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Marine Pollution Bulletin 64 (2012) 2279–2295

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Marine Pollution Bulletin 64 (2012) 2279–2295 Marine Pollution Bulletin 64 (2012) 2279–2295 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Marine Pollution Bulletin journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul Review Papuan Bird’s Head Seascape: Emerging threats and challenges in the global center of marine biodiversity ⇑ Sangeeta Mangubhai a, , Mark V. Erdmann b,j, Joanne R. Wilson a, Christine L. Huffard b, Ferdiel Ballamu c, Nur Ismu Hidayat d, Creusa Hitipeuw e, Muhammad E. Lazuardi b, Muhajir a, Defy Pada f, Gandi Purba g, Christovel Rotinsulu h, Lukas Rumetna a, Kartika Sumolang i, Wen Wen a a The Nature Conservancy, Indonesia Marine Program, Jl. Pengembak 2, Sanur, Bali 80228, Indonesia b Conservation International, Jl. Dr. Muwardi 17, Renon, Bali 80235, Indonesia c Yayasan Penyu Papua, Jl. Wiku No. 124, Sorong West Papua 98412, Indonesia d Conservation International, Jl. Kedondong Puncak Vihara, Sorong, West Papua 98414, Indonesia e World Wide Fund for Nature – Indonesia Program, Graha Simatupang Building, Tower 2 Unit C 7th-11th Floor, Jl. TB Simatupang Kav C-38, Jakarta Selatan 12540, Indonesia f Conservation International, Jl. Batu Putih, Kaimana, West Papua 98654, Indonesia g University of Papua, Jl. Gunung Salju, Amban, Manokwari, West Papua 98314, Indonesia h University of Rhode Island, College of Environmental and Life Sciences, Department of Marine Affairs, 1 Greenhouse Road, Kingston, RI 02881, USA i World Wide Fund for Nature – Indonesia Program, Jl. Manggurai, Wasior, West Papua, Indonesia j California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, CA 94118, USA article info abstract Keywords: The Bird’s Head Seascape located in eastern Indonesia is the global epicenter of tropical shallow water Coral Triangle marine biodiversity with over 600 species of corals and 1,638 species of coral reef fishes. The Seascape Indonesia also includes critical habitats for globally threatened marine species, including sea turtles and cetaceans. Coral reefs Since 2001, the region has undergone rapid development in fisheries, oil and gas extraction, mining and Fisheries logging. The expansion of these sectors, combined with illegal activities and poorly planned coastal Sustainable development development, is accelerating deterioration of coastal and marine environments. At the same time, Marine protected areas regency governments have expanded their marine protected area networks to cover 3,594,702 ha of islands and coastal waters. Low population numbers, relatively healthy natural resources and a strong tenure system in eastern Indonesia provide an opportunity for government and local communities to col- laboratively manage their resources sustainably to ensure long-term food security, while meeting their development aspirations. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Seascape encompasses a diversity of habitats, including the highly enclosed shallow Cendrawasih Bay, to shallow fringing, barrier, Located in the heart of the ‘Coral Triangle’, the Papuan Bird’s patch, lagoon and atoll reefs in Raja Ampat, to mangrove domi- Head Seascape (BHS) in eastern Indonesia encompasses over nated coasts, rivers and inlets in Bintuni Bay. The Seascape also in- 22.5 million hectares of sea and small islands off the West Papua cludes critical habitats for globally threatened marine species, Province between the latitudes 4°050S–1°100N and longitudes including sea turtles and cetaceans. 129°140E–137°470E(Fig. 1). The BHS has the richest diversity of reef The boundaries of the BHS were delineated based on biogeo- fish and coral species recorded in the world and is regarded by graphic integrity, oceanic and genetic connectivity between reef some as the global epicenter of tropical shallow water marine bio- areas, shared ecological characteristics and environmental factors diversity (Veron et al., 2009; Allen and Erdmann, 2009, 2012). The that may explain how species are distributed (Green and Mous, 2008). The geographic scale of this review is the Seascape because of its practicality for marine conservation strategies, particularly ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +62 361 287272; fax: +62 361 270737. for the design and implementation of marine protected area E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Mangubhai), [email protected] com (M.V. Erdmann), [email protected] (J.R. Wilson), [email protected] (MPA) networks, and its adoption by the six countries of the Coral (C.L. Huffard), [email protected] (F. Ballamu), [email protected] (N.I. Triangle – Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Philippines, Malaysia, Papua Hidayat), [email protected] (C. Hitipeuw), [email protected] (M.E. La- New Guinea and the Solomon Islands (Coral Triangle Initiative, zuardi), [email