Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 1 How to Study This Course? For the lecture part of this course, you must • Attend classes • Take extensive notes (or use the study guide) • Set time aside each day to review • Select study tools in Pearson Mastering website • Test your learning by completing practice quizzes and assignments inPearson Mastering website What is Anatomy & Physiology? Anatomy: Study of body structures. Studying the structure of the heart, lungs, kidneys, muscle tissue, cells. Physiology: Study of body functions. What does the heart do? How does it beat? How does it pump blood? To study human body: You can directly study human body. OR you can study other animals and learn by comparison…comparative anatomy and comparative physiology. Branches of Anatomy….Remember Structure! Anatomy Gross/Macroscopic Microscopic . Surface anatomy- External features of the body (skin, hair) .Histology – structure of tissues (muscle, nervous, bone tissue) . Regional Anatomy - Different structures Cytology – structure of cells (blood cells, bone cells, skin cells) in a specific region (head, neck) .Histopathology –tissue changes associated with diseases . Systemic Anatomy – different organ systems (digestive, urinary, nervous) Human Body . Developmental Anatomy – structural changes associated with the development (zygote embryo Organ systems fetus newborn child adult old age) . Pathological Anatomy – structural changes Organs associated with a disease (cancer, infections) . Radiographical Anatomy – structure of internal Tissues organs using X-ray, gamma-rays . Surgical Anatomy – structures important for surgery (location of blood vessels and nerves) Cells Branches of Physiology….Remember Function! Cellular Physiology: Study functions of cells or cell parts….WBC, mitochondria, nucleus. Systemic Physiology: Study functions of different organ systems….respiratory, digestive systems. Pathophysiology: Functional changes associated with diseases…changes in respiratory functions due to lung cancer. Neurophysiology: Functions of nervous system….function of brain and its parts. Immunology: Study of body’s defense system. Exercise Physiology: Functional changes associated with exercising. Endocrinology: Study hormones produced by the body. Characteristics of Human Body 1. Human body is very complex and very organized Human Body - Systems Human body is made of 11 systems: • Integumentary • Skeletal AP1 • Muscular • Nervous • Endocrine • Respiratory • Cardiovascular • Lymphatic AP2 • Digestive • Urinary • Reproductive Human Body – Integumentary System (1) Major parts: Skin, hair, nails, glands Functions: Protects against infections, UV Helps regulate body temperature Senses changes in environment Helps in vitamin D production Human Body – Skeletal System (2) Major parts: Bones, cartilage, ligaments, bone marrow Functions: Maintains body shape Supports the body Protects organs Helps in body movements Stores minerals and fat Makes blood cells in bone marrow (Hemopoiesis) Human Body – Muscular System (3) Major parts: Skeletal muscles, tendons Functions: Maintains body posture Helps in body movements Generates heat and helps in temperature regulation Human Body – Nervous System (4) Major parts: Brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, nerves Functions: Detects changes in internal and external environment Integrates information Helps in responding to the changes Help maintain homeostasis Human Body – Endocrine System (5) Major parts: Endocrine glands Functions: Produce hormones Regulate homeostasis, metabolism, growth, reproduction Human Body – Cardiovascular System (6) Major parts: Heart, blood vessels, blood Functions: Transport gases, nutrients to body cells Transport waste products for excretion Protects body against infections Helps regulate temperature, water and pH Human Body – Lymphatic System (7) Major parts: Lymphatic organs/tissues, lymphatic vessels, lymph Functions: Protects body against infections Help maintain tissue fluid and blood volume Help absorb fat from intestines Human Body – Respiratory System (8) Major parts: Nose, voice box, lungs Functions: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide Sense of smell Sound production Human Body – Digestive System (9) Major parts: Gastrointestinal tract, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder Functions: Ingestion of food Digestion of food Absorption of food Secretion of digestive fluids Excretion of wastes Human Body – Urinary System (10) Major parts: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Functions: Excretion of nitrogenous wastes Regulation of water levels Regulation of ions and pH Regulation of blood cell production Human Body – Reproductive System (11) Homeostasis-State of internal balance Homeostasis: Maintaining internal environment within physiological limits. Maintaining