DOCSLIB.ORG

Candaules' Wife

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Candaules' Wife chapter 3 Herodotus on Stage: The Modern Greek Play “Candaules’ Wife” by Margarita Liberaki Ariadne Konstantinou1 While the Greek historian Herodotus is no doubt remembered today as the “father of history”, having bequeathed us with his Histories in nine books, nar- rating the events that culminate with the war between the Greeks and the Per- sians, it requires no professional reader of the Histories today to recognize that the work is infused with digressions that a modern historian might choose not to include in a historiographical work. These stories are often of geographi- cal, ethnological, anthropological or similar nature. The digressions have long been thought as central enough to merit an independent discussion on their role within the Herodotean oeuvre as a whole. One such story, in fact the first one in the Histories, is also the story about the Lydian king Candaules, his wife, and his bodyguard Gyges. The story appears after the proem in book one (1.6-12), as the first story of the Lydian logos (1.6-94), which focuses on King Croesus.2 Candaules, the Lydian king of the Heraclid dynasty, falls in love with his own wife.3 He urges Gyges, his favorite bodyguard, to see her naked so he may believe his claim. At Candaules’ orders, Gyges hides behind the door of the royal bedchamber. Yet, after he has seen the queen naked, the queen catches sight of Gyges while he exits. She recognizes the plot against her, and decides to get back at her husband. The following day she summons Gyges and gives him the option to either die, or kill Candaules, take her as his new wife, and become the Lydian 1 All translations from Ancient and Modern Greek are my own. Translations from Liberaki’s play aim at clarity rather than elegance, and by no means attempt to convey literary and theatrical nuances of the original. I am thankful to Nikiforos Papandreou for supplying me with a copy of Theatrika Tetradia 31 and the permission to reproduce a photo from the 1997 performance of Η γυναίκα του Κανδαύλη by the Πειραματική Σκηνή της Τέχνης in Thessaloniki http://www.piramatikiskini.gr, directed by Nikos Chatzipapas. 2 For a concise introduction to Herodotus’ Book 1, see David Asheri, Alan Lloyd, and Aldo Corcella, A Commentary on Herodotus. Books i–iv (trans. Barbara Graziosi, Matteo Rossetti, Carlotta Dus, and Vanessa Cazzato) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007) 59–71, including a summary at 69–71. 3 Herodotus 1.8.1: οὗτος δὴ ὦν ὁ Kανδαύλης ἠράσθη τῆς ἑωυτοῦ γυναικός, “Now this Candaules fell in love with his own wife”. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���7 | doi �0.��63/97890043477�4_005 <UN> 78 Konstantinou ruler. After some hesitation, Gyges chooses to murder his master. According to the queen’s plan, he is to hide in their bedchamber, behind the same door he was hidden the night before, and kill Candaules in his sleep with a knife. And thus was done. Gyges took the queen as his wife, became the ruler of Lydia for thirty-eight years, and the power passed on to the dynasty of the Mermnadae, who ruled for five generations, until the reign of Croesus. The story of Candaules, his wife and Gyges has been popular from antiquity onwards. It is a story of voyeurism and vengeance, and the main figures are placed before a moral choice, whose outcome exposes both the virtues and the vices of their characters. As such, the story has sparkled the imagination of generations of readers and artists, and Herodotus’ narrative served as the source for many subsequent treatments from antiquity until today. A some- what different version of the story, in which only Gyges appears, is also told in Plato’s Republic (359d-360b), and other ancient authors treated the subject as well.4 In 1950, scholars identified a papyrus fragment unearthed in Egypt as belonging to a “Gyges-tragedy”.5 While some classicists argue that the play may be from the period of Aeschylus, and hence might predate Herodotus, others date it to the fourth century bce or the Hellenistic period, in which case Herodotus might have served as one of its sources. This later dating seems to have become the consensus view today, though some scholars still prefer not to take a stance on the debate, mainly because the preserved fragment is so short. The story as it appears in Herodotus is of course written in prose, yet, as it has already been argued, its direct speeches, structure, and moral dilemma seem to resemble ancient Greek tragedies and their division into episodes.6 4 On Plato’s version, see Andrew Laird, “Ringing the Changes on Gyges: Philosophy and the Formation of Fiction in Plato’s Republic”, Journal of Hellenic Studies 121 (2001) 