Introduction to Anatomy &

Chapter 1 How to Study This Course? For the lecture part of this course, you must • Attend classes • Take extensive notes (or use the study guide) • Set time aside each day to review • Select study tools in Pearson Mastering website • Test your learning by completing practice quizzes and assignments inPearson Mastering website What is Anatomy & Physiology? Anatomy: Study of body structures. Studying the structure of the heart, lungs, kidneys, muscle tissue, cells. Physiology: Study of body functions. What does the heart do? How does it beat? How does it pump blood?

To study human body: You can directly study human body. OR you can study other animals and learn by comparison…comparative anatomy and comparative physiology. Branches of Anatomy….Remember Structure! Anatomy

Gross/Macroscopic Microscopic . Surface anatomy- External features of the body (skin, hair) .Histology – structure of tissues (muscle, nervous, bone tissue) . . Regional Anatomy - Different structures Cytology – structure of cells (blood cells, bone cells, skin cells) in a specific region (head, neck) .Histopathology –tissue changes associated with diseases . Systemic Anatomy – different organ systems (digestive, urinary, nervous) Human Body

. Developmental Anatomy – structural changes associated with the development (zygote  embryo  Organ systems fetus  newborn  child  adult  old age)

. Pathological Anatomy – structural changes Organs associated with a disease (cancer, infections)

. Radiographical Anatomy – structure of internal Tissues organs using X-ray, gamma-rays

. Surgical Anatomy – structures important for surgery (location of blood vessels and nerves) Cells Branches of Physiology….Remember Function! Cellular Physiology: Study functions of cells or cell parts….WBC, mitochondria, nucleus. Systemic Physiology: Study functions of different organ systems….respiratory, digestive systems. Pathophysiology: Functional changes associated with diseases…changes in respiratory functions due to lung cancer. Neurophysiology: Functions of nervous system….function of brain and its parts. Immunology: Study of body’s defense system. Exercise Physiology: Functional changes associated with exercising. : Study produced by the body. Characteristics of Human Body 1. Human body is very complex and very organized Human Body - Systems

Human body is made of 11 systems: • Integumentary • Skeletal AP1 • Muscular • Nervous • Endocrine • Respiratory • Cardiovascular • Lymphatic AP2 • Digestive • Urinary • Reproductive Human Body – Integumentary System (1)

Major parts: Skin, hair, nails, glands

Functions: Protects against infections, UV Helps regulate body temperature Senses changes in environment Helps in vitamin D production Human Body – Skeletal System (2)

Major parts: Bones, cartilage, ligaments, bone marrow

Functions: Maintains body shape Supports the body Protects organs Helps in body movements Stores minerals and fat Makes blood cells in bone marrow (Hemopoiesis) Human Body – Muscular System (3)

Major parts: Skeletal muscles, tendons

Functions: Maintains body posture Helps in body movements Generates heat and helps in temperature regulation Human Body – Nervous System (4)

Major parts: Brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, nerves

Functions: Detects changes in internal and external environment Integrates information Helps in responding to the changes Help maintain Human Body – (5)

Major parts: Endocrine glands

Functions: Produce hormones Regulate homeostasis, metabolism, growth, reproduction Human Body – Cardiovascular System (6)

Major parts: Heart, blood vessels, blood

Functions: Transport gases, nutrients to body cells Transport waste products for excretion Protects body against infections Helps regulate temperature, water and pH Human Body – Lymphatic System (7)

Major parts: Lymphatic organs/tissues, lymphatic vessels, lymph

Functions: Protects body against infections Help maintain tissue fluid and blood volume Help absorb fat from intestines Human Body – Respiratory System (8)

Major parts: Nose, voice box, lungs

Functions: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide Sense of smell Sound production Human Body – Digestive System (9)

Major parts: Gastrointestinal tract, salivary glands, , liver, gall bladder

Functions: Ingestion of food of food Absorption of food Secretion of digestive fluids Excretion of wastes Human Body – Urinary System (10)

Major parts: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Functions: Excretion of nitrogenous wastes Regulation of water levels Regulation of ions and pH Regulation of blood cell production Human Body – Reproductive System (11) Homeostasis-State of internal balance Homeostasis: Maintaining internal environment within physiological limits. Maintaining water, pH, blood sugar, oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature.

