INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES FOR MARINE ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN MISOOL, RAJA AMPAT, INDONESIA By: Nurdina Prasetyo A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand February 2019 No matter how important local and national knowledge is within a specific spatial context, unless it is conveyed in English it has little chance to enter the global marketplace and be reproduced and recirculated. Somewhat ironically, given the desire to give voice to local and Indigenous perspectives, unless that voice can be spoken in English it is likely not to be heard. (Hall, 2013, p. 608) ABSTRACT This doctoral study examines the complexities of integrating Indigenous knowledge and practices into sustainable marine ecotourism development, with a focus on the case study of Misool, Raja Ampat, in West Papua Province, Indonesia. The research addresses the knowledge gaps on integrating Indigenous knowledge into marine ecotourism initiatives. Indigenous knowledge is often neglected as a key source of information, undervalued from the perspective of Western scientific knowledge, even though utilising Indigenous knowledge helps to increase the sustainability of development efforts and contributes to the empowerment of local communities. Literature on marine ecotourism shows an almost total absence of studies that draw from Indigenous knowledge, yet, local community participation is underlined as one of the most important factors in sustainable marine ecotourism development. This thesis thus aims to contribute new insights on how Indigenous knowledge can be optimally integrated or applied in marine ecotourism development. Misool is one of the islands in Raja Ampat which attracts scuba divers and marine tourists from around the world, due to its abundance marine life. As tourism development in Misool is still in its early stages, it is an excellent location to explore processes of marine ecotourism development and the integration of Indigenous values. This study is qualitative, informed by an awareness of research approaches to Indigenous issues. The method applied was semi structured in-depth interviews, which complements Indigenous methodology approaches. The fieldwork was conducted in five tourism villages in Misool with forty-seven participants, consisting of: Indigenous people who worked in tourism and Misool’s Marine Protected Area, marine ecotourism operators, heads of villages, traditional leaders, government officials, and NGOs. Both field notes and transcriptions were analysed using narrative analysis with a thematic approach to explore participants’ viewpoints around the issues. This study has identified nine key themes of Indigenous knowledge and practices the local communities in Misool hold, which are: 1) marine sasi (traditional marine resource management), 2) petuanan adat (customary ownership right of land i and/or sea area), 3) baca alam (reading the signs of nature), 4) finding and calling the animals, 5) pamali ikan (fish taboo), 6) respecting sacred sites, 7) weather shamanism, 8) traditional way of sailing, and 9) traditional ways of building. It was also found that the local Indigenous communities, marine ecotourism operators, NGOs, and some of the local government institutions in Misool have acknowledged and incorporated some aspects of Misoolese Indigenous knowledge and practices in existing marine ecotourism development. The local Indigenous communities and marine ecotourism operators have been incorporating Misoolese Indigenous knowledge and practices in scuba diving and other marine ecotourism activities, as well as into the establishment of supporting facilities. The research identified that NGOs and a local government institution have been using marine sasi and petuanan adat to support marine conservation and development programmes, which involve the local communities. Overall, the findings of this study contribute to and also make practical recommendations for understanding the integration of Indigenous knowledge and practices into marine ecotourism development. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to all the people who participated in this study by sharing their stories, their views, and their hopes with me. I sincerely hope that this study can somehow take part in the process of (re)discovery of their sense of pride in their Indigenous culture and identity. The completion of this study would not be possible without the generous NZ-ASEAN scholarships from New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, to whom I also express my sincere gratitude for giving me the opportunity to experience this life-changing journey. I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Anna Carr and Dr Sebastian Filep, whose continuous support has been invaluable. Your understanding, wisdom, and advices have helped me tremendously throughout my PhD journey. THANK YOU for helping me develop my critical thinking. Special thanks goes to Dr Craig Lee for always happily opened his door for me when I needed someone to talk with, especially during the last year of my PhD. Thank you for making things seem clear, even on very murky days through the tunnel of analysis! But most of all, thanks for always providing humorous interludes during the hard times. Trudi McLaren and Pip Lennon, thank you so much for helping me in all the complex admin whirlwinds, especially during fieldwork, before international conferences, and when I was finishing my thesis from Indonesia. I would also like to thank some people I met throughout my PhD journey who became close friends and somehow have helped me get through the hurdles. From the Tourism Department: Fiona Bakas and Jundan Zhang, I think you both are brilliant! From Accountancy and Finance: Jelita Noviarini and from Management: Intan Wahyoe, thank you for the laughter and being such good friends! From Science Communication: Colin Smillie, thank you for being my best friend! iii Last but not least, thanks must go to my husband, Jason Rayner, and our beloved dog, Sophie, for ALWAYS being there for me when I was feeling down, especially during stressful times. They always said: you can do it! (or ‘woof!’ from Sophie). To Jason and Sophie, lots and lots of love. iv CONFERENCE PAPERS During the process of researching and writing this study, some sections of this thesis (mainly derived from Chapters Two, Three, Five, and Six) have been presented at three international conferences in Dunedin, New Zealand (February 2017), Coimbra, Portugal (April 2017), and Yogyakarta, Indonesia (March 2018): Prasetyo, N. (2017). Indigenous Knowledge in Marine Ecotourism Development: The Case of Sasi Laut in Misool1. In C. Lee, S. Filep, J. N. Albrecht, & W. J. L. Coetzee (Eds.), Conference Proceedings CAUTHE 2017: Time for Big Ideas? Re- thinking the Field for Tomorrow (pp. 853-855). Dunedin, New Zealand: Department of Tourism, University of Otago. Prasetyo, N. (2017, April). Shaping Local Identity in a Marine Ecotourism Destination: The Case Study of Misool, Raja Ampat, Indonesia. Paper presented at the 5th UNESCO UNITWIN Conference: Local Identity and Tourism Management on World Heritage Sites, Coimbra, Portugal. Prasetyo, N. (2018, March). Calling All the Sharks: The Use of Indigenous Knowledge in Scuba Diving Tourism. Paper presented at the Inaugural Critical Tourism Studies-Asia Pacific Conference, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 1 This working paper has been invited to be submitted as a full paper to a special issue of the Journal of Tourism Planning and Development v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. iii Conference Papers ................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... x List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xi List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... xii Glossary of Misoolese-Indonesian .................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Research Context ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1. Indigenous Knowledge ....................................................................................... 3 1.1.2. Marine Ecotourism .............................................................................................. 6 1.2. Research Problem, Objective, and Questions ........................................................... 9 1.3. Introduction to Case Study Area ................................................................................... 11 1.3.1. Indonesia ................................................................................................................. 11 1.3.2.