water, pH, blood sugar, oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature. Two regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis: A. Auto/internal regulation – cells or organs themselves make the changes in response to changes in external environment. Example: if cells do not get sufficient oxygen they release chemicals vasodilation increased blood supply increased oxygen supply. B. Extrinsic regulation – two systems start a chain of events to help the body adjust: 1. Nervous system: 2. Endocrine system: Homeostasis Two regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis: B. Extrinsic regulation – two systems start a chain of events to help the body adjust: 1. Nervous system: directs quick, short term response Example: When you accidentally touch a hot stove heat causes painful localized disturbance of homeostasis brain and spinal cord send commands to specific muscles to contract you pull your hand away from the stove 2. Endocrine system: directs slower, long term response Special glands secrete hormones that travel through blood to go to target organs or cells where the response must occur. Example: When you eat a candy bar blood sugar level rises pancreas (gland) is stimulated secretes insulin (hormone) insulin travels through blood stimulates liver to store sugar blood sugar level drops. Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism How do nervous system and endocrine system maintain homeostasis? Through feedback mechanism-A cycle of events that monitor, evaluate, make changes, and regulate body conditions/homeostasis 3 main parts of homeostatic regulatory mechanism:- 1) RECEPTORS- Sensitive to a particular stimulus/ environmental change 2) CONTROL CENTER- Process information from Receptors and sends out commands 3) EFFECTORS- Receives commands from Control Center and enhances/reduces the intensity of original stimulus Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism Example 1: temperature regulation (thermoregulation). When it gets hot outside body absorbs heat body temperature rises receptors in the skin are stimulated impulses are sent to the brain (control center) brain sends impulses to the sweat glands (effector) in the skin glands secrete sweat sweat evaporates cooling occurs body temperature drops impulses are sent to brain sweating stops Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism There are 2 types of feedback mechanisms: 1. Negative feedback mechanism- Example 1: thermoregulation Example 2: blood sugar regulation. Eat a candy bar blood sugar rises pancreas secrete insulin insulin travels to liver liver stores blood sugar blood sugar level goes down to bring it closer to the set point. Homeostasis – Feedback Mechanism 2. Positive feedback mechanism- Less common mechanism in the body. The response enhances the original stimulus….for greater response! Example 1: childbirth process. Example 2: breast feeding. Similarly, more a baby suckles more oxytocin is released more milk is released by the mammary gland. Less suckling less oxytocin less milk. Homeostasis – If Not Maintained Infections, injuries or genetic defects internal environment (homeostasis) is pushed outside the normal range specific body functions are affected. Moderate change in homeostasis disorder/disease. Severe change in homeostasis death. Disease: illness due to infection, environment, dietary problems…not inherited. Disorder: illness due to inherited or metabolic issues. Syndrome: a disorder that affects several systems and functions of the body. Local disease/disorder: that affects only specific areas of the body. Systemic disease/disorder: affects larger areas or entire body. Epidemiology: study of diseases…when, where, why, how, in who? Pharmacology: the affects and use of drugs for diseases. Terminology Terminology is cumbersome but essential to communicate precise information. Anatomical position: a standard position that is generally used as a reference. Erect where the person is presumed to be standing upright, facing the observer, feet flat on the ground…pointing forward, arms hanging on the sides, open palms…facing forward with thumb pointing away from the body. Prone- where a person is lying face down. Supine- where a person is lying face up….on the spine! Terminology Terminology is cumbersome but essential to communicate precise information. Learn basic terminologies that are used as/for: Regional terms Directional terms Planes and sections Body cavities Membranes Terminology – Regional Terms Frontal or Anterior view forehead Nasal or nose Posterior view Ocular, orbital or eye Cranial or skull Cephalic Cephalic or head or head Facial or face Cervical Cervical Oral or mouth or neck or neck Thoracic or thorax, chest Axillary or armpit Mammary or breast Brachial or arm Abdominal Trunk Upper (abdomen) limb Umbilical or navel Lumbar Pelvic or loin