12–29. Addi- tional ancient references to Gyges include Archilochus fr. 19 (quoted by Plutarch), Nicolaus of Damascus FGrHist 90 F 47, and Photius, Bibliotheca, codex 190, which preserves several alternative names for Herodotus’ unnamed queen: Nysia, Klytia, and Abro. 5 For the text and its dating, see TrGF ii Adespota F 664. For a comparison of the fragment and Herodotus’ story, see Roger Travis, “The Spectation of Gyges in P. Oxy. 2382 and Herodotus Book 1”, Classical Antiquity 19 (2000) 330–59. On Herodotus and tragedy more generally, see Suzanne Said, “Herodotus and Tragedy”, in Brill’s Companion to Herodotus (eds.), Egbert J. Bakker, Irene J.F. De Jong, and Hans Van Wees (Leiden: Brill, 2002) 117–47, especially at 132–4 (on the “Gyges-tragedy”), and Jasper Griffin, “Herodotus and Tragedy”, in Carolyn Dewald and John Marincola (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 46–59. 6 On dramatic elements in the Lydian logos, including in the story of Candaules and Gyges, see Charles C. Chiasson, “Herodotus’ Use of Attic Tragedy in the Lydian Logos”, Classical Antiq- uity 22 (2003) 5–35, especially at 19–24. <UN>.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Waiting for Solon: Audience Expectations in Herodotus ∗
    Histos () – WAITING FOR SOLON: AUDIENCE EXPECTATIONS IN HERODOTUS ∗ Abstract: In this article, I focus not so much on what Solon actually says and does in his conversation with Croesus, but on what Herodotus’ readers, as well as Croesus himself, think Solon might say or do. I argue that Herodotus uses analogous episodes, those of Gyges, Candaules, and Candaules’ wife, of Arion and Periander, and of Bias/Pittacus and Croesus, to shape readers’ expectations of Solon’s conversation with Croesus, but he then subverts many of those expectations within the conversation itself. In so doing, Herodotus emphasises the programmatic function for the Histories of much of what Solon tells Croesus. Keywords: Herodotus, Arion, artistic patronage, audience expectations, Candaules, Croesus, Seven Sages, Solon cholars have long recognised the programmatic quality that the encounter between Solon and Croesus (.– ) has for Herodotus’ S Histories .1 Croesus’ importance alone for Herodotus’ work cannot be underestimated. In a sense, Herodotus begins the Histories with Croesus; he follows the story of Croesus and the Lydian Mermnad dynasty from its beginning with Gyges’ murder of Candaules all the way to its conclusion with Croesus’ defeat by the Persian king Cyrus. Croesus also occupies a primary position in the Histories as the first in the line of great eastern imperialists that culminates with the Persian Xerxes. On the one hand, the Solon–Croesus episode foreshadows Croesus’ impending downfall. On the other hand, the episode reflects many of Herodotus’ chief thematic concerns: the conflict between East and West and the clash between different cultures in general; the mutability of human fortune and the gods’ jealousy of human excess; the wise advisor motif and the challenge of acquiring knowledge.
    [Show full text]
  • The Median Logos of Herodotus and the Persians' Legitimate Rule of Asia1
    Iranica Antiqua, vol. XLVIII, 2013 doi: 10.2143/IA.48.0.2184701 THE MEDIAN LOGOS OF HERODOTUS AND THE PERSIANS’ LEGITIMATE RULE OF ASIA1 BY Antigoni ZOURNATZI (The National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens) Abstract: In Histories 1.95-130, in a narrative about Cyrus the Great and the rise of the Persians to the hegemony of Asia attributed to Persian sources, Herodotus relates how the rule of (Upper) Asia, first held by the Assyrians, passed to Persian hands following Cyrus’ conquest of the Medes, whose power had grown to encom- pass the near-entirety of the territories formerly controlled by the Assyrians. This representation of Persian rule over Asia as a successor to former Assyrian and Median regimes, which is also attested in Ctesias, has long been presumed to reflect a Persian view of history that sought to promote the legitimacy of Persian imperial rule as heir to preceding major Near Eastern powers. On the other hand, one long-traditional view of Herodotean historiography has continued to hold that this interpretation of the history of Asia could have been, more than anything else, a reflection of Greek, possibly Herodotean, historical thought. This paper aims to clarify some of the historiographic ambiguities that have so far stood in the way of a straightforward recognition of the historical sequence of three Asiatic kingdoms as a Persian construct. Keywords: Herodotus, Medes, Persia, legitimacy, kingship, Asia 1 The present paper constitutes a summary announcement of results of the author’s research on the impact of Persian rhetoric on sources for the emergence of the Persian empire.
