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Human Regulation

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Human Regulation Human Regulation Coordination and Control Regulation in Humans • Controlled by 2 systems – Nervous System - electrical – Endocrine System – chemical • Both systems respond to and send messages throughout the body Human Nervous System Central and Peripheral A General Sense… An Overview of the Nervous System: Peripheral Nervous Central Nervous System System -Brain -Spinal Cord Sensory Neurons Motor Neurons -carry messages -carry signals towards spinal cord away from CNS from sensory receptors Somatic System: Autonomic System: Voluntary Nerves Visceral, Involuntary --neurons control --heart, blood vessels, skeletal muscles digestive organs, smooth muscle Sympathetic Division --“fight or flight” Parasympathetic --activated by stress Division: --Routine Nervous System Cells • Called neurons • Neurons have long axons that enable them to transmit signals. Many neurons together are called a nerve. • Each nerve has a dorsal root (info coming into the CNS) and a ventral root (info going out from CNS to body). Anatomy of a Neuron • Cell body – main part • Dendrite – receives action potential (stimulation) from other neurons • Axon – branches from cell body, where the action potential occurs • Axon terminal – end of an axon • Myelin sheath – lipid layer for protection over neurons that allows for increase in speed of signal transmission; made by Schwann cells • Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon, where most Na+ pumps are located • Synaptic Cleft – gap between neurons; between the axon terminal of 1 neuron and the dendrite of a 2nd neuron Anatomy of a Neuron Central Nervous System (CNS) BRAIN • About 1.4 kg, 2% of body weight • About 100 billion neurons • 12 pairs of cranial nerves are connected to the human brain – Example: Pupil reflex in response to bright light, to avoid damage to retina. Nerves that control this reflex are connected to the brain. • Starts at the medulla oblongata (in the brain) • Outer area is made up Spinal Cord of the axons of motor and sensory neurons: “white matter” • Inner, rigid core made up of motor neuron cell bodies: “gray matter” • 31 pairs of spinal nerves branch out to the body • Spinal Reflexes: these don’t go to the brain, instead they go to the spinal cord— – Ex. patellar reflex Reflexes • An automatic reaction to some sense message, like pain – Don’t need to think or make decisions about something • The information gets processed in your spinal cord – Your muscles begin to react immediately even before your brain gets the news of what’s happening. – This is called a reflex arc Reflex Arc • Begins at a receptor – Sensory neurons in the skin receive a stimulus • Travels to the reflex center (spinal cord) • Ends at an effector – A muscle or gland that reacts to the stimulus Reflex Arc A pathway of nerve impulses 1. Stimulus – a change in the environment that causes a change in the body 2. Receptor – specialized organ that receives the stimulus 3. Sensory neuron – brings the stimulus to the spinal cord 4. Synapse – space between neurons 5. Interneuron – neurons in the spinal cord 6. Motor neuron – brings the stimulus from the spinal cord to the correct part of the body 7. Effector – muscle or gland that reacts to the stimulus The Patellar Reflex Peripheral Nervous System (Motor and Sensory) Motor Division: signals away from CNS • Somatic nervous system is for voluntary muscle control. These neurons control the skeletal muscles…. • Autonomic nervous system is automatic or involuntary – Control of heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, smooth muscle, etc. – This has 2 separate divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic Autonomic: Sympathetic Division & Parasympathetic Division • Sympathetic: Shunting of blood from one part of body (ex = stomach to heart) to another. Activated by physical or emotional stress. “Fight or Flight” response. • Parasympathetic: Routine life, conserves energy, heart rate lowers, digestive organs back to normal. “Rest and Ruminate” response. Autonomic NS: Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Controls Peripheral Nervous System Sensory Division • Sensory neurons carry messages toward the CNS from sensory receptors all over body. • Sensory receptors act as “energy transducers.” A transducer is a device for converting a non-electrical signal into an electrical one. In this case, the electrical signal produced is the action potential of a nerve. • Sensory receptors are in sense organs, such as eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin… and different regions of the brain respond to different signals. Types of Sensory Receptors Stimulus Type of Sensory Location Receptor Light Photoreceptors Retina Mechanical Mechanoreceptors Under the skin, inner ear Heat Thermoreceptors Hypothalamus, under the skin Pressure