Needed to Apply Design Criteria The third step is to compile the information and spatial data required to apply the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural criteria to design the MPA or
28 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA MPA Network to achieve its goals and objectives. The data required may vary depending on the specific goals, objectives and design criteria defined for the MPA or MPA Network in Step 1 and Step 2. Some general advice is provided in Annex 2.
Step 4. Design the MPA or MPA Network The next step is to design the MPA or MPA Network. This may require zoning an individual MPA (e.g., Savu Sea Marine Park: BKKPNK 2013) or designing a network of multiple MPAs (e.g., the Lesser Sunda Ecoregion MPA Network: Wilson et al. 2011).
There are several ways to design MPAs or MPA Networks: · Ideally, the design criteria (defined in Step 2) and the best available information and spatial data (compiled in Step 3) can be used to design MPAs or MPA Networks using systematic conservation planning tools like Marxan (Ball et al. 2009). · Alternatively, MPAs or MPA Networks can be designed manually using the best available information and participatory expert mapping (e.g., see TNC/SEA 2019a,b,c).
Both approaches allow managers to identify Areas of Interest for establishing new MPAs (e.g., see Wilson et al. 2011, TNC/SEA 2019a,b,c) or zones, including core zones, NTZs or other types of utilization zones (e.g., see Grantham et al. 2013), to design the MPA or MPA Network to achieve its goals and objectives (see Step 1). Either way, before the proposed zoning or MPA initiation process can start, the results should first be validated in the field to ensure that the Areas of Interest or zones will provide the expected benefits for the MPA or MPA Network.
There are many excellent systematic conservation planning tools available. These tools each have their own training manual or website (e.g., http://marxan.net/), so information regarding how to use them will not be provided here. Training in using Marxan or participatory expert mapping to design MPAs or MPA Networks is also provided in the Training Manual for Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks in Indonesia (TNC/CTC/SEA 2019).
29 Step 5. Use Performance Indicators to Evaluate and Refine the Design Once the MPA or MPA Network has been designed, you can use the Evaluation Tool for Marine Protected Area and Marine Protected Area Network Design in Indonesia (Annex 3) to evaluate and refine the design. This is a simple tool that uses performance indicators for the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural design criteria (see Step 2) to help managers evaluate and refine the design to ensure that the MPA or MPA Network will achieve its goals and objectives.
Step 6. Review MPA or MPA Network Design for Adaptive Management When the management plan (including the zoning plan) for the MPA or MPA Network is reviewed as required every five years, the Evaluation Tool for Marine Protected Area and Marine Protected Area Network Design in Indonesia (Annex 3) can be used again to refine the zoning plan for adaptive management.
30 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA CHAPTER 3 USING THE FRAMEWORK TO DESIGN MPAs AND MPA NETWORKS IN INDONESIA Designing MPAs and MPA Networks at Regional, Provincial and Local Scales The framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks provided in this document can be used at multiple scales in Indonesia. For example, through USAID SEA, it has been used in eastern Indonesia to:
● Design a network of MPAs for Fisheries Management Area 715 (FMA 715) and the associated six provinces using the systematic conservation planning tool Marxan (Fajariyanto et al. 2020: see example below). ● Design networks of MPAs for each of three provinces (West Papua, North Maluku and Maluku) using participatory expert mapping (e.g., see TNC/SEA 2018b,c, 2019a,b,c); and ● Develop, review and refine zoning plans for 14 individual MPAs in three provinces (TNC/SEA 2018d, 2019b,c): ▪ Seribu Satu Sungai Teo Enebekia (South Sorong) and Berau Bay and Nusalasi Bay-Van den Bosch (Fakfak) in West Papua. ▪ Rao Island-Dehegila Cape (Morotai), Mare Island, Sula Islands, Guraici Islands, Makian Island-Moti Island, and Widi Island Cluster in North Maluku. ▪ Serutbar (Sawai), Koon Island, Ay Island-Rhun Island, and Buano and Lease Islands in Maluku. 31 Here we provide an example of how the framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks provided in this document was used to design an MPA network for FMA 715 and six associated provinces (from Fajariyanto et al. 2020).
An Example: Designing an MPA Network for Fisheries Management Area 715 and the Six Associated Provinces Introduction FMA 715 is located in eastern Indonesia, where it intersects the waters of six provinces (West Papua, Maluku, North Maluku, North Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi and Gorontalo). Each of these provinces has a Marine Spatial Plan that includes both existing and proposed MPAs.
FMA 715 was selected as the focus of USAID SEA because it comprises one of the richest fisheries areas in Indonesia, some of the highest marine biodiversity on Earth, and critical habitats for charismatic, rare, threatened and protected species (e.g., sea turtles, cetaceans, manta rays, whale sharks). These rich marine resources provide important economic and social benefits for coastal communities.
Unfortunately, many of these critically important resources and the ecosystem services they provide have been lost, seriously degraded or are threatened by a combination of local anthropogenic threats and global changes in climate and ocean chemistry. For example, FMA 715 has nine types of commercial fisheries, seven of which are overexploited.
MPAs can be powerful tools for managing marine resources to protect biodiversity, enhance fisheries, adapt to changes in climate and ocean chemistry, and support sustainable community livelihoods and traditional cultures, but only if they are well designed and effectively managed.
Recently, Fajariyanto et al. (2020) designed an MPA Network for FMA 715 and the six associated provinces, where the aim was to design the MPA Network to: ▪ Support fisheries management and biodiversity protection in FMA 715;
32 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ▪ Refine the MPA Networks and Marine Spatial Plans for each of the six provinces that intersect with FMA 715; and ▪ Inform the design of a national network of MPAs. The authors used the guidance and framework provided in this document (see Figure 2) to design the MPA Network, as described below. Methods Defining Goals and Design Criteria First, they clearly identified the MPA Network goals, and the design criteria required to achieve these goals. To do this, they used the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural goals and design criteria provided in this document (see Tables 1, 2 and 3 above), and adapted and refined them for the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the study area.
Thus, the MPA Network was designed to: ▪ Increase protection of biodiversity by increasing the level of protection of shallow-water habitats, deepwater habitats, and critical, special and unique areas, particularly important deepwater features (e.g., seamounts and canyons), which are currently underrepresented in existing and proposed MPAs in Indonesia. ▪ Maintain or enhance fisheries by increasing the protection of stocks of fisheries species in MPAs, which will lead to the export of adults, juveniles and larvae to support fisheries in adjacent waters. ▪ Minimize impacts on commercial and subsistence fisheries by avoiding placing MPAs in areas with high fishing intensity (as much as possible) and maintaining access to fisheries ports. ▪ Support community livelihoods by improving management of marine resources (habitats and populations of fisheries species), and allowing access to important areas for fishing and tourism (e.g., dive sites). ▪ Acknowledge and support adat by protecting local wisdom and important traditional areas in MPAs.
This required clearly identifying the conservation features to protect, and the threats and other uses to consider, where: ▪ Conservation features to protect included: shallow-water habitats (<200m: coral reefs, mangroves forests and seagrass beds);
33 deepwater habitats (>200m: seamounts, canyons etc.); and critical, special and unique areas, including fish spawning areas (spags), turtle nesting beaches, coelacanth distribution and walking shark distribution areas, dive sites, shipwrecks, seaworm fishing areas, important traditional areas (e.g., mystical areas) and local wisdom areas (e.g., sasi). ▪ Local threats to conservation features included overfishing and destructive fishing practices, poaching, waste, mangrove logging, sedimentation, mining, etc. ▪ Areas allocated for other uses in Marine Spatial Plans where MPAs cannot be established included military areas, transportation and fishing ports, oil and gas mining areas, underwater cable pipe lanes, sea mine areas (unexploded ordnance) and reclamation areas.
Compiling Data Next, they compiled the best available spatial data and other information required to apply the design criteria (see Annex 2) to design the network. They compiled 170 spatial data layers, which included data for: ▪ MPA status (e.g., existing national and provincial MPAs, or proposed MPAs allocated in Provincial Marine Spatial Plans, and Areas of Interest identified as potential new MPAs); ▪ Conservation features; ▪ Threats; and ▪ Other uses. Each data layer was processed and verified, e.g., by validating the accuracy of the data by comparing it with other spatial and non-spatial information for the same area.
Designing the MPA Network To design the MPA Network for FMA 715 and the six associated provinces, they defined the planning area by taking into account: the need to support fisheries management throughout FMA 715; the Marine Spatial Plans in each of the provinces; and the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the study area. Thus, the planning area spanned 1,823 km from east to west, and encompassed an area of 1.6 million km2 (161.3 million ha, which is 49.5% of Indonesia’s marine waters), including: ▪ All of the national and provincial waters within FMA 715;
34 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ▪ All of the provincial waters of the six provinces that intersect with FMA 715; and ▪ All of the national waters between the six provinces. They then conducted a marine gap analysis to maximize protection of the conservation features within the planning area while avoiding threats and minimizing impacts on fisheries and other uses. To do this, they started with the existing and proposed MPAs in the provincial Marine Spatial Plans for each province, then identified Areas of Interest to fill gaps in the MPA Network using: ▪ The MPA Network goals and design criteria (see above); ▪ The 170 spatial data layers for conservation features, threats and other uses (see above); ▪ The results of participatory expert mapping in the provinces (e.g., TNC/SEA 2018b,c, 2019a,b,c); ▪ The systematic conservation planning tool Marxan; and ▪ Input and review by hundreds of MPA practitioners and scientists from national, provincial and local governments, national and provincial universities, and NGOs. Results An MPA Network for FMA 715 and the Six Associated Provinces The result was the first MPA Network design for FMA 715 and the associated six provinces (Figure 3) that includes: ▪ All 122 of the existing and proposed MPAs already allocated in the provincial Marine Spatial Plans (comprising 10.1 million ha); and ▪ 44 Areas of Interest (comprising 5.3 million ha) for establishing new or expanded MPAs in the six provinces. These Areas of Interest were selected to increase protection of conservation features not currently protected in existing and proposed MPAs, particularly deepwater habitats (e.g., seamounts and canyons), and critical, special and unique areas (e.g., coelacanth and walking shark distribution areas, local wisdom areas, etc.). If these Areas of Interest are established as new MPAs, they will increase the total area of existing and proposed MPAs in FMA 715 and the six provinces from 10.1 million to 15.4 million ha. However, before they are established, they need to be validated (ground-truthed to ensure that they will provide the expected benefits for the MPA Network), and proposals for new MPAs will need to be discussed appropriately with local stakeholders. 35 Figure 3. MPA Network design for FMA 715 and six associated provinces, consisting of existing and proposed MPAs in the Provincial Marine Spatial Plans and Areas of Interest for establishing new MPAs. The sites are numbered on the map and keyed to the list in Annex 4. An Evaluation of the Design The MPA Network design was evaluated using a post hoc analysis in Marxan and the evaluation tool in Annex 3. The results showed that the MPA Network is relatively well designed to address the biophysical and socioeconomic goals and design criteria, particularly regarding: ▪ Representing and replicating shallow-water habitats; protecting critical areas for fisheries, charismatic, endangered, threatened or protected species; incorporating connectivity; and protecting healthy areas and avoiding local threats; and ▪ Supporting multiple environmentally friendly uses and livelihoods; ensuring local communities have access to resources and markets; and protecting marine heritage sites, local wisdom areas and areas that have important traditional cultural value for local communities.