Two regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis:

A. Auto/internal regulation – cells or organs themselves make the changes in response to changes in external environment.

Example: if cells do not get sufficient oxygen  they release chemicals  vasodilation  increased blood supply  increased oxygen supply.

B. Extrinsic regulation – two systems start a chain of events to help the body adjust: 1. Nervous system: 2. Endocrine system: Homeostasis Two regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis: B. Extrinsic regulation – two systems start a chain of events to help the body adjust: 1. Nervous system: directs quick, short term response

Example: When you accidentally touch a hot stove  heat causes painful localized disturbance of homeostasis  brain and spinal cord send commands to specific muscles to contract  you pull your hand away from the stove

2. Endocrine system: directs slower, long term response

Special glands secrete hormones that travel through blood to go to target organs or cells where the response must occur.

Example: When you eat a candy bar  rises  pancreas (gland) is stimulated  secretes ()  insulin travels through blood  stimulates liver to store sugar  blood sugar level drops. Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism

How do nervous system and endocrine system maintain homeostasis?

Through feedback mechanism-A cycle of events that monitor, evaluate, make changes, and regulate body conditions/homeostasis 3 main parts of homeostatic regulatory mechanism:-

1) RECEPTORS- Sensitive to a particular stimulus/ environmental change

2) CONTROL CENTER- Process information from Receptors and sends out commands

3) EFFECTORS- Receives commands from Control Center and enhances/reduces the intensity of original stimulus Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism Example 1: temperature regulation (thermoregulation). When it gets hot outside body absorbs heat body temperature rises receptors in the skin are stimulated impulses are sent to the brain (control center) brain sends impulses to the sweat glands (effector) in the skin glands secrete sweat sweat evaporates cooling occurs body temperature drops impulses are sent to brain sweating stops Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism There are 2 types of feedback mechanisms:

1. mechanism-

Example 1: thermoregulation

Example 2: blood sugar regulation. Eat a candy bar  blood sugar rises  pancreas secrete insulin  insulin travels to liver  liver stores blood sugar  blood sugar level goes down to bring it closer to the set point. Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism 2. Positive feedback mechanism- Less common mechanism in the body. The response enhances the original stimulus….for greater response!

Example 1: childbirth process.

Example 2: breast feeding. Similarly, more a baby suckles  more oxytocin is released  more milk is released by the mammary gland. Less suckling  less oxytocin  less milk. Homeostasis – If Not Maintained Infections, injuries or genetic defects  internal environment (homeostasis) is pushed outside the normal range  specific body functions are affected.

Moderate change in homeostasis  disorder/disease. Severe change in homeostasis  death.

Disease: illness due to infection, environment, dietary problems…not inherited. Disorder: illness due to inherited or metabolic issues. Syndrome: a disorder that affects several systems and functions of the body.

Local disease/disorder: that affects only specific areas of the body. Systemic disease/disorder: affects larger areas or entire body.

Epidemiology: study of diseases…when, where, why, how, in who? Pharmacology: the affects and use of drugs for diseases. Terminology Terminology is cumbersome but essential to communicate precise information.

Anatomical position: a standard position that is generally used as a reference. Erect where the person is presumed to be standing upright, facing the observer, feet flat on the ground…pointing forward, arms hanging on the sides, open palms…facing forward with thumb pointing away from the body. Prone- where a person is lying face down. Supine- where a person is lying face up….on the spine! Terminology Terminology is cumbersome but essential to communicate precise information.

Learn basic terminologies that are used as/for: Regional terms Directional terms Planes and sections Body cavities Membranes Terminology – Regional Terms

Frontal or Anterior view forehead Nasal or nose Posterior view Ocular, orbital or eye

Cranial or skull Cephalic Cephalic or head or head Facial or face Cervical Cervical Oral or mouth or neck or neck Thoracic or thorax, chest Axillary or armpit Mammary or breast Brachial or arm Abdominal Trunk Upper (abdomen) limb Umbilical or navel Lumbar Pelvic or loin (pelvis)

Gluteal Inguinal or buttock or groin Lower limb

Terms used for specific parts of the body. Terminology – Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Right Upper Left Upper Quadrant Quadrant (RUQ) (LUQ)