    [Show full text]
  • Cutting the Gordian Knot. the Iconography of Megaron 2 at Gordion
    Cutting the Gordian knot. The iconography of Megaron 2 at Gordion Berndt Ersöz, Susanne Published in: Opuscula: Annual of the Swedish Institutes At Athens and Rome 2015 Document Version: Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Berndt Ersöz, S. (2015). Cutting the Gordian knot. The iconography of Megaron 2 at Gordion. Opuscula: Annual of the Swedish Institutes At Athens and Rome, 8, 85-108. Total number of authors: 1 General rights Unless other specific re-use rights are stated the following general rights apply: Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal Read more about Creative commons licenses: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. LUND UNIVERSITY PO Box 117 221 00 Lund +46 46-222 00 00 SVENSKA INSTITUTEN I ATHEN OCH ROM INSTITUTUM ATHENIENSE ATQUE INSTITUTUM ROMANUM REGNI SUECIAE Opuscula Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome 8 2015 STOCKHOLM SUSANNE BERNDT Cutting the Gordian knot The iconography of Megaron 2 at Gordion Abstract* and other iconographic material.
    [Show full text]
  • Nakedness and Sanctity
    nakedness and sanctity 1 nakedness and sanctity The Gartel by Shoshana Brombacher "Men see with the eyes, but Hashem sees into the heart." I Sam 16:7 The prophet Achiah of Shilo used to visit young Israel ben Eliezer -- later known as the Baal Shem Tov, "Master of the Good Name" -- to teach him the secrets of Torah. And one time Israel used the kabbalistic knowledge he had learned to cross the river Dniester: he threw his gartel (belt) on the water, uttered a secret Name, and crossed dry and safe. But all his life he repented for having used the holy Name of G-d for his own convenience. After years, the Master of the Name stood in front of a river again. But this time Jew- haters were at his heels, ready to maim and kill him. Again he threw his belt on the water and he crossed safe and dry. But he didn't use a Name, just his absolute trust in G-d. And that was enough. The Chassidic explanation for donning a gartel goes along the following lines: the very thought that a soul garbed in physicality and corporeality would consider entreating the Omnipresent, Omnipotent and Unlimited is inconceivable. As a basic prerequisite to prayer, one must first leave one's own boundaries and free oneself from all existing limitations. While throughout the various stages of davening, one ascends the different rungs on the ladder of spirituality, the sine-qua-non of davening is the act of shtellen zich davenen (getting into davening mode). Gearing up for prayer is represented by the gartel - the classical davening gear.
    [Show full text]
  • Negotiating Femininity As Spectacle Within the Victorian Cultural Sphere
    CRACKED MIRRORS AND PETRIFYING VISION: NEGOTIATING FEMININITY AS SPECTACLE WITHIN THE VICTORIAN CULTURAL SPHERE by LUCINDA IRESON A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham November 2013 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Taking as it basis the longstanding alignment of men with an active, eroticised gaze and women with visual spectacle within Western culture, this thesis demonstrates the prevalence of this model during the Victorian era, adopting an interdisciplinary approach so as to convey the varied means by which the gendering of vision was propagated and encouraged. Chapter One provides an overview of gender and visual politics in the Victorian age, subsequently analysing a selection of texts that highlight this gendered dichotomy of vision. Chapter Two focuses on the theoretical and developmental underpinnings of this dichotomy, drawing upon both Freudian and object relations theory. Chapters Three and Four centre on women’s poetic responses to this imbalance, beginning by discussing texts that convey awareness and discontent before moving on to examine more complex portrayals of psychological trauma.
    [Show full text]
  • ANNICK PAYNE Hesychius' Lydian Glosses I
    DOI: https://doi.org/10.13130/1972-9901/15416 ANNICK PAYNE Hesychius’ Lydian Glosses I ABSTRACT: The historical distance between Hesychius, whose life dates (approx. AD 500) are only a rough estimate, and the Lydian Empire amounts to over a millennium, and a similar distance separates his work from the oldest surviving manuscript at the Marciana Library in Venice. The Hesychian lexicon contains a number of glosses referring to the Lydians which have been particularly badly understood, and therefore have been subject to emendation throughout their reception history. This unpromising situation is slowly improving due to continued work on the Lydian language and surviving inscriptions. The present article addresses a selection of Lydian glosses preserved in the Marciana manuscript. KEYWORDS: Hesychius, Lexicon, glosses, Lydian, Anatolia. 1. Introduction The work entitled Ἡσυχίου γραμματικοῦ Ἀλεξανδρέως συναγωγὴ πασῶν λέξεων κατὰ στοιχεῖον ἐκ τῶν Ἀριστάρχου καὶ Ἀπίωνος καὶ Ἡλιοδώρου was based mainly on an earlier lexicon by Diogenianus, a second century AD grammarian from Heraclea Pontia, as stated in the dedicatory letter to Eulogius. Hesychius’ lexicon survives in a sole manuscript of 439 folios from the 15th century AD, conserved in the Libreria Marciana in Venice.1 The mention of a second manuscript, thought to have existed in the Laurentian Library, Florence, is circumstantial. Alter (1796: 293) cites as evidence a handwritten note from the 1521 Hagenau edition, formerly the property of the historian and Greek scholar Peter Lambeck (1628–1680) from Hamburg.2 According * The author would like to thank Ettore Cingano for help with access to the MS, Geraldina Rozzi for procuring additional pictures.