However: ▪ Some conservation features (e.g., seamounts, canyons, spags, wrecks, local wisdom or important traditional areas) could not be included in Areas of Interest because they are located in areas allocated for other uses in the Marine Spatial Plans or where there are high levels of use (e.g., marine traffic and fishing pressure). ▪ Some design criteria could not be applied throughout the entire planning area because they did not have the spatial data required (i.e., regarding areas with environmentally friendly uses or where stakeholders support establishing MPAs). However, these criteria were considered when identifying Areas of Interest using participatory mapping in three of the provinces (West Papua, Maluku and North Maluku). These aspects will need to be discussed in more detail with local stakeholders when considering Areas of Interest for new or expanded MPAs or zoning MPAs in each province. ▪ Some design criteria could not be applied at all, because they did not have the information required (particularly regarding changes in climate and ocean chemistry). Discussion Refining the Design This the first iteration of an MPA Network design for FMA 715 and the six associated provinces, and one of the most detailed systematic conservation
37 planning processes undertaken at such a large scale in Indonesia to date. However, there are some limitations to the design due to the limited time and resources available for the data analysis, which could be improved in the future if more time and resources become available. For example, the design could be improved by developing new or refining existing spatial data layers, refining the Marxan analysis, and addressing research priorities (particularly regarding understanding more about larval dispersal and the effects of changes in climate and ocean chemistry on habitats and species).
Implementing the Design If the MPA Network design is implemented and managed effectively, it will contribute to achieving the goals of the MPA Network, including protecting biodiversity and supporting fisheries, livelihoods and the traditional culture of coastal communities. Therefore, the MPA Network design should be:
▪ Integrated within the management plan for FMA 715 to help protect biodiversity and improve fisheries management in this area; ▪ Used to develop or refine MPA Networks in each of the six provinces, and integrated within their Marine Spatial Plans when they come up for review. ▪ Used to identify priority areas for MMAF to achieve their goal of establishing 10 million ha of new MPAs in Indonesia by 2030.
Lessons Learned Lessons learned included:
▪ How to integrate MPA Network design at multiple scales in Indonesia using the guidelines and framework for MPA Network design provided in this document. ▪ How to design MPA Networks by combining both a bottom-up approach using participatory mapping at local and provincial scales with a top-down approach using systematic conservation planning at a regional scale (for FMA 715 and the six provinces). ▪ There is a lot of overlap between some high priority areas for protection in MPAs (e.g., seamounts) and areas already allocated for other uses in Marine Spatial Plans and/or where there are high levels of threat. For this reason, many conservation features cannot be protected within MPAs at present. This issue needs to be addressed in the future. Meanwhile, MPAs should be integrated with other approaches to manage these other uses and threats. 38 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ), participants Acknowledgments (Continued on(Continued next page) ach type of coral reef, mangrove forest and forest mangrove of coral reef, type ach should be protected in NTZs. protected be should Different species use different habitats, so examples of soeach examples habitats, speciesdifferent use Different e (e.g., habitat major seagrass bed) Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical each of 20% least Protect at in NTZs. major habitat by Green et al. (2020). et by Green Table Table 4 provides a summary of the specifically adapted scientific and rationale refined for for the the unique biophysical biophysical environment in criteria Indonesia, Biophysical based which Criteria: is on Designing provided in the Marine the Protected best document Areas available and science Marine Indonesia Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Table Nature 5 provides the in rationale for the socioeconomic and cultural design criteria based on input from the 243 from 69 institutions who contributed to developing including experts the and partners from government agencies framework (district, provincial, and national), universities, provided non-governmental in this document (see local communities. and organizations, Consideration Habitats Represent ● ● ANNEX 1 ANNEX CRITERIA CULTURAL SOCIOECONOMICAND BIOPHYSICAL, FOR RATIONALE ININDONESIA NETWORKS MPA AND MPAs DESIGNING FOR MPAs designing for criteria cultural and socioeconomic biophysical, the for notes) explanatory (and rationale a provide we Here in Indonesia. Networks MPA and MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria notes) in Indonesia. explanatory thefor (and biophysical rationale Scientific 4. Table notePlease keymanythese that of species, are fisheriesand including, criteria designed species (fish to consider focal the of ecology invertebrates); endangered, threatened and protected species and/or turtles,(sea migratory marinemarine biota birds, cetaceans, (sharks, marine rays, fauna manta for species whale charismatic sharksimportant large mola); dugong and crocodiles); and Mola or reeffor species corals) (e.g., important resilience herbivores).ecosystem(e.g., such maintaining habitat-forming function, as
39 30% of each major habitat should be represented within represented be should habitat major of each 30% Percent habitat representation will vary depending on several on will vary depending representation habitat Percent is ifeffective there and fishing pressure factors, including NTZs. heavily fished outside In in place fisheries management at isfisheries management, effective no there where areas least of focal NTZsfisheries populations species.sustain to Where is isfisheries fishing pressure effective low, or there in NTZs, levelsoutside lower of protection management NTZs is (20%) needed. also should the consider representation habitat Percent the and habitat, diversity of vulnerability, or each rarity servicesecosystem it provides. (i.e., storms, major coral bleaching disturbances Large-scale serious cause can starfish outbreaks) crown-of-thorns and it is which and difficult predict to habitats, major to impacts most affected. likely be to are areas of examples least three at protect to it is important Therefore, the NTZs reduce to in separated widely habitat major each disturbance same will by the they all impacted be that chance areas). by unaffected replenished be may areas (so damaged variations in that riskchances also the the increases Spreading are habitats major species within and communities in NTZs. represented Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical three least Protect at examples of and in NTZs; each major habitat themSpread out to reduce the be affected chances all they will by the same disturbance. (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Habitats Replicate Risk) the (Spread Table 4 Table
40 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) Some focalSome species fisheries, (e.g., charismatic, endangered, that in areas species) concentrate protected and threatened (e.g., maintenance population for their criticallyare important or areas) calving or nursery breeding, nesting, spawning, or feeding corridors, as resting, use migratory they habitats areas. cleaning particularly species are these areas, these use While they these Therefore, or overexploitation. disturbance to vulnerable or seasonal NTZs, in in permanent protected be should areas fishing (e.g., approaches management other with combination of codes restrictions or practice). tourism or gear season features natural unique also specialmay and areas have Some allof examples that in NTZs ensure to included be should that This may protected. processes are ecosystem biodiversity and biodiversity,levels high high very of with areas include lakes) or marine (e.g., communities marine unique endemism, asof such areas pelagic habitats, unique (e.g., productivity high or eddies). fronts upwelling, be may areas critical, unique of specialSome these and fisheriesthe at biodiversity or manage protect to important or global scale World (e.g., Heritage international national, Sites, RAMSAR critical for globallyAreas, habitats endangered of fisheries connectivity species, or critical for maintaining areas species boundaries). across national ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ in Protect critical areas in the life Protect critical fisheries species history focal of NTZs. areas or habitats Protect critical endangered, charismatic, for threatened or protected species. and unique Protect special phenomenanatural in NTZs. Protect areasare that important or international theat national, conservationfor scale or global species. management focal of Protect Critical, Special Critical, Protect Areas andUnique
41 and Represent Consider Larval ). ). NTZs need to be large enough to allow for the maintenance allowto for the enough large be to NTZs need by allowing stock maturity, to individuals grow to of spawning contribute and potential, in reproductive biomassincrease and in NTZs and regeneration and recruitment stock to more areas. fished as distances adults speciesdifferent move Different shifts and habitat ontogenetic ranges, for home (e.g., juveniles migrations). spawning range home size of the the twice than more NTZs be should so of juveniles focalNTZs species and for protection, of adults species which on depending sizes will of different required be Abiotic factors including substrate, bathymetry and bathymetry substrate, Abiotic factors including ocean, biological of (physicalthe and properties oceanography acidity) salinity and temperature, tides, currents, including of biological in the non-biological spread material and the affect the roles in determining factors important play sea. These of structure the of species, and abundance and distribution biological communities. is little biological or no unique there information, Where as surrogates used abioticbe factors can of these combinations (to design Network biodiversity in MPA for marine Habitats role in influencing also important can an play currents Ocean determining when considered be larvalshould dispersal, and of spacing NTZs sizelocation, (see and the Dispersal Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical in Consider variations substrateoceanography, and the spread bathymetry affect that and non-biological biological of material. Ensure are enoughNTZs large to and juveniles of sustain adults fisheries species theirwithin focal boundaries. (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Connectivity: Incorporate Factors Abiotic Incorporate Connectivity: Incorporate Factors Biotic Movement and Adults of Juveniles Table 4 Table
42 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) in NTZs helps maintain the in NTZs maintain helps type. require protection, how far they move, and if other effective if other and move, they far how protection, require Recommendations regarding the minimum size of NTZsminimum must the regarding Recommendations focal speciesrather use, specificthat habitats the to applied be other include NTZs overall may size (which of the the than habitats). size of the than larger are patterns movement Species whose so NTZs must protection, NTZspartial will afforded only be tools to fisheries management other with integrated be species. wide-ranging manage Some species use different habitats throughout their lives their (e.g., throughout habitats speciesdifferent Some use areas). spawning and nursery ranges, for home of focal adults species should by and juveniles used All habitats NTZs.individual within protected be ontogenetic (e.g., habitats among patterns movement Where too distances migrations) cover shifts or spawning habitat used habitats in NTZs,individual different included be to great NTZs, in multiple by focalprotected be species should allowto for movements NTZslocated are these that provided habitats. of protected focal species among ecological whole units Including likely species stay to are many NTZs, because of the integrity habitat preferred their within larger included, be ecological cannot whole units Where accommodate to smaller used NTZs be should than rather species above). (see of more patterns movement protection is NTZs.NTZs outside Larger in willplace protection protect species. more ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Ensure are enoughNTZs large to used by focal habitats all contain species throughout their life history; or networks close Establish NTZs of movementsfor enough to allow of species among protected focal habitats. units Include whole ecological (such reefsas or seamounts) in not, chooseIf NTZs. larger rather than smaller areas.
