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Water Access and Distribution in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

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Water Access and Distribution in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania From Public Pipes to Private Hands Water Access and Distribution in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Marianne Kjellén Department of Human Geography Stockholm University 2006 Abstract In cities around the world, public water systems have increasingly come to be operated by private companies. Along with an internationally funded investment program to refurbish the dilapidated water infrastructure, private operations were tested also in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Only about a third of the households, however, are reached by the piped water system; most households purchase water from those with pipe-connections or private boreholes. Thus, water distribution was informally privatized by way of water vending long before formal private sector participation began. This thesis explores individual and collective endeavors in water development, distribution, and access, along with the global and local influences that shaped the privatization exercise. With regard to the lease of Dar es Salaam’s water system, the institutional set-up has been found to mix the British and French models, having influenced the local situation through development assistance and conditionalities tied to loans. The institutional contradictions may have contributed to the conflictive cancellation of the lease arrangement. Due to the public utility company’s lack of operating capital and investment planning, infrastructure development has responded mainly to immediate individual demands, resulting in a spaghetti-like network and structural leakage. The long-standing under-performance and low coverage of the piped water system have forced many people to devise their own ways to access water. This thesis argues that the individually devised artisan ways of water provisioning constitute the lifeline of Dar es Salaam’s water system. Yet, they also undermine and divert resources away from the collectively devised industrial form of piped water provision. Keywords: leakage, poverty, privatization, urban water management, public utility regulation, spaghettization, water vending © Copyright The Author and the Department of Human Geography, 2006. All rights reserved. Department of Human Geography, Stockholm University ISBN 91-85445-43-6 ISSN 0349-7003 Printed by Intellecta DocuSys AB, Solna, Sweden 2006 Cover by Lars Wåhlin Cover photograph: Informal water vending in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Photo by Marianne Kjellén Image-editing by Claes Herrlander To My Family Klas, Linn, and sorely missed little baby Julia Contents Abstract___________________________________________________3 Contents __________________________________________________5 List of Maps, Photos, Tables, Boxes and Figures___________________7 Note on Currency ___________________________________________9 Acronyms and Abbreviations _________________________________10 Acknowledgements_____________________________________________12 Map Section __________________________________________________15 1 Introduction_______________________________________________19 1.1 The Development Problem of Urban Water Provisioning_______20 1.2 Research Questions and Purpose of the Study _______________25 1.3 Approach and Methodology _____________________________27 1.4 Conceptual Framework _________________________________31 1.5 Sources and Structure of the Book ________________________42 2 Global Water Privatization ___________________________________48 2.1 Defining Privatization __________________________________48 2.2 Shifts along the Public-Private Axis _______________________53 2.3 The Private Providers __________________________________58 2.4 De-Regulation, Re-Regulation and Contract Management ______66 2.5 The International Debate on Water Privatization _____________72 2.6 Summary: Debated Privatization and Accepted Regulation _____77 3 Background on Water Development, Distribution and Access in Dar es Salaam ______________________________________80 3.1 Urban Sprawl and Administration Problems_________________80 3.2 Water Sector Organization and Policy Framework____________84 3.3 Urban Water System Development ________________________92 3.4 Water Access and Use_________________________________106 3.5 Summary: Dar es Salaam’s Water Situation ________________114 4 Leakage, Spaghetti and Network Privatization___________________116 4.1 The Long-Standing Lack of Investment in Local Distribution __116 4.2 Spaghettization ______________________________________122 4.3 Leakage and Un-Accounted for Water ____________________128 4.4 How to Access Low Pressure Water ______________________135 4.5 Structural Leakage____________________________________141 4.6 Summary: Spaghettization and Structural