protected] ( Muhajir), [email protected] (D. Pada), gandi_- 2009). The BHS boundaries fall primarily within the West Papua [email protected] (G. Purba), [email protected] (C. Rotinsulu), [email protected] (L. Rumetna), [email protected] (K. Sumolang), wwen@tn- province with only a small portion falling within the adjacent c.org (W. Wen). province of Papua. Therefore, BHs boundaries closely align with 0025-326X/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.07.024 2280 S. Mangubhai et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 64 (2012) 2279–2295 Fig. 1. Map of the Bird’s Head Seascape showing the location of major towns, islands, and marine protected area (MPA) boundaries. MPAs shown are: 1 = Kaimana, 2 = Sabuda Tataruga, 3 = Southeast Misool, 4 = Kofiau and Boo Islands, 5 = Dampier Strait, 6 = Mayalibit Bay, 7 = Kawe, 8 = Ayau-Asia Islands, 9 = Panjang Islands (previously West Waigeo), 10 = Abun, 11 = Padaido, 12 = Cendrawasih Bay. governance boundaries in Indonesia. Indonesia currently has a equator (Prentice and Hope, 2007). The movement across the three-tiered system of de-centralized governance, made up of equator creates two distinct monsoon seasons. The northwest regencies, provinces and a national government. Throughout this monsoon extends from November to March and is characterized paper, the term ‘Papua’ on its own, is used to represent both the by warmer SSTs (Fig. 2a), occasional strong winds and ocean provinces of West Papua and Papua. swell predominantly in the north. The southeast monsoon from Over the last decade, environmental issues in the BHS have re- May to October is characterized by cooler sea surface tempera- ceived significant attention from local governments and interna- tures (SSTs) (Fig. 2b), persistent winds and strong ocean swell tional non-government organizations (NGOs). This interest has in the south. There is a transition period of 1–2 months between been driven by the high diversity of the region and growing con- seasons characterized by variable and lower winds. Although an- cerns over the impacts of rapid escalation in development. Scien- nual rainfall in Papua averages 2500–4500 mm (Prentice and tists, governments and NGOs have conducted biological, social, Hope, 2007), rainfall in coastal cities is lower and averages economic, and governance studies to support policy, conservation 100.9–657.2 mm (Fig. 3). Inter-annual variability in rainfall and sustainable development efforts in the region. Much of this changes significantly with the El Niño Southern Oscillation work is largely unpublished and available only in the Indonesian (ENSO; Prentice and Hope, 2007). language, and therefore inaccessible to the wider science commu- nity. This review is the first to synthesize and summarize available data, reports and scientific publications on climate and oceanogra- 2.2. Oceanography phy, coastal and marine habitats and endangered species in the BHS. It identifies the existing uses, and emerging and increasing The oceanographic conditions of the BHS are diverse and com- threats to the region, and summarizes the governance and policies plex due to the shape of the BHS coastline and its location at the underpinning natural resource management and conservation ef- northeastern entrance of the ‘Indonesian Throughflow’ which forts in the region. transports water from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean (Fig. 4; Vranes and Gordon, 2005). Inter-annual variation in the Indonesian 2. Climate and oceanography Throughflow is associated with the ENSO and Asian monsoons (Vranes and Gordon, 2005). During the southeast monsoon, the 2.1. Monsoon seasons and rainfall South Equatorial Current (SEC) travels west across the northern coast of the BHS, merging with the Halmahera Eddy and joining The equatorial location of the BHS means that the main sea- the Northern Equatorial Counter Current (NECC) flowing east. sonal influence is monsoons driven by the annual movement of The SEC reverses direction during the northwest monsoon the inter-tropical convergence zone 15° north and south of the (Fig. 4). Temperature, salinity and chemical tracer data suggest that S. Mangubhai et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 64 (2012) 2279–2295 2281 Fig. 2. Broad scale seasonal sea surface temperature (SST) patterns in the Bird’s Head Seascape. SST data at 4 km-weekly resolution (Heron et al., 2010), based upon Pathfinder Version 5.0 SST data (Kilpatrick et al., 2001), were averaged to produce seasonal mean temperatures (a) November to March; and (b) May to October for the period 1985–2009. Data deep within enclosed bays were masked in the images (gray color) due to the reduced confidence in gapfilled data quality, related to extended cloud periods regularly experienced in the region (particularly during November to March). some of the SEC flows south past Raja
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