43 Compact shapes minimize edge effects and limit spilloverand effects of edge minimize shapes Compact as(such long thin shapes other than more juveniles and adults of ecologicalthe integrity the This maintain helps rectangles). NTZs. for NTZs, used except be should shapes compact Therefore, long narrow (e.g., habitats elongated naturally protecting when coastal, reefs). or fringing, Larval dispersal plays an important role in ensuring that marine that role in ensuring Larval dispersal important plays an time. persist through populations of focal populations that ensure to designed NTZs be should larval maximize to dispersal NTZs,species persist within and NTZs. fisheries outside support to well not fisheries isare fishingand pressure high Where larval dispersalaccount into take to it is important managed, likely are adults most breeding NTZs, designing because when NTZs. This be may managed and well-designed within be to is less or there fishing pressure where in areas less important proportion a substantial where and well fisheries managed, are areas. fished from come of may larvae of focal species persistence population areas, heavily fished In localto populations recruitment on NTZs within will depend in individual populations where self-persistence, either through larval through self-sustaining be to enough NTZslarge are NTZsor large); (this isare likely where more retention of focal species populations are where persistence, network Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ NTZs large enough large NTZs to be self- species; or focal for sustaining Networks close NTZs of enough to be connected by dispersal. larval Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical shapes (suchUse as compact squares) whenexcept NTZs, for elongated naturally protecting habitats. Establish: ▪ ▪ (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Incorporate Connectivity: Incorporate Factors Biotic Dispersal Larval Table 4 Table
44 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ). (Continued on(Continued next page) Represent Habitats sustained within a network of NTZs that covers an adequate covers of an NTZs that a network within sustained fraction of the habitat (see habitat of the fraction of focal specieslarval areas, heavily fished dispersal In patterns of location size, and spacing the inform to used be should NTZs. Spatially isolated areas such as remote atolls largely self- are asSpatially such remote isolated areas they where value conservation high have may and replenishing assemblages or unique species and/or endemic harbor populations. assemblages, these makes areas other with Low connectivity less disturbance. populations resilient to species and their ensure to in NTZsnecessary be may them Protecting persistence. larval is‘source’ protect to recommendation common A other to larvae provide consistently can that populations populations. is populations difficult source and identifying practice, In or modeling typically oceanographic reliesfine-scale on of larval dispersal. empirical measurements may a location Larval also sources socan time, vary over that in another. not but year, as in act one a source larval sources for focal important and consistent Where be should they areas), (i.e., fish spawning known species are or seasonal NTZs, or by fisheries in permanent protected Critical, Special Protect times (see spawning closures during Areas). Unique and ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Protect spatially isolated areas in isolated Protect spatially remote(e.g., NTZs atolls). sourcesProtect larval in permanent or or NTZs seasonal by using fisheries closures during times. spawning
45 Ocean currents are likely to influence larval dispersal patterns likely influence to are currents Ocean degree. some to larval dispersal for focalstudies of detailed absence the In to relative upstream located NTZs species,be more should isunidirectional consistent, ifa strong, areas fished there current. in direction change currents ocean in areas, some However, times. different focalat species seasons, spawn and different of the upstream located NTZs be more should Therefore, spawning the during current predominant of the direction of season focal species. Populations of focal species recover at different rates in NTZs rates of different focal at species recover Populations factors other life and history characteristics their on depending population). remaining size of the the and quality habitat (e.g., of all of focalpopulations Recovery fisheries speciestake may long-term Therefore, years). 40 to up 20 (over decades in for NTZsall isto species grow to protection required eggs robust more in contribute biomass increase and maturity, adjacent in NTZs, enhance populations replenish to larvae and resilience. and health ecosystem maintain fisheries, and of NTZs will strict enforcement and protection Permanent long term. in the maintained are benefits these that ensure Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical more upstreamLocate NTZs there areasto fished relative if a is strong, consistent, unidirectional current. Establish NTZs for thefor NTZs term long Establish years), (more to 40 up than 20 permanently.preferably (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Allow Time for Recovery for Time Allow Table 4 Table
46 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) Protect Critical, Special and Unique Special Protect Critical, ). Short-term (<5 years) or periodically harvested NTZs only or years) periodically (<5 harvested Short-term benefits for species.some These benefits short-term provide fishing to unless reopened are areas lostthese quickly once are is (which carefully very the seldom NTZsmanaged are the or periodically harvested case). short-term For this reason, biodiversity, for conserving limited benefits NTZs have resilience. fisheries ecosystem or building enhancing or years) periodically (<5 harvested short-term Therefore, of, instead than rather to, in addition used NTZs be should closuresperiodic are NTZs. Where or permanent long-term carefully be must of harvesting intensity and timing the used, controlled. protect to used isbe can seasonal closures exception that The areas), critical or nursery critical at areas spawning times (e.g., populations or restore protect to important very be can which of focal fisheries species (see Areas Marine ecosystems have been degraded by local threats in by local threats degraded been ecosystems have Marine fishing or tourism by locations,unsustainable including many fishing coastal practices, activities,development, destructive pollution. and runoff land-based and productivity health, ecosystem decrease threats These species, and many affect adversely change, climate resilience to sustainability of marine long-term the undermine severely provide. services ecosystem they the and resources in threats or avoid minimize these to it is important Therefore, more are that for protection areas prioritize NTZs and ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Reduce threats; Use short-term (lessyears) than 5 harvested in orNTZs periodically to, rather addition than instead of, long-term or permanent NTZs. Protect areas where and habitats species are in focal of populations levels with low of condition good threat. areas whereAvoid and habitats species are in focal of populations duepoor condition to local threats. this notis If possible: ▪ Protect Healthy Areas Healthy Protect Threats Local andAvoid
47 and consider the consider and ; Where NTZs must be located in areas where habitats and habitats where in areas located NTZs be must Where localto due of focal condition in poor species populations are as as much threats these reduce to it is threats, important as such by protecting recovery, possible; natural facilitate roles functional important play species larvalthat sources and herbivores) resilience (e.g., in ecosystem species. and habitats of rehabilitating benefits costs and likely to contribute to ecosystem health, fisheries productivity, health, ecosystem to likely contribute to is It to also change. climate resilience to important and and threats, of multiple effects cumulative the consider by human or exacerbated natural are “threats” these whether activities sedimentation). (e.g., Changes in climate (e.g., rising sea temperatures) and ocean and rising in (e.g., climate sea temperatures) Changes major to threat increasing a serious and represent chemistry seagrass beds) forests and coralmangrove (e.g., reefs, habitats focal species. and some and willtime, changes and vary in space of Effects these resilient likely speciesbe to more and will areas habitats have where (refugia), chemistry ocean in and climate changes to (the resistance components: resilience key comprises two resistabilityto ecological or survive of an a community to takes a community rate (the recovery and disturbance) itsto original condition). return for prioritized be should they identified, be can refugia Where in NTZs. protection Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Facilitate natural recovery; natural and Facilitate Consider the costs and benefits and habitats rehabilitating of species Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical ▪ ▪ Protect sites areto be that likely more resilient to global in environmental change (refugia) NTZs. (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Adapt to Changesin to Adapt andOcean Climate Chemistry Table 4 Table
48 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA above). it will to necessary be a climate change buffer by buffer change a climate Replicate Habitats Replicate ), critical areas and ),species criticalmost vulnerable and areas Some ecologically important sites have habitats and species and habitats sites ecologically Some have important in and climate sensitive changes to particularly be may that chemistry. ocean within in NTZs integrated sitesprotected be These should ecosystem promote to frameworks management broader local resilience by addressing threats. Some functional groups play important roles in maintaining important play groups functional Some (e.g., ecological globallocalresilience to threats and fishes coral on reefs). herbivorous within in NTZs integrated protected be species should These regimes. fisheries management broader the likely affect to are chemistry ocean in and climate Changes population reproduction, abundance, growth, distribution, of modify focal rates species, and recovery and connectivity dynamics. and function structure, ecosystem criteria design the modifying require may changes These protecting replication; and representation habitat regarding connectivity; incorporating areas; critical, unique special and future. in the above) (see for recovery allowing time and changes that effects the regarding is There a lot of uncertainty habitats, willmajor on chemistry have ocean in and climate focal criticalspecies. and areas is information available, Until more major of each examples multiple risk by protecting the spread in NTZs (see habitat add to also may It necessary be in NTZs of habitats (see level of protection the increasing Represent Habitats in NTZs chemistry ocean in and climate changes to ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Spreading the risk;Spreading and Increasing of protection areas and critical habitats, species most vulnerable to and ocean changes in climate chemistry. Protect ecologically important sites important Protect ecologically arethat sensitive to changes in and ocean chemistry.climate Increase species that of protection roles in functional important play ecosystem resilience. Consider how changes in climate and ocean chemistryaffect will species. history focal the of life Address uncertainty by: ▪ ▪
49 groups, who are often underrepresented in underrepresented often are who groups, adat One key factor for ensuring the success of MPAs and MPA success and of MPAs the for ensuring factor key One stakeholders. from support and isbuy-in Networks the they process ensures of the step in each Involving stakeholders concerns, and needs their addressed and raised already have zoning). the (e.g., MPA the understand they that and their decisions about informed make then can Stakeholders of (costsbenefits) tradeoffs and the understand activities, and area. in their MPA an having If there is support from stakeholders for establishing the MPA for establishing the stakeholders from is support If there it is the successfullikelyarea, be to more because in their MPA. objectives assame the the share stakeholders living group stakeholder one than more allAlmost have MPAs MPA. the or within near managed be to successful, be to it needs MPA For the This iseffectively. will likelyMPA co-managed ifmore be the localwith stakeholders. their express to capacity same the have allNot stakeholders MPA and in establishing MPAs effectively engage and opinions Networks. indigenous and youth This is for women, especially true people/ Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Socioeconomic and Cultural and Socioeconomic Criteria Design stakeholdersInvolve all in each thestep of process establishing of MPAs Networksand MPA Prioritize establishing MPAs in establishing Prioritize areas supported by stakeholders Consider for opportunities management among collaborative stakeholders all and implement as appropriate for building Provide capacity stakeholders themto help engage in establishing more effectively MPAs and MPAs Networks. Involve stakeholders in stakeholders Involve andMPAs establishing Networks MPA Consideration establishment(MPA includes developing zoning and management plans.) Table 5. Rationale (and explanatory notes)for MPAsdesigning and explanatory criteria MPA Networks (and for the and cultural socioeconomic Rationale in 5. Table Indonesia. Please note communities, manythat these of refer and criteria traditional to stakeholders,adat local, which include and institutions industriesgovernments, fisheries(e.g., and tourism).scientific society organizations, NGOs, civil