Leakage___________143 5 Water Vending and the Privatization of Water Distribution_________144 5.1 Defining Water Vending, Kiosks and Standpipes ____________145 5.2 Prevalence and History of Water Vending in Dar es Salaam ___146 5.3 Stationary Water Vending ______________________________154 5 5.4 Water Distribution by Pushcarts ________________________ 157 5.5 Water Distribution by Tankers _________________________ 164 5.6 Bottled and Pre-Packaged Water ________________________ 168 5.7 Comparison of Water Prices ___________________________ 171 5.8 Water Vending and the Authorities ______________________ 173 5.9 Gender, Water Vending and Cultural Taboos ______________ 175 5.10 Summary: Out-of-Pipe Water Distribution ________________ 179 6 Privatization of Piped Water Operations (and Back Again) ________ 180 6.1 Structural Adjustment and Parastatal Sector Reform ________ 180 6.2 The Trajectory toward the Lease of DAWASA Operations ___ 185 6.3 In Search of a Regulatory Arrangement __________________ 193 6.4 The Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation Project _____ 195 6.5 From City Water to DAWASCO________________________ 199 6.6 Summary: the Process of Utility Services Privatization ______ 205 7 Perspective on Utility Privatization – Local Manifestations of Global Processes _______________ 208 7.1 Privatization and Institutional Change____________________ 209 7.2 “Finance Follows Enterprise” __________________________ 218 7.3 Further Expectations and Realities ______________________ 227 7.4 Summary of Discussion_______________________________ 234 8 Perspective on Collective and Individual Endeavors in a Fragmented Water System _________________________ 236 8.1 Deindustrialization and Service Fragmentation_____________ 237 8.2 Why Don’t They Protest? _____________________________ 246 8.3 Pipe-Cutting: Silent Resistance, Everyday Survival, Theft or Profiteering? ________________________________ 250 8.4 Exit, Voice and Complacency __________________________ 251 8.5 Tragedies and Collective Action Problems in Dar es Salaam’s Water System _______________________ 256 8.6 Summary of Discussion_______________________________ 267 9 From Public Pipes to Private Hands – Summary and Conclusions___ 269 Appendix: Research Methods ___________________________________ 279 Personal Background and Study Structure _____________________ 279 Organization of Fieldwork _________________________________ 280 Vendor Survey __________________________________________ 282 Neighborhood Studies and Participant Observation ______________ 288 Privatization ____________________________________________ 291 Analysis and Writing – An Iterative Process ___________________ 292 References__________________________________________________ 295 List of Interviews and Personal Communication ________________ 325 6 List of Maps, Photos, Tables, Boxes and Figures Map 1-1 Tanzania _________________________________________ 15 Map 1-2 The DAWASA Designated Area and Dar es Salaam Region _ 16 Map 1-3 Dar es Salaam _____________________________________ 17 Photo 1-1 Sara Kajigiri ______________________________________ 18 Photo 3-1 Rainwater Collection________________________________ 97 Photo 3-2 Intake Structure on the Mzinga River ___________________ 99 Photo 3-3 Water Intake at Upper Ruvu Works ___________________ 100 Photo 4-1 Jumping the Pipe Hierarchy: Household Connection onto Transmission Main ________________________________ 117 Photo 4-2 Collection of Spaghetti Pipes Passing Under the New Bagamoyo Road at Mikocheni ________________________________ 123 Photo 4-3 Spaghetti Service Lines in the Middle of the Road in Tandale124 Photo 4-4 Roadside Spaghetti Service Lines in Manzese ___________ 124 Photo 4-5 Set of Connections to Secondary Main in Manzese _______ 125 Photo 4-6 Unprotected Spaghetti Service Lines to Apartment Building in Central Dar es Salaam _________ 128 Photo 4-7 Residential Water Storage in Kinondoni________________ 131 Photo 4-8 Apartment Building Water Storage in Upanga ___________ 132 Photo 4-9 Booming Business of Polyethylene Tanks and Pipes ______ 133 Photo 4-10 Booster Pump on Individual Service Line at Msasani _____ 137 Photo 4-11 Short-Cutting of Pipes in Order to Access Low Pressure Water in Manzese______________________ 138 Photo 4-12 Short-Cut Pipe in Ubungo___________________________ 138 Photo 4-13 Underground Tap in Tandika ________________________ 140 Photo 5-1 Communal Standpipe in Tandika _____________________ 152 Photo 5-2 Initiation of Household Water Sales in Yombo Dovya_____ 153 Photo 5-3 Household-Based Sale of Groundwater at Kiwalani_______ 154 Photo 5-4 Queuing at Public Standpipe in Tandika________________ 156 Photo 5-5 DAWASA-Operated Water Sales Point at Temeke _______ 157 Photo 5-6 Water Vendors with Pushcarts Waiting for Customers at Temeke ____________________ 158 Photo 5-7 Water Vendor by His Shared Rental Accommodation and Neighbors at Ubungo ______________________________
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