Baroreceptors Walls of some arteries Chemicals Chemoreceptor Mouth, nose Transmission of neural signals: How it Works… • In general, the signaling activity of the nervous system is composed of electrical activity within neurons and chemical flow between neurons. Quite a complex network! • 200 years ago… found out that a recently dead animal will still contract muscles if an electrical stimulation is sent through. Parts of the Brain • Cerebrum – Largest and most prominent – Responsible for voluntary or conscious activities of the body – Site of intelligence, learning and judgment – Divided into left and right hemispheres, which deal with opposite sides of the body – Folds and grooves on surface increase surface area – Two layered • Cerebral cortex – outer layer – gray matter – cell bodies – Processes information from the sense organs and controls body movements • Inner layer – white matter – axons w/myelin sheaths Parts of the Brain • Cerebellum – Located at the back of the skull – Coordinates and balances the actions of the muscles • Brain Stem – Connects brain and spinal cord – Includes two regions, pons and medulla oblongata • Regulates the flow of information b/w the brain and the rest of the body. • Some important body functions (heart rate, swallowing, breathing) are controlled here Parts of the Brain • Thalamus & Hypothalamus – b/w brain stem and cerebrum • Thalamus – Receives messages from sensory receptors and then relays to cerebrum • Hypothalamus – Control center for recognition and analysis of hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger and temp. – Controls coordination of nervous and endocrine systems The Endocrine System Endocrine System • A set of glands that produce hormones-- chemical messengers that circulate in the blood Hormone • Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands and circulated in the blood • Similar to neurotransmitters in that they are also messengers • Slower communication system, but with longer lasting effects Endocrine System Hypothalamus • Brain region that controls the pituitary gland • Controls homeostasis – the bodies ability to remain at a status quo level Pituitary Gland • The endocrine system’s gland that controls the other endocrine glands • Called the “master gland” • Located at the base of the brain and connects to the hypothalamus • Controls thirst by controlling the amount of water in the body’s cells • Controls female contractions, and tells the mammary glands to produce milk for newborns • May control grooming habits, companionship, and sexual behavior • Controls the flow of the human growth hormones – dwarfism and gigantism Thyroid Gland • Endocrine gland that helps regulate the energy level in the body • Located in the neck • controls body temperature • Controls metabolism – our body’s ability to transform the food we eat into usable energy • Overactive- Behaviors may include excitability, insomnia, ADD, agitation, difficulty focusing • Reduced Activity- Behaviors may include sleepiness, reduced muscle tone, overweight Adrenal Gland • Endocrine glands that help to arouse the body in times of stress • Located just above the kidneys • Release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) • Increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar Pancreatic Gland • Regulates the level of blood sugar (insulin) in the blood • Insulin is needed in the body to break down sugars in the body • Too much insulin in the body devours all of the sugar in the blood. Behaviors exhibited include sluggishness and inattentiveness. • Too little insulin causes a buildup of sugar in the blood and makes the kidneys use a lot more water to flush it out of the body. The extra water needed to flush the sugar comes from surrounding cells, which in turn dehydrates them and leaves them vulnerable to infection and poisons. Sex Glands • Ovaries (females) and testes (males) are the glands that influence emotion and physical development. • Testosterone – primary male hormone • Estrogen – primary female hormone • Males and females have both estrogen and testosterone in their systems. Gonads • Testicles – release androgens (male hormones) • Ovaries – release estrogens (female hormones) • The presence of these chemicals influence male and female reproductive characteristics. Maintaining Homeostasis • Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal state within an organism. • Organisms detect changes in their environment and respond to these changes in a variety of ways. • A feedback mechanism occurs when the level of one substance influences the level of another substance or activity of another organ. Feedback Mechanisms Three parts of the mechanism – Sensor – something that can detect a change • Ex. Structures in the brain detect change in CO2 levels – Control Unit – something that knows what the correct level should be • Ex. Information in the brain
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