50 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) collaborative management (even though they are often the often are they though (even collaborative management resources). marine most on, rely the closest and to, Therefore, capacity building is needed to make sure that the that sure make to isbuilding capacity needed Therefore, are groups of underrepresented interests and needs by revitalizing localempowering e.g., wisdom and addressed, in meetings. up speak to youth and women The success of the MPA or MPA Network will rely on Network or MPA MPA successThe of the compliance. stakeholder of strength by the is only influenced Compliance not people. goodwill of the by the but enforcement, is and by legal costly,authorities unsustainable Enforcement areas. in remote effective be to unlikely is more of local in enforcement communities Involvement successful.likely be to of for a range resources marine Localrely on communities services, livelihoodsfood, goods including and ecosystem and coastal protection. or maintain actions should management MPA Therefore, local services benefit goods to and ecosystem increase communities. of a range uses include in MPAs friendly Environmentally fishing, aquaculture, activities tourism, sustainable including research. and education the within activitiesaccommodated Allbe should of these the from input with developed plan a zoning to according MPA community. ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Involve local community in Involve local and enforcement,compliance such throughas patrols joint among government institutions and communities, and (community POKMASWAS groups). surveillance managementMPA Support or increase maintain that actions ecosystem goods and services for communities local environmentally multiple for Allow usesfriendly in MPAs, including tourism, fishing, sustainable and education aquaculture, research. Ensure Stakeholder Ensure MPAs within Compliance multiple, Support friendly environmentally MPAs usesin
51 others , manta rays and karst limestone islands). limestone karst rays and , manta be conducted in different zones (e.g., fishing, (e.g., zones in different conducted be However, the activities that take place in each zone may differ. may zone in each place take activities that the However, in conducted be can and activities Some complementary are while education), and tourism (e.g., zone same the should tourism). and aquaculture Local communities depend on marine resources for their resources marine on Localdepend communities livelihoods. livelihoodare strategies communities’ of Some the not. are others but friendly, environmentally compatible livelihoodare friendly strategies Environmentally be should and MPAs objectives of goalsthe and the with methods, facilitating new managers by MPA e.g., supported, in seaweed like training opportunities skills,and approaches aquaculture. abiotic biotic and unique the protect to isIt important sharks, (e.g., on livelihoods based are these that resources mola Mola for their sitesimportant are heritage marine Some archeological-historical value. provide to potential the sites have of Some these tourism. for community-based opportunities in MPAs. protected be should possible, they where Therefore, Scientific Rationale and Explanatory Notes Explanatory and Rationale Scientific ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Socioeconomic and Cultural and Socioeconomic Criteria Design Support environmentallySupport friendly communities, local of livelihoods community-based, (e.g., environmentally fisheries,friendly and marine resource-aquaculture based tourism based on an areas’ and abiotic uniqueness (biotic resources). Protect marine heritage sites that havearcheological- important, shipwrecks(e.g., value historical wrecks), and airplane and themmanage to theirfor potential support community-based tourism. (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Support community Support and (livelihoods welfare foodsupplies) Table 5 Table
52 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA . adat Local communities rely on access to, and utilization of, marine utilization access Localrely on and to, communities livelihoods. and food for fisheriestheir resources and close to often areas, different use places, communities many In villages.their community each that ensure to it is important Therefore, so resources, access their to equal fair and have to continues or disadvantaged advantaged not are communities some that others. than more Communities that rely on fisheries for their livelihoods, fisheries rely on for their need that Communities access markets. to maintain to and markets access these to support should MPAs Therefore, to lanes by allowing (e.g., shipping infrastructure associated the and sustainable are markets the local provided jetties), reach objectives. goals MPA and comply with traditional used local have areas, some In communities marine their manage and conserve to practices and methods for generations. resources still are practices acknowledged, traditional these Where in the incorporated be should they sustainable, and applied goals and willthe practices support these because MPA, people. of the needs the and MPA objectives of the of culture traditional values for the important have areas Some local people/ the only for their not in MPAs, protected be should areas These by the protected already are they because but value cultural communities. ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ . Ensure local communities Ensure have local access to, and and equal fair marine of, and fisheries utilization resources Maintain or improve access to Maintain resources and markets to support community economies that with managementMPA comply plans. wisdom, local Protect adat, and culture that law traditional support conservation and resourcesustainable management, which are still by the acknowledged and applied community or adat existing institution. Protect areashave that important local for value cultural traditional mystical including people/adat, areas, and important (pamali) medicine. sites traditional for Ensure fair andequal fair Ensure anduse access Support local wisdom local Support andpractices
53 . reefs, mangrove forests, estuaries and seagrass beds) and forests, estuaries mangrove reefs, aggregations Fish spawning seagrasses). and mangroves (e.g., areas Nursery reefs, mangrove forests, estuaries and seagrass and forests, estuaries mangrove reefs, beds). Information and Spatial Data Needed Data Spatial and Information classification coral (e.g., and Location habitats of major of Location important: ▪ ▪ Location and classification coral (e.g., and Location habitats of major NTZs (e.g., each type of coral reef, coral each type (e.g., of NTZs mangrove forest, estuary or seagrass bed). and in NTZs; habitat by the same be affected disturbance. all will and fisheries spawning (e.g., species in NTZs nursery areas). Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical in each major habitat of 20% least Protect at three least Protect at each major examples of themSpread out to reduce the chances they history areasfocal in the of life Protect critical Consideration Habitats Represent Habitats Replicate Risk) the (Spread Critical, Protect andUnique Special Areas ANNEX 2 ANNEX DESIGN NETWORK MPA AND MPA FOR NEEDED DATA INFORMATION AND ININDONESIA General advice regarding the information and spatial data cultural criteria for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia to achieve their goals and objectives is provided required to apply the biophysical, and socioeconomic objectives goals, specific the on depending refined be should and needs data and information These 7. and 6 Tables in 2. and 1 in Steps Network or MPA MPA for the defined criteria design MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria in Indonesia. neededbiophysical data to apply Information and spatial 6. Table
54 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA IBAs). Mola mola Mola Marine (Continued on(Continued next page) of manta rays, sharks, of manta Turtle nesting beaches. nesting Turtle areas. nesting Seabird etc. sharks, whale dugong, of turtles, grounds Feeding birds,dugong, of dolphins, migratory areas Resting etc. etc. turtles, corridors dolphins, Migratory of whales, stations Cleaning etc. etc. turtles, dolphins, of whales, areas Breeding biodiversity High or endemism. lakes). in marine (e.g., communities marine Unique areas). upwelling (e.g., productivity High Areas. World Heritage Sites. RAMSAR of Nature for Conservation Union International (IUCN IMMAs).areas mammal marine Important ( Bird Areas Marine IUCN Important of focal patterns movement Larval dispersal and fisheries species. Location of Location important: ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ with: of Location areas ▪ ▪ ▪ of: Location ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ endangered, threatened or protected species breeding,(e.g., or feeding resting areas, or migratory corridors). such in NTZs, areasas with very high high endemism,biodiversity, unique marine communities (e.g., or high productivity areas like of habitats unique pelagic fronts, and eddies). upwelling, for scale or global international national, species conservation or management focal of World(e.g., HeritageAreas,Sites, RAMSAR endangered globally for habitats critical areas maintaining for species, or critical fisheries of species acrossconnectivity boundaries). national Protect critical areas or habitats for charismatic, for areas or habitats Protect critical phenomena and unique natural Protect special theProtect areasareat that important
55 existing and proposed NTZs. proposed existing and existing and proposed NTZs. proposed existing and substrate and bathymetry. and substrate etc.). grouper, snapper, NTZs). life history. their throughout etc.). grouper, snapper, (e.g., habitats NTZs).(particularly seamounts). Information and Spatial Data Needed Data Spatial and Information Spatial and temporal variations in oceanography, temporal Spatial and of fisheries species (e.g., patterns Movement (particularly MPAs proposed Size of existing and by focal species used of Location habitats of focal fisheries species among patterns Movement MPAs proposed of location existing and Size and sizeecological of (e.g., whole units and Location of Boundaries of habitats. Shape of Shape tides, temperature, salinity, acidity, etc.), tides, temperature, acidity, salinity, thesubstrate and, bathymetry affect that and non-biological biological spread of material. fisheries species within focal and juveniles of their boundaries. species throughout used by focal habitats historytheir home for (e.g., life ranges, nursery grounds orareas); and spawning species among movementsfor allow focal of through(e.g., protectedontogenetic habitats migrations). and spawning shifts habitat seamounts) not, chooseIf in NTZs. larger rather than smaller areas. whenexcept elongated naturally protecting habitats. Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical Consider variations in oceanography (currents,in oceanography Consider variations Ensure are enoughNTZs large to sustain adults Ensure are enoughNTZs large all to contain networks close enoughEstablish NTZs of to units (such reefsas Includeor whole ecological shapes squares)(e.g., Use NTZs, for compact (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Incorporate Connectivity: Incorporate Factors Abiotic Connectivity: Incorporate Factors Biotic Movement and Adults of Juveniles Table 6 Table
56 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA , sasi, lilifuk, papadak lilifuk, sasi, (Continued on(Continued next page) atolls). areas. of spawning managed and in well-designed species protected NTZs. NTZs in short-term protected species when localusing (e.g., wisdom like etc.). of focal populations and habitats where Areas condition. in good species are low levelsare of local there threats where Areas Larval dispersal patterns of focal fisheries Larvalspecies. dispersal patterns Larval dispersal patterns of focal fisheries Larvalspecies. dispersal patterns of Location spatially remote (e.g., isolated areas aggregations. of timing fish spawning and Location timing and location the to relative patterns Current of focal fisheriestimes of populations Recovery of focal fisheriestimes of populations Recovery of: Location ▪ ▪ NTZs large enough to be self-sustaining for enough large NTZs to be self-sustaining species; or focal Networks close enough NTZs of to be dispersal. connected by larval NTZs orNTZs by using fisheries closures during times. spawning thereareas if strong, a is consistent, current.unidirectional years), permanently. preferably to, ratherharvested in addition than NTZs long-term or instead of, permanent NTZs. with specieslow are condition in good focal threats from (e.g., overfishing, local levels of development, coastal destructive fishing, Establish: ▪ ▪ Protect spatially isolated areas in NTZs. isolated Protect spatially sourcesProtect larval in permanent or seasonal more upstreamLocate NTZs to fished relative thefor to 40 up NTZs term long (>20 Establish Use short-term years) or (<5 periodically of Protect areas where and populations habitats Incorporate Connectivity: Incorporate Factors Biotic Dispersal Larval Allow Time for Recovery for Time Allow and Areas Healthy Protect Threats Local Avoid