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to Ancient Historiography Herodotus, The
    An Introduction to Ancient Historiography Herodotus, the Histories G. C. Macaulay trans. (1890) E. E Garvin ed. (2014). Book One The results of the inquiries1 of Herodotus of Halicarnassus are herein set for public display,2 to the end that neither the deeds of men may be forgotten by lapse of time, nor the works great and marvellous, both those which have been produced by Greeks and those by Barbarians, may lose their renown; and especially that the causes may be remembered for which these waged war with one another.3 The Abduction Logos i. 1 - 5. 1. [1] The Persian storytellers say4 that the Phoenicians first began the quarrel. These, they say, came from the sea which is called the Erythraian5 to this sea of ours; and having settled in the land where they continue even now to dwell, set themselves immediately to make long voyages by sea. And conveying merchandise of Egypt and of Assyria they arrived at other places and also at Argos; [2] now Argos was at that time in all points the first of the States within that land which is now called Hellas;6 the Phoenicians arrived then at this land of Argos, and began to dispose of their ship's cargo. [3] And on the fifth or sixth day after they had arrived, when their goods had 1 The results of inquiries, historia (ἱστορίης), is the term by which the work was named, and which became the modern term for the past, investigations into the past, and books about the past. 2 According to the standard manuscripts.
    [Show full text]
  • "Candaules, Whom the Greeks Name Myrsilus ... " J
    EVANS, J. A. S., "Candaules whom the Greeks name Myrsilus..." , Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 26:3 (1985:Autumn) p.229 "Candaules, whom the Greeks name Myrsilus ... " J. A. S. Evans ANDAULES, whom the Greeks name Myrsi/us, tyrant of the Sar­ C dians, was a descendant of Alcaeus, the son of Heracles. Thus Herodotus 0.7.2) introduces us to the story of Gyges and Candaules' wife. His is the earliest surviving version, though the tale found in Nicolaus of Damascus,} who names Candaules (S)adyattes, probably goes back to Xanthus of Lydia and may be earlier and based on more authentic sources. The question of priority became a lively one with the publication of P.Oxy. XXIII 2382,2 a literary text in three columns. The second of these yields sixteen iambic trimeters that can be read with confidence as part of a speech in which both Candaules and Gyges are mentioned; Candaules' wife, it appears, is addressing a chorus. Scholars have long suspected that the Croesus­ logos would make a good dramatic trilogy,3 and, with few dissenters, the new text was promptly identified as a tragedy.4 The question of date has been more controversial: Lobel, Page, and Raubitschek5 argued for the first half of the fifth century, but most have followed Latte and Kamerbeek6 in dating the drama after Herodotus; Latte even suggested that it might belong to the Alexandrian Pleias. The argument for a pre-Herodotean date, however, has been revived by 1 FGrHist 90F47~ c.f 1. G. Pedley, Ancient Literary Sources on Sardis (Cambridge [Mass.] 1972) no.
    [Show full text]
  • Gyges' Choice Rationality and Visibility
    [Working draft. Please do not circulate or cite without author’s permission] Gyges’ Choice Rationality and visibility Josiah Ober Chapter 1 of The Greeks and the Rational (book in progress, provisional title) Draft of 2019.0902 Word count (w/ notes and bibliography): 20,400 ABSTRACT: In Republic book 2 Plato’s Glaucon offers a reformulation, via the thought experiment of “Gyges and the ring,” of an ancient Greek folk theory of practical reasoning – a coherent account of human deliberation, choice, and action that deductively yields explanations and predictions about behavior. The theory bears a family resemblance to contemporary (20th/21st c.) normative and descriptive theories of rational choice, in its motivating intuitions and in the habit of illustrating abstractions through fanciful stories and historical narratives. It assumed that a rational agent would have ordered preferences over outcomes and beliefs about the state of the world, and that such an agent would act accordingly, based on expectations of desire satisfaction. Plato’s thought experiment is based on an anecdote in Herodotus’ Histories (book 1) describing how Gyges became king of Lydia. Plato’s account concerns unconstrained choice and is modeled by a simple decision tree. Herodotus’ earlier