Right Lower Left Lower Quadrant Quadrant (RLQ) (LLQ)

Right upper quadrant Abdominopelvic region has a lot of organs. Right lower quadrant For simplicity, the region is divided into 4 quadrants: Left upper quadrant Left lower quadrant Terminology – Directional Terms Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head) The head is superior to the knee. Superior Cranial or Cephalic Toward the head The cranial, or cephalic, border of Terms used to locate the pelvis is superior to the thigh. one structure in Proximal reference to another Toward an attached base The shoulder is structure. proximal to the wrist. Posterior or Dorsal Anterior or Ventral Posterior: The back Anterior: The front surface surface Dorsal: The back. Ventral: The belly (equivalent to posterior side. (equivalent to when referring to the anterior when human body) referring to the human The scapula (shoulder body) blade) is located The umbilicus (navel) posterior is on the Lateral Medial to the rib cage. anterior (or ventral) Away Toward surface of the trunk. from the the midline midline Proximal

Caudal Distal Toward the tail; Away from an (coccyx in attached base humans) The fingers are The hips are distal to the caudal to the wrist. waist.

OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS Superficial Distal At, near, or relatively close to the body surface The skin is superficial to underlying structures.

Deep Toward the interior of the body; farther from the surface The bone of the thigh is deep to the surrounding skeletal a Anterior view b Lateral view muscles.

Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet The knee is inferior to the hip. Inferior Terminology – Planes & Sections

To understand 3D structure of the body.

Plane: an imaginary cut/view…as done in MRI or CT scan.

Section: an actual cut/slice…as done in dissections. Terminology – Planes & Sections Frontal or coronal plane

Plane is oriented parallel to long axis A frontal, or coronal, section separates anterior and posterior portions of the body. Coronal usually refers to sections passing through the skull. Directional term: frontally or coronally Terminology – Planes & Sections Sagittal plane

Plane is oriented parallel to long axis

A sagittal section separates right and left portions. You examine a sagittal section, but you section sagittally. In a midsagittal section, the plane passes through the midline. It separates the body into equal right and left sides.

A parasagittal section misses the midline. It separates the body into unequal right and left sides. Terminology – Planes & Sections

Transverse/Horizontal plane

Plane is oriented perpendicular to long axis

A transverse, or cross, section separates superior and inferior portions of the body.

Directional term: transversely or horizontally Terminology – Body Cavities

POSTERIOR Body has several spaces/cavities. Most are fluid filled…some have just space or have organs. Two main body cavities:-Dorsal cavity & Ventral cavity

A. Posterior (dorsal) cavity- confined to the back of the body. Cranial cavity: formed by cranial bones… contains brain. Vertebral cavity: formed by the vertebrae… contains spinal cord. Terminology – Body Cavities POSTERIOR B. Anterior (ventral) cavity- located towards the front of the body.

Ventral cavity A. Mediastinum Thoracic B. Pleural cavity (lungs) Diaphragm C. Pericardial cavity (heart Abdomino- pelvic

Abdominopelvic cavity: cavity below the diaphragm.

Abdominal cavity: contains , liver, gall bladder, pancreas, part of small and large intestines.

Pelvic cavity: contains part of small, large intestines, urinary and reproductive. Terminology – Other Body Cavities

Oral cavity: mouth cavity. Nasal cavity: nose cavity. Digestive cavity: cavity in the stomach, intestines. Orbital cavity: in which eyeball is located. Middle ear cavity: contains ear bones. Synovial cavity: in the joints. Terminology – Membranes

ANTERIOR

Visceral pericardium Pericardial Heart cavity Pericardial Heart cavity Pleural cavity Right Parietal lung Parietal pleura Left pericardium lung Mediastinum

Spinal cord

POSTERIOR Membranes: sheaths that cover organs or line certain cavities…mostly in pairs: Parietal- outer membrane. Visceral- inner, closer to the organ….fluid between the 2 cavities Parietal and visceral pleural membranes…pleural cavity...pleurisy. Parietal and visceral pericardial membranes…pericardial cavity...pericarditis. Parietal and visceral peritoneal membranes…peritoneal cavity...peritonitis.