57 such as those adjacent to well-designed and well-designed to adjacent as such those managed conservation areas. conservation managed of focal populations and habitats where Areas condition. in poor species are levels high of localare threats there where Areas above). (see sites. aggregation Fish spawning species in Indonesia. resilient to more likely be to are that reefs Coral in ocean changes and/or rising sea temperatures chemistry. have that beaches nesting turtle and Mangrove as sea levels ground higher to move to room rise. Information and Spatial Data Needed Data Spatial and Information Location of: Location ▪ ▪ ▪ of focal fisheries Larvalspecies. dispersal patterns fishes. biomassreef Distribution of and herbivore and habitats of rehabilitating benefits Costs and of: Location ▪ ▪ Reduce threats; recovery natural by (e.g., Facilitate sources larval and species like protecting herbivoresfunctional important play that roles in ecosystem resilience); and Consider the costs of and benefits and species (e.g., habitats rehabilitating by restoring structures, transplanting recovery population orcorals, facilitating species by re-stocking or using focal of temporary closures). ▪ ▪ ▪ sediments and nutrients, marine pollution, industries). and gas oil mining, and shipping, species aredue in poor condition to focal threats. this notis If possible: local in environmental change (refugia) to global NTZs. mass tourism, land-based runoff of mass runoff tourism, land-based Biophysical Design Criteria Design Biophysical Avoid areas where habitats and populations of areas whereAvoid and populations habitats Protect sites areto be that more likely resilient (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Adapt to Changesin to Adapt andOcean Climate Chemistry Table 6 Table
58 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA and adat (Continued on(Continued next page) Replicate Habitats Replicate and above. Represent Habitats the MPA or MPA Network (i.e., local, Network or MPA MPA the non- governments, communities, traditional civil organizations, society governmental scientific and institutions, organizations, like fisheries, etc.). industries tourism, vulnerable to changes in sea temperature, sea in sea temperature, changes to vulnerable chemistry. ocean level rise and chemistry on the life history of focal the species. on chemistry the (Spread Risk) ocean in and climate changes to vulnerable chemistry. Information and Spatial Data Needed Data Spatial and Information by establishing affected be may that Stakeholders Location of ecologically important sites of Location ecologically particularly important Distribution and biomass of herbivore reef fishes. biomassreef Distribution of and herbivore ocean in and climate of changes effects Potential See species criticalmost of and Location habitats, areas sensitive to changes in climate sensitiveand ocean to changes in climate chemistry. important functional roles in ecosystem functional important resilience herbivores).(e.g., history focal the of life chemistryaffect will species. the riskSpreading (see and above); critical habitats, Increasing of protection areas and species most vulnerable to and ocean chemistry.changes in climate process of establishing MPAs and MPA process establishing of Networks Protect ecologically important sites are important that Protect ecologically Increase play species that of protection Consider howand ocean changes in climate Address uncertainty by: ▪ ▪ Socioeconomic and Cultural Design Criteria Design Cultural and Socioeconomic stakeholdersInvolve the all in each step of Involve Stakeholders in Stakeholders Involve andMPAs Establishing Networks MPA Consideration establishment(MPA includes developing Table 7. Information and spatial data needed to apply socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria in and cultural neededsocioeconomic data to apply Information and spatial 7. Table Indonesia.
59 the process (e.g., in data gathering and public and gathering process in data (e.g., the management and zoning develop to consultation plans). NTZs. particularly establishing MPAs, stakeholders. with management of implementation and in planning effectively management. MPA of enforcement and in compliance communities plans. management services goods for and localecosystem communities. pelagic, demersal, (eg. fishing grounds Sustainable etc.). Fishing pressure Information and Spatial Data Needed Data Spatial and Information A process for involving stakeholders in each step of step in each process for A involving stakeholders support stakeholders where of Location areas of collaborative benefits costs and Opportunities, engage to for stakeholders needs building Capacity of involving benefits costs and Opportunities, willor increase maintain actions that Management of: Location ▪ ▪ by stakeholders stakeholdersmanagement among all and implement appropriate as themhelp engage in more effectively MPAs and MPAs Networks.establishing enforcement, such throughas patrols joint among government and institutions communities, (community and POKMASWAS groups). surveillance or increasemaintain ecosystem goods and communities services local for fishing, sustainable in MPAs, including and education tourism, aquaculture, research. Socioeconomic and Cultural Design Criteria Design Cultural and Socioeconomic Prioritize establishing MPAs in areas supported establishing Prioritize Consider collaborative for opportunities stakeholdersfor building to Provide capacity and community in compliance Involve local management MPA that Support actions environmentally usesfriendly multiple for Allow (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration zoning and management plans) Stakeholder Ensure MPAs within Compliance Multiple, Support Friendly Environmentally MPAs in Uses Table 7 Table
60 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) Fish landing Fishsites. landing locations. docking Boat locations. shelter Boat areas aquaculture friendly Environmentally sea cucumber, farming, pearl farming, (seaweed etc.). snorkeling, (surfing, areas tourism Ecofriendly dive site, fishing, parasailing, sport beach etc.). recreation, locations. research and Education Sustainable fishing grounds (eg. demersal, (eg. fishing grounds Sustainable pelagic, etc.) Fishing pressure Fishsites landing locations docking Boat locations shelter Boat areas aquaculture friendly Environmentally sea cucumber, farming, pearl farming, (seaweed etc.) on based areas tourism friendly Environmentally uniqueness. areas’ an World from (e.g., archeological-historical value War II, etc.). ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Location of: Location ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ of wrecks or airplane of Location shipwrecks local communities, e.g., community-based, local environmentally fisheries,friendly and marine resource-basedaquaculture tourism based on an areas’ uniqueness resources). and abiotic (biotic value archeological-historical important, shipwreckswrecks),(e.g., and airplane and themmanage to support theirfor potential community based-tourism. Support environmentally friendly livelihoods of environmentally Support livelihoods friendly Protect marine heritage sites have that Support Community Support and (Livelihoods Welfare Supplies) Food
61 ) areas. pamali , etc.). sasi, keruga, lilifuk, hoholok, papadak, keruga,sasi, lilifuk, community. local support to markets accessand resources to management MPA comply with that economies plans. resource sustainable and conservation MPA still are the within active that management (e.g., panadahi Mystical ( medicine. sites for traditional Important Information and Spatial Data Needed Data Spatial and Information Location of important fishing grounds for each fishing grounds of Location important require communities where of Location areas support of that Location localpractices wisdom and of: Location ▪ ▪ . access to, and utilization of, marine of, and access to, and utilization fisheries resources markets to support community economies with managementMPA comply plans. that culturesupport conservation that and resourcesustainable management, which are by the acknowledged and applied still community or adat institution. existing including people/adat, local for value cultural sitesareas, and important (pamali) mystical medicine. traditional for Socioeconomic and Cultural Design Criteria Design Cultural and Socioeconomic Ensure local communities have fair and equal communities Ensure have fair local or improve access to resourcesMaintain and and law wisdom, traditional local Protect adat, Protect areashavetraditional that important (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Ensure fair andEqual fair Ensure andUse Access Wisdom Local Support andPractices Table 7 Table
62 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ANNEX 3 EVALUATION TOOL FOR MPA AND MPA NETWORK DESIGN IN INDONESIA
TNC, through USAID SEA Project, has developed an Evaluation Tool for Marine Protected Area and Marine Protected Area Network Design in Indonesia (Green et al. 2019). This annex provides excerpts from that tool. For more information regarding when and how to use this tool, see Green et al. 2019.
Introduction Here we provide a simple tool that uses performance indicators for the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural design criteria to help managers evaluate and refine the design of an MPA or MPA Network to ensure it will achieve its goals and objectives. The tool provides simple scoring criteria to evaluate progress toward applying each design criterion, and to develop an overall evaluation score for the MPA or MPA Network design.
Please note that there also many governance factors that are important to consider when establishing MPAs and MPA Networks, which are not included here (see MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia). For guidelines to evaluate and improve management effectiveness of MPAs in Indonesia, please see Technical Guidelines for Evaluating the Management Effectiveness of Aquatic, Coasts and Small Islands Conservation Areas (E-KKP3K: DCAFS 2013).
Who Should Use This Tool and When? This evaluation tool should be used by field practitioners responsible for designing MPAs and MPA Networks, or for helping local communities establish LMMAs, in Indonesia, including representatives of national, provincial or local level governments, non-governmental organizations, and university scientists.
The tool can be used to evaluate the design (zoning plan) of existing or proposed MPAs, and will be particularly useful when reviewing management plans (including zoning plans) for existing MPAs (which is required every five years). 63 This tool will also be useful when developing zoning plans for new or proposed MPAs. It can be used multiple times throughout the zoning process (e.g., every few months), so managers can demonstrate how their zoning plan has improved and identify actions still needed for adaptive management. The tool can also help managers develop a clear rationale to explain the design of the zoning plan to communities in a way that they are more likely to understand and accept the plan.
The tool will be most useful for evaluating and refining zoning plans when the relevant information and spatial data (see Annex 2) and knowledgeable experts are available to assist with the evaluation. It may be more difficult to use this tool when a new or proposed MPA is at a very early stage in the design process and there is no zoning plan to evaluate, and/or if the necessary information or expertise is not available to assist with the evaluation. In this situation, it may be better to use the framework for designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia provided in this document to guide the initial design of a draft zoning plan (see A Framework for Designing MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia).
Once a draft zoning plan has been developed, this tool can be used to evaluate the design for adaptive management before the plan is completed.
Using the Tool Before Using This Tool Before using this tool you should:
▪ Identify the goals and SMART objectives for the MPA or MPA Network (see Step 1 Define Goals and Objectives). ▪ Identify the high priority targets to conserve and manage in the MPA (e.g., focal habitats and species, livelihoods and local wisdom), and the threats to these targets that need to be addressed. ▪ Assemble a team to compile the best available spatial data and other information required (see Annex 2) and complete the evaluation. Since the tool requires an understanding of the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural context for designing the MPA, it is important to conduct the evaluation with people who have relevant knowledge of the area. This may include biological and social scientists, managers (e.g., fisheries agents), local communities and other stakeholders.
