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TENDING the GARDENS of CITIZENSHIP: Child Protection in Toronto 1 880S

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TENDING the GARDENS of CITIZENSHIP: Child Protection in Toronto 1 880S TENDING THE GARDENS OF CITIZENSHIP: Child Protection in Toronto 1880s - 1920s Xiaobei Chen A Thesis Submitted in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Social Work University of Toronto O Xiaobei Chen, 2001 National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1+1 ,Ca", du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Canada Canada Your/üe votre dfticy>c~ Our fiie Notre rdfdmna The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence dowing the exclusive permettant a la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, ban, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la fonne de microfkhe/ilm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimes reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. TENDING THE GARDENS OF CITIZENSHIP: Child Protection in Toronto 1880s - 1920s Dmctor of Philosophy 200 1 Xiaobei Chen Faculty of Social Work Wniversity of Toronto ABSTRACT Sparked by several high profile child deaths, Ontario's Child Welfare Reform at the turn of the twenty-first cenwhas resulted in a restructuring of the child protection system. This dissertation uses historical analyses to develop a critical understanding of the Reform. The anaiyses are influrenced by the Foucaultian govementality approach. Specifically, it explores the transformation of conceptions of hurnan iderititios, citizenship, and technologies of pawer, fiom the threshold of the "social" era to our present "post-social" era. The dissertation examines ~hildprotection ideas and practices during the penod fiom the late 1880s to 1920s. It argues that preventing crime and immorality and building a usefûl and Christian citizenry we=re the main objectives of child protection. Gardening metaphors were used widely to construct a hurnanist identity for children as "fiiture citizens" and to promote technologies of parental power which were prirnarily governmental in Foucault's sense. OCmelty and neglect deviated fiom the gardening mode of parental power. Child protectiom workers governed parents' cruelty or bad mords so that parents could in turn govern children properly. The study identifies a range of child protection technologies, also represented by gardening metaphors. Child protection connected the conduct of individuatls with issues of societal importance. While the focus of child protection was on individuals' conduct, the "social" mode of thinking allowed a consideration of resource issues in other related areas. The analyses of the early history of child protection are used to understand the recent Reform. hstead of being considered as "friture citizens," today children are constituted as the ideal citizens. The child-citizen discourse accentuates children's rights to personal safety and portrays parents as (potential) criminals. In contrast to the earlier period, the primary objective of current child protection is "keeping kids safe." This understanding severely limits the kinds of collective actions to be considered. New technologies of risk management and criminal punishrnent subsume child protection to cnminality. These changes reflect the "privatization of citizenship." The dissertation challenges the tendency of reducing complex structural issues to a matter of chîldren's personal safety. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The path Ieading to the cornpletion of this dissertation and the end of my Ph.D. studies was one that overlapped with my persona1 joumey of becoming a Chinese-Canadian. At many levels, 1 feel the past several years were a period of profound transformation. 1 would like to ttiank teachers, friends, and farnily who were part of my work and life, for their guidance, support, and affection. Members of the supervisory committee - Carol Baines, Allan Irving, Sheila Neysmith' and Mariana Valverde - helped me in various ways. Allan hingwas the chair of the committee in the early stage of my studies, With characteristic unqualified confidence in students, he encouraged me to pursue a project on the history of child protection. As weI1, he taught me much about teaching in Canadian classrooms. Many thanks to Carol Baines, who introduced me to archiva1 research methods and stimulated my interests in feminist analysis of social policy and social work. Carol actively helped me build connections with other researchers as well as social service agencies. She reviewed drafis of the dissertation carefiily; then discussed her comments with me while treating me to her famed hornemade food. Sheila Neysmith chaired the supervisory committee after Allan went to the United States and was essential to the successful completion of the dissertation, Her support and guidance at more than one crucial juncture turned near-crises into blessings in disguise. Sheila spent many hours with me talking about drafts of the dissertation, career, and life. 1 am indebted to her for her encouragement for academic curiosity, intellectual stimulation, patience, and wisdom. Mariana Valverde did much more than her share of responsibiIity. Her attentiveness to my work and wellbeing made me feel just Iike one of her own students. 1 was very fortunate to know Mariana and receive her substantial teaching and guidance, which were indispensable to the dissertation. Through numerous discussions, she tau@ me much about ways of thinking, the art of doing research, and the aesthetics of writing. Mariana was generous with guidance, but she also encouraged me to be comfortable with being myself, as a scholar and as a person. For al1 these, 1 am very thankful. I would also like to thank Franca Iacovetîa and Nigel Parton, the two extemal members of the examination committee, who reviewed the dissertation thoroughly and provided thought-provoking comments and suggestions. Professors at the Faculty of Social Work and other departrnents at the University of Toronto helped me learn many new things. I would like to Say a special thanks to Adrienne Chambon, Ron Manzer, and Christabelle Sethna. Several fi-iends, including Bryan Hogeveen, Ken Moffatt, and Karen Murray, read draft chapters and gave me useful feedback based on their expertise. Discussions with Kari Dehli and Karen Swift helped sharpen my thinking. Kirsten Johnson and 1 had common interests in child deaths and the role of the coroner's office and 1 want to thank her for sharing her expertise and insights. Dawn Moore encouraged me with her enthusiasm in my work and helped me refine ideas during many chats. Thanks to Toba Bryant for chats about experiences as students in social policy. 1 was foctunate to be part of the Dorothy Livesay Collective and the History of the Present Research Group. From the beginning to the end of the dissertation project, 1 benefited fiom moral support and constructive criticism of fnends in both groups. Cecilia Chan helped me with her confidence in my ability and with material support. Thanks also to Liu Meng for her fiiendship and discussions of topics that are refreshingly unrelated to my dissertation. My parents, Chen Lihao and Chen Lan, provided abundant emotional support. 1 am gratefùl for their encouragement and interest in my research. Chen Xiaojim is an affectionate brother and is my biggest fan- Thanks to Li Huiping for being a caring sister-in-law and to my niece Ruirui for her touching affection. A special appreciation to Mariana VaIverdc, Maggi Redmonds, Nicky, and Ming for making me part of their family and sharing with me their family happiness, or Tian Lun Zhi Le as we say in Chinese. My partner Ercel Baker deserves more than thanks for supporting me through his love and practical help. 1 feel very fortunate to have the opportunity of knowing him and sharing my life with him. I am particularly gratefitl to ErceI for understanding the differences between Chinese and Canadian cultures, for teaching me the importance of self-confidence, and for respecting my work. Ercel read and edited earIy drafts of this manuscript. We had fun debating issues related to the dissertation and beyond. I also appreciate his caIming effect, which has been heIpfii1, particularly so when I accidentally spilled tea into my laptop just weeks before 1 handed in the dissertation. Many thanks to the Toronto Children's Aid Society staff for being rnost supportive to my research. Archivists and staff at the City of Toronto Archives, Archives of Toronto, and National Archives of Canada made contribution to this dissertation project through their knowledge and enthusiasm. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page 1.- --. Abstract 11-111 Acknowledgements iv-v Table of Contents vi-vii Illustrations viii-xx mTRODUCT1ON Genealogy of Child Protection Understanding Child Protection as Govername Children, Citizenship, and Child Protection Organization of the Dissertation PART ONE CONSTRUCTING THE TWIN PROBLEMS OF CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT Lntroduction CRUELTY AND NEGLECT 1880s - 1920s: ROOTS OF MORAL 52 AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS Cruelty as Immorality Knowledge fiom Civilized Hearts NegTect and Delinquency The Roots of Delinquency:
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