64 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA How to Use This Tool Performance indicators are provided for biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural design criteria for MPAs and MPA Networks in Indonesia in Table 8 and Table 9. Use these performance indicators and the following steps to evaluate the MPA or MPA Network design.
Step 1. Evaluate How Each Criterion Has Been Applied to Design the MPA or MPA Network Go through each of the design criteria in Table 8 and Table 9 one at a time. Make sure you understand the design criterion and review the rationale (justification) for the criterion if necessary (see Annex 1).
Determine if the design criterion is needed to achieve the MPA or MPA Network goals and objectives. If so:
▪ Read the performance indicator for that design criterion, discuss it with your colleagues and assign a score regarding how well that criterion has been applied in the zoning plan. The tool provides simple scoring criteria to evaluate progress toward applying each design criterion to assign a score from 0 to 3. This provides a better indication of progress than simply assessing if the design criteria have been applied fully or not (i.e., 0 or 1). ▪ Provide the rationale or evidence to justify the score, and notes for improving the score in the Action Plan (see Step 3 below) if necessary.
If the design criterion is not needed to achieve the MPA or MPA Network goals and objectives, select “Not Applicable (NA)” instead of assigning a score. Do not score it as 0 (to distinguish it from criteria that need to be applied, but which have not been applied as yet).
Step 2. Evaluate the Overall Design of the MPA or MPA Network The scoring system can be used to develop an overall evaluation score for the MPA or MPA Network design (zoning plan). Once you have completed both Table 8 and Table 9, add up the scores and calculate the percentage (%) of the total maximum score achieved for the design criteria that apply to the MPA or MPA Network. All design criteria are considered of equal importance in the overall evaluation score to avoid subjective decisions about the relative importance of the design criteria, which will vary in different MPAs or MPA Networks that have different goals and objectives (see Refining the Tool for Specific MPAs or MPA Networks). 65 If you use the tool multiple times (e.g., every few months when developing a new zoning plan, or before and after an existing zoning plan has been revised), you can use the change in the overall score to track progress toward adaptive management.
Different MPAs may have different scores, because their total maximum score may vary if they have different goals that require different design criteria. Therefore, comparisons among MPAs should be based on the percentage (%) of the total maximum score achieved for each MPA (e.g., where poor is <20%, fair is 20-40%, moderate is 41-60%, good is 61-80%, and excellent is >80%).
Step 3. Develop an Action Plan to Improve the Design of the MPA or MPA Network Once you have completed the evaluation tool (Step 1 and Step 2 above), develop an action plan to improve the design of the MPA or MPA Network (if necessary). The action plan should: ▪ Clearly identify the next steps required to improve the MPA or MPA Network design (e.g., by addressing information/data needs, or revising the zoning plan to address the design criteria more effectively), the responsible/lead person for each task, and the timeline for completing each task. It will also be important to note how each of these steps will align with the zoning and adaptive management phases for the MPA or MPA Network. ▪ Develop a schedule to repeat the evaluation tool to track progress over time. Refining the Tool for Specific MPAs or MPA Networks If you have the relevant expertise on your evaluation team, you can modify the tool based on the MPA or MPA Network goals and objectives, and biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the area (e.g., by defining the major habitats, critical areas, focal species, threats, stakeholders, environmentally friendly uses and livelihoods, local wisdom and practices, etc.).
You may also wish to define the relative importance of each design criterion to achieving the MPA or MPA Network goals and objectives, and take this into account when calculating the overall score for the MPA or MPA Network design.
66 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score (Continued on(Continued next page) 3 2 1 0 3 2 NA Score 25%) NTZs. NTZs Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None Applicable Not in of each > 20% in of each 15-20% type of major habitat type of protected in NTZs. protection identified, protection and classified mapped coral each type (e.g., of reef and both is mapped classified). Performance Indicator Performance (Output) for habitats Major 1a. each of 20% least At 1b. Design Criteria Design of 20% least Protect at 1. in each major habitat each type (e.g., of NTZs reef, coral mangrove forest, estuary or seagrass bed). Consideration Represent Habitats Table 8. Evaluation tool for the biophysical criteria for designing MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria in Indonesia. thefor tool biophysical Evaluation 8. Table MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria in Indonesia, Thistheprovides and a performance each of tool biophysical indicators scoring system and scores) how (criteria to designto evaluate each criterion oran MPA has beenNetwork,MPA to applied and space needed (if to improve the the provide (orPlan the evidence)score an Action score). to justify rationale note Please and to identify that the areand performancedesign criteria numberedindicators so they are easy Theseto refer tool. to while using this evaluation numbers do notthe reflect varyorder thedepending on of which design importance will thecriteria, of orMPA Network MPA and goals manythesekey that of Note also species, are fisheriesincluding: objectives. criteria designed species to consider focal the of ecology and invertebrates),(fish endangered, threatened and protected species and/or turtles,(sea migratory marinemarine biota birds, (sharks, marine rays, fauna manta species whale charismatic sharks large mola), dugong and crocodiles), cetaceans, and Mola or reeffor species corals), (e.g., important resilience (e.g., ecosystem habitat-forming like maintaining for function important herbivores).
67 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 NA NA NA Score Performance Scoring Indicator Criteria in of each 5-15% NTZs in NTZs of <5% each Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some Performance Indicator Performance (Output) three least At 2a. each major examples of protected in habitat NTZs. each of Examples 2b. protected in major habitat areNTZs spread out to reduce the chances they by the be affected all will same disturbance. areas in the life Critical 3. fisheries history focal of and species identified protected in NTZs. examples of each major examples of and in NTZs; habitat reduce the chances they by the be affected all will same disturbance (e.g., major storms, coral and crown-of- bleaching thorns outbreaks). starfish Design Criteria Design three least Protect at 2. themSpread out to areas in Protect critical 3. history focal the of life fisheries species in NTZs and spawning (e.g., (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Replicate Habitats the (Spread Risk) Critical, Protect and Special Areas Unique Table 8 Table
68 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 NA NA NA Not Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0-25%) Few Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0-25%) Few Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some None or a few (0-25%) or a few None 4. Critical areas or habitats Critical 4. protected charismatic, for endangered, threatened or protected species. and unique Special 5. phenomenanatural protected in NTZs. the Areas at 6. important or international national, for scale global conservation or global 4. Protect critical areas or Protect critical 4. charismatic, for habitats endangered, threatened or protected species (e.g., breeding, or feeding resting areas, or migratory corridors). and Protect special 5. unique natural phenomena in NTZs, such areasas with very high high biodiversity, endemism, unique marine communities or high unique(e.g., productivity areas like habitats pelagic fronts, and upwelling, of eddies). Protect areasare6. that the at national, important or international conservationfor scale and and nursery areas)
69 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring (0-25%) Few Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0-25%) Few Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some species are protected (e.g., World Heritage Areas, critical Sites, RAMSAR globally for habitats endangered species, or areas for critical of connectivity maintaining fisheries species across boundaries). national Performance Indicator Performance (Output) management focal of in Variations 7. substrateoceanography, and bathymetry used to for habitats identify representation where notis information biological available. are enoughNTZs large 8. and to sustain adults fisheries focal juveniles of species theirwithin oceanography (i.e., oceanography currents, tides, temperature, and salinity substrate and acidity), bathymetry affect that the biological spread of and non-biological material. Design Criteria Design or management focal of species. in Consider7. variations Ensure8. are NTZs large enough to sustain adults focal and juveniles of fisheries species within (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Incorporate Connectivity: Factors Abiotic Incorporate Connectivity: Factors Biotic Table 8 Table
70 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA NA Not Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%). Many (26-50%). Some (0-25%) No or a few Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) applicable Not None or a few (0-25%) or a few None 9. NTZs are NTZs designed9. to species focal protect throughout cycles their life MPAs or in either individual Networks.MPA units Whole ecological 10. If are in NTZs. included not,larger protect NTZs rather than smaller areas. boundaries on (based their movement patterns). NTZs are enoughNTZs large habitats all to contain species used by focal throughout their life history home for (e.g., ranges, nursery grounds orareas); and spawning networksEstablish of are that close NTZs for enough to allow movements focal of species among (e.g., protected habitats through ontogenetic and shifts habitat migrations). spawning 9. Ensure:9. ▪ ▪ Include whole 10. units (such as ecological reefs or seamounts) in not, chooseIf NTZs. larger rather than smaller areas. their boundaries. Adults and Adults Juveniles Movement of
71 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Not Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Not Applicable Not NTZs are enoughNTZs large Networks are NTZs of Performance Indicator Performance (Output) are NTZs compact 11. shapes whenexcept naturally protecting habitats. elongated 12. ▪ or sustaining; to be self- ▪ close enough to be connected by larval on(depending dispersal focal distances of dispersal species). 13. Spatially isolated areas isolated Spatially 13. are protected in NTZs. NTZs large enough large NTZs to Networks NTZs of (such squares)as for whenexcept NTZs, naturally protecting like habitats elongated reefs. narrowlong coastal Design Criteria Design shapes Use compact 11. Establish: 12. ▪ focal for be self-sustaining species; or ▪ close enough to be connected by larval dispersal. 13. Protect spatially 13. areas in NTZs isolated remote(e.g, atolls). (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Incorporate Connectivity: Factors Biotic Dispersal Larval Table 8 Table
72 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 NA NA NA Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many 14. Larval sources fish Larval (i.e., 14. are aggregations) spawning protected in permanent or or NTZs seasonal through fisheries closures during times. spawning More are15. NTZs upstream relative located there areasto fished if a is strong, consistent, current.unidirectional are NTZs in place 16. permanently or thefor long term (extended each at review 5-year zoning and of management plans). Short-termyears) 17. (<5 harvested or periodically 14. Protect larval sources Protect larval 14. in permanent or seasonal orNTZs by using fisheries closures during spawning times. more Locate NTZs 15. upstream to relative there areasfished if a is strong, consistent, current.unidirectional for NTZs Establish 16. the term long (20-40 years), preferably permanently. Use short-term17. (<5 years) or periodically Allow Time for Time Allow Recovery
73 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many Some (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Local threats have beenLocal reduced; recoveryNatural has and/or been facilitated; The costs and benefits Performance Indicator Performance (Output) areNTZs used in addition to, rather than instead of, long-term or permanent NTZs habitats protect NTZs 18. focal of and populations species condition in good threat. levels with low of Where19a. have NTZs to in areas wherebe located of and populations habitats species are in poor focal due condition to local threats: ▪ ▪ ▪ Reduce these threats; natural Facilitate recovery, such by as larval protecting sources and species habitats and populations habitats species are in focal of with low condition good threats. local levels of Design Criteria Design harvested in NTZs to, rather addition than long-term or instead of, permanent NTZs. Protect areas where18. areas whereAvoid 19. and populations habitats species are in focal of duepoor condition to local threats. this notis If possible: ▪ ▪ (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Healthy Protect andAvoid Areas Threats Local overfishing, (e.g., destructive coastal fishing, development, mass tourism, land-based of runoff sediments and nutrients, marine and pollution, mining, shipping, and gas oil industries) Table 8 Table
74 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued next page) 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%). (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%). Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%). and and species have been considered. of rehabilitating habitats rehabilitating of 19b. MPAs are integrated 19b. with other management to reduceapproaches threats including: Zone Integrated Coastal (Marine Manage-ment and and Planning); Spatial Land to Ecosystem Approach Fisheries Management. areto that Sites likely 20. be more resilient to and changes in climate ocean chemistry (refugia) are protected in NTZs. important Ecologically 21. sites are that sensitive to and changes in climate ocean chemistry are protected in NTZs. like herbivoreslike play that functional important roles in ecosystem resilience; and Consider the costs and rehabilitating of benefits and species habitats by (e.g., restoring structures, transplanting orcorals, facilitating recovery of population species by re- focal orstocking using temporary closures). 20. Protect sites are that 20. to be morelikely resilient environmental to global in NTZs. change (refugia) Protect ecologically 21. sites are important that sensitive to changes in and ocean climate chemistry. ▪ Adapt to Adapt Changesin and Climate Chemistry Ocean as rising (Such sea surface temperatures, rising sea levels and ocean acidification).
75 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 NA NA NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Not Applicable Not Habitats Replicate See above. Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some Performance Indicator Performance (Output) Protection has 22. increased speciesfor that functional important play roles in ecosystem resilience. studies are Scientific 23. underway or have been to understandcompleted and ocean how climate the life affect change will species, and history focal of refining for the implications the above. design criteria 24a. Uncertainty has been 24a. addressed by: Spreading the risk. Uncertainty has been24b. addressed by: Increasing (e.g., habitats of protection Spreading the riskSpreading (see Habitats); Replicate and Increasing of protection species that play species that roles functional important in ecosystem resilience herbivorous(e.g., reef fishes reefs).on coral Design Criteria Design Increase22. of protection Consider how23. climate and ocean change will history the of life affect species. focal 24. Address24. uncertainty by: ▪ ▪ (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Table 8 Table
76 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Action & Score Plan (Continued on(Continued new page) 3 2 1 0 3 2 0 NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many Not Applicable Not None or a few (0-25%) or a few None habitat representation), habitat areas and species critical most vulnerable to and changes in climate ocean chemistry. by increasing by percentincreasing Performance Indicator Performance (Output) Stakeholders1. are the in each involved step of process establishing of MPAs Networks.and MPA in established MPAs 2. by supported areas MPAs in areas habitats, critical areas critical habitats, and species most vulnerable to changes in and ocean climate chemistry. Design Criteria Design stakeholders Involve1. all the in each step of process establishing of MPAs and MPA Networks. establishing Prioritize 2. Consideration Involve in Stakeholders Establishing andMPA MPAs Networks. (MPA establishment includes Table 9. Evaluation tool for the socioeconomic and cultural criteria for designing MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria thefor in Indonesia.and cultural tool socioeconomic Evaluation 9. Table MPAs designing for Networksand MPA criteria Thisthe provides in Indonesia,and cultural each of tool socioeconomic performance scoring systemand a and scores)indicators how (criteria to designto evaluate each criterion oran MPA has beenMPA applied needed (if Network,to improve the the to provide (orPlan the evidence)scoreand space an Action to justify rationale and to identify score). notePlease the that areand performancedesign criteria numberedindicators so they are easy to refer to while using this These tool. evaluation numbers do notthe reflect varyorder thedepending on of which design importance will thecriteria, of orMPA Network MPA and objectives. goals
77 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 NA NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) Many (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many Performance Indicator Performance (Output) stakeholders Opportunities for 3. management collaborative stakeholders among all considered and implemented as appropriate. building Capacity 4. provided stakeholdersfor themto help engage more in establishing effectively MPAs and MPAs Networks. 5. Local community Local 5. and in compliance involved enforcement. for collaborative for management among all stakeholders and implement as appropriate. Design Criteria Design supported by stakeholders Consider3. opportunities Provide 4. capacity stakeholdersfor building themto help engage more in establishing effectively MPAs and MPAs Networks. 5. Involve local community Involve5. local and in compliance enforcement, including among patrols joint (Continued from(Continued previous page) hin MPAs. hin Consideration developing zoning and management plans.) (Stakeholders local, include and adat traditional communities, governments, NGOs, civil society organizations, scientific and institutions industries like fisheries, tourism etc.) Ensure Stakeholder Compliance wit Table 9 Table
78 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued new page) 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA NA NA None or a few (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Some (26-50%) Some 6. MPA managementMPA 6. or maintain that actions increase ecosystem goods and services local for communities are supported. multiple for MPAs allow 7. environmentally friendly uses. friendly Environmentally 8. local of livelihoods communities supported. government institutions and communities, and POKMASWAS MPA Support 6. management that actions or increasemaintain ecosystem goods and services local for communities. multiple for Allow 7. environmentally friendly uses in MPAs (including fishing, sustainable tourism, aquaculture, and research).education Support 8. environmentally friendly local of livelihoods communities, such as community-based, environmentally friendly and fisheries, aquaculture marine resource-based Support Multiple Support Environmentally in Uses Friendly MPAs. Support Community Welfare and (Livelihoods Supplies) Food
79 Rationale or Rationale Justify to Evidence Plan Action & Score 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Criteria Scoring Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Not Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Performance Indicator Performance (Output) Important marine 9a. heritage sites are identified and protected in (e.g., wisdom orNTZs local zones). Marine heritage 9b. sites theirfor managed potential community-based as tourism sites. 10. Local communities Local 10. access and equal have fair of, to, and utilization marine and fisheries resources. sites shipwrecks(e.g., and wrecks) airplane that have important, archeological-historical themand manage value, to theirfor potential support community-based tourism. Design Criteria Design tourism based on an areas’ uniqueness (biotic resources). and abiotic Protect marine9. heritage 10. Ensure10. local and communities have fair access to, and equal marine of, and utilization fisheries resources. (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Ensure Fair and Fair Ensure Access Equal andUse Table 9 Table
80 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA (Continued on(Continued new page) 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA NA NA Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Not Applicable Not 11. Access to resources11. and markets or maintained improved to support community economies. wisdom and local All 12a. in MPAs and practices NetworksMPA that support conservation and resourcesustainable use acknowledged arethat still by the existing and applied community oradat are identified institution and mapped. knowledge Traditional 12b. are protected and practices MPA and integrated into management. 11. Maintain or improve Maintain 11. access to resources and markets to support community economies with MPA comply that management plans. local Protect adat, 12. law, wisdom, traditional and culturesupport that conservation and resourcesustainable management, which are acknowledged and still by the existing applied community oradat institution. Support Local Support and Wisdom Practices
81 Rationale or Rationale Justifyto Evidence Plan Score Action & 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 NA NA Score Performance Indicator Performance Scoring Criteria Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Most (76-100%) (51-75%) Many (26-50%) Some (0- or a few None 25%) Applicable Not Performance Indicator Performance (Output) leaders Adat or 12c. are institutions acknowledged in MPA management and plans in collaborative involved management. Important areas that 13. havetraditional important local/adat for value cultural are identified, people and protected. mapped Design Criteria Protect areas that 13. havetraditional important local for value cultural including people/adat, areas, (pamali) mystical sites and important for medicine. traditional (Continued from(Continued previous page) Consideration Table 9 Table
82 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA ANNEX 4 LIST OF EXISTING AND PROPOSED MPAs AND AOIs IN FMA 715
WEST PAPUA PROVINCE 22. Cross Wreck Mansinam – MCA 1. Cendrawasih Bay – NP 23. Prafi Bay – AOI 2. Kaimana – PMPA 24. East of Jeen Womom – AOI 3. Bintuni Bay – PMPA 25. Miossu and Su Island – AOI 4. Berau Bay – CSICA 26. North Waigeo – AOI 5. Nusalasi Van den Bosch Bay – 27. Gam-Waigeo Passage – AOI CSICA 28. Saripa Bay – AOI 6. Sabuda Tuturuga – WR 29. 3 Seamount – AOI 7. Seribu Satu Sungai Teo Enebikia Waters – PMPA NORTH MALUKU PROVINCE 8. Misool Islands Waters – MTP 30. Dehegila Cape-Rao Waters – 9. North Misool Waters – PMPA PMPA 10. Kofiau-Boo Islands Waters – MTP 31. Tobo-Tobo Waters – PMPA 11. Kofiau Boo – MNR 32. Yiew Island – PMPA 12. Fam Islands Waters – MTP 33. East Patani Water-Sayafi Island – 13. Raja Ampat Island – MNR PMPA 14. Dampier Strait – MTP 34. Babua-Jailolo Island – PMPA 15. Mayalibit Bay -- MTP 35. Sibu-North Oba Island – PMPA 16. West Waigeo Island – MNR 36. Filonga Island – PMPA 17. Ayau and Asia Islands Wates – 37. Mare Island – PMPA MTP 38. Moti Island Waters-Makian Island 18. Makbon – PMPA – PMPA 19. World War II – MCA 39. Guraici Island – PMPA 20. Jeen Womom – CP 40. Sali Island-North of West Gane – 21. Cargo Okinoyama Maru – MCA PMPA
ACRONYMS NMPA – National MPA AOI – Area of Interest CSICA – Coastal and Small Islands NR – Nature Reserve Conservation Area WR – Wildlife Reserve MCA – Marine Conservation Area NP – National Park MNR – Marine Nature Reserve NTP – Nature Tourism Park SIP – Small Island Park NMTP – Nature Marine Tourism Park MTP – Marine Tourism Park PMPA – Provincial MPA CP – Coastal Park
83 41. Mandioli Island – PMPA 78. East Buru Seamount – AOI 42. Dowara Lamo Island-South of 79. Manuk Island – AOI West Gane – PMPA 80. Aru Islands -- AOI 43. East Gane Waters and Widi 81. Selaru Island – AOI Islands – PMPA 82. Damar and Romang Island – AOI 44. Kelo Island, Songara and East Obi 83. West Wetar – AOI – PMPA 45. Sula Islands – PMPA SOUTHEAST SULAWESI PROVINCE 46. Pas Koro Island – PMPA 84. Wakatobi – NP 47. Morotai Island – AOI 48. Kahatola – AOI CENTRAL SULAWESI PROVINCE 49. Bobo Cape – AOI 85. Morowali – PMPA 50. Hiri Island – AOI 86. South Buko-Banggai Islands – 51. Sayafi and Patani – AOI CSICA 52. Woda Islands and Oba – AOI 87. Liang-Banggai Islands – CSICA 53. North of Gilalang Island – AOI 88. Luwuk Kintom-Banggai -- CSICA 54. Kasiruta Bacan Island – AOI 89. East Luwuk-Banggai – CSICA 55. North Taliabu – AOI 90. Lamala-Banggai – CSICA 56. West Taliabu – AOI 91. Bualemo-Banggai – CSICA 57. South Taliabu – AOI 92. Pagimana-Banggai – CSICA 93. Ampana City and Ampana Tete – MALUKU PROVINCE CSICA 58. Buru Island – PMPA 94. Poso – CSICA 59. Buano Island – PMPA 95. Tobe – PMPA 60. Marsegu Island – NMTP 96. Tomini – NMPA 61. Kasa Island – NMTP 97. Togean Islands – NP 62. Pombo Island – NMTP 98. Balaesang Tanjung-Donggala – 63. Lease Island – PMPA WR 64. Sawai Bay – PMPA 99. North Dampal – CSICA 65. Koon-Neiden – PMPA 100. Ogodeide – CSICA 66. Banda Sea – NTP 101. Doboto – CSICA 67. Ay-Rhun Island – PMPA 102. Buol – MNR 68. Kur Tayando TAM – PMPA 103. Parigi Moutong – PMPA 69. Baeer Island – NTP 104. Southwest Tomini Bay – AOI 70. Small Kei Islands – SIP 105. Parigi – AOI 71. Southeast of Aru Islands – PMPA 106. Tombu Bay – AOI 72. Yamdena Islands – SIP 107. Northwest Tomini Bay – AOI 73. Leti Island – PMPA 108. Buol – AOI 74. Damar Island – PMPA 75. Romang Island – PMPA GORONTALO PROVINCE 76. Lucipara Islands – PMPA 109. Dulangka – CSICA 77. Lucipara Island and Seamount – 110. Maruagi-Mabasar – CSICA AOI 111. Mabasar-Maruangi – PMPA
84 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA 112. Tanjung Panjang – NR 139. Bajo – PMPA 113. Tanjung Panjang – CSICA 140. Bunaken – NP 114. Monduli – CSICA 141. North Minahasa – PMPA 115. Biluhu Timur – PMPA 142. Bitung (Lembeh Island) – PMPA 116. Leato Gorontalo Kota – MCA 143. Minahasa – PMPA 117. Olele Beach – PMPA 144. Bentenan Satu – PMPA 118. South Gorontalo – NMPA 145. Tumbak Madani – PMPA 119. Tolinggula – CSICA 146. Pidung Island – PMPA 120. Sumalata – PMPA 147. South Tobayagan – PMPA 121. Popaya Island – MCA 148. Sitaro Islands – PMPA 122. Popaya – PMPA 149. Tatoareng Islands – SIP 123. Mas Popaya Raja – NR 150. South Tabukan – PMPA 124. North Gorontalo – CSICA 151. Nusa Tabukan – PMPA 125. Dulanga-Maruangi-Mabasar – AOI 152. Lipaeng – PMPA 126. Mandoli – AOI 153. Kawaluso – PMPA 127. Botubarani – AOI 154. Karore – PMPA 128. Papaya – AOI 155. North Tabukan – PMPA 129. Lowoo Malangoso – AOI 156. North Karakelong – PMPA 157. South Karakelong -- PMPA NORTH SULAWESI PROVINCE 158. Kabaruang – PMPA 130. Komusi – PMPA 159. Seamount West Sangihe – AOI 131. Tanjung Sidupa – PMPA 160. North Minahasa – AOI 132. North Inomunga – PMPA 161. Luok Batu Merah – AOI 133. Boroko – PMPA 162. Haji Cape – AOI 134. North Boroko – PMPA 163. Lito Bongkil – AOI 135. Tote – PMPA 164. Dudepo – AOI 136. Lolanan – PMPA 165. Motandoi – AOI 137. Libuton Molosing – PMPA 166. Popaya Cape – AOI 138. South Minahasa – PMPA 167. Minahasa – AOI
ACRONYMS NMPA – National MPA AOI – Area of Interest CSICA – Coastal and Small Islands NR – Nature Reserve Conservation Area WR – Wildlife Reserve MCA – Marine Conservation Area NP – National Park MNR – Marine Nature Reserve NTP – Nature Tourism Park SIP – Small Island Park NMTP – Nature Marine Tourism Park MTP – Marine Tourism Park PMPA – Provincial MPA CP – Coastal Park
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86 A GUIDE, FRAMEWORK AND EXAMPLE: DESIGNING MPAs & MPA NETWORKS TO BENEFIT PEOPLE AND NATURE IN INDONESIA Gill, D.A., Mascia, M.B., Ahmadia, G.N., Glew, L., Lester, S.E., Barnes, M., Craigie, I., Darling, E.S., Free, C.M., Geldmann, J., Holst, S., Jensen, O.P., White, A.T., Basurto, X., Coad, L., Gates, R.D., Guannel, G., Mumby, P.J., Thomas, H., Whitmee, S., Woodley, S., & Fox, H.E. 2017. Capacity shortfalls hinder the performance of marine protected areas globally. Nature 543: 665-669. Grantham, H.S., Agostini, V.N., Wilson, J., Mangubhai, S., Hidayat, N., Muljadi, A., Muhajir, Rotinsulu, C., Mongdong, M., Beck, M.W., & Possingham, H.P. 2013. A comparison of zoning analyses to inform the planning of a marine protected area network in Raja Ampat, Indonesia. Marine Policy 38: 184-194. Green, A.L., Fajariyanto, Y., Ramadyan, F., & Lionata, H. 2019. Evaluation Tool for Marine Protected Area and Marine Protected Area Network Design in Indonesia. Report prepared by The Nature Conservancy for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advance Project, 26 pp. Green, A.L., Fajariyanto, Y., Tighe, S., & White, A. T. 2020. Biophysical Criteria: Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks to Benefit People and Nature in Indonesia. Report prepared by The Nature Conservancy for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project. Green, A.L., Fernandes, L., Almany, G., Abesamis, R., McLeod, E., Aliño, P., White, A.T., Salm, R., Tanzer, J., & Pressey, R.L. 2014. Designing marine reserves for fisheries management, biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation. Coastal Management 42:143–159. Green, A., White, A., & Kilarski, S. (Eds.) 2013. Designing marine protected area networks to achieve fisheries, biodiversity, and climate change objectives in tropical ecosystems: A practitioner guide. The Nature Conservancy and the USAID Coral Triangle Support Partnership, Cebu City, Philippines. viii + 35 pp. Green, S. J., White, A., Christie, P., Kilarski, S., Blesilda, A., Meneses, T., Samonte- Tan, G., Bunce Karrer, L., Fox, H., Campbell, S., & Claussen, J.D. 2011. Emerging marine protected networks in the Coral Triangle: Lessons and way forward. Conservation and Society 9 (3): 173–188. Lowry, G.K., White, A.T., & Christie, P. 2009. Scaling up to networks of marine protected areas in the Philippines: Biophysical, legal, institutional, and social considerations. Coastal Management 37: 274-290. Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF in prep.). Technical Guidelines of Ministerial Regulation No. 13/2014 on Establishing and Managing MPA Networks. Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) 2018. Luas Kawasan Konservasi Tahun 2018. Available from https://kkp.go.id/an-component/media/upload- banner/KKP3K_2018.jpg [Accessed 22 November 2019].
87 Roberts, C.M., O’Leary, B.C., McCauley, D.J., Cury, P.M., Duarte, C.M., Lubchenco, J., Pauly, D., Saenz-Arroyo, A., Sumaila, U.R., Wilson, R.W., Worm, B., & Castilla, J.C. 2017. Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change. Proceeding National Academy Sciences USA 114: 6167–6175. TNC/CTC/SEA 2019. Training Manual for Designing Marine Protected Areas and Marine Protected Area Networks in Indonesia. Prepared by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Oceans Program and Coral Triangle Center for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project. TNC/SEA 2018a. Biophysical, social, economic, cultural and governance objectives, criteria and performance indicators for Marine Protected Area Networks in Indonesia (Jakarta, February 2018). Workshop report prepared by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project, 73 pp. TNC/SEA 2018b. West Papua Marine Protected Area Network Design Workshop (Sorong, March 6-8th, 2018). Workshop report prepared by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project, 110 pp. TNC/SEA 2018c. Maluku and North Maluku Marine Protected Area Networks Design (Ambon, May 22-24th, 2018). Workshop report prepared by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project, 117 pp. TNC/SEA 2018d. Technical and Mentoring Review Workshop of SEA MPAs Zoning Design. Ambon, September 17-20th, 2018. Workshop report prepared by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project. 121 pp. TNC/SEA 2019a. Designing a Network of Marine Protected Areas for West Papua Province, Indonesia. March 1st, 2019. Report prepared by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project. 26 pp. TNC/SEA 2019b. Technical Review Workshop of SEA MPAs Zoning Design & MPA Networks for North Maluku Province. Ternate, 29-31st January, 2019. Workshop report prepared by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project, 127 pp. TNC/SEA 2019c. Technical Review Workshop of SEA MPAs Zoning Design & MPA Networks for Maluku Province. Ambon, 6-8th February, 2019. Workshop report prepared by The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Oceans Program for the USAID Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced (SEA) Project, 109 pp.
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The Indonesian Sustainable Ecosystems Advanced Project (USAID SEA) is a five-year initiative that supports the Government of Indonesia to improve the governance of fisheries and marine resources and to conserve biological diversity at local, district, provincial, and national levels. USAID SEA is implemented through a consortium of partners, and works in eastern Indonesia in the provinces of Maluku, North Maluku and West Papua. It has assisted to add more than one million hectares of new and well-designed marine protected areas across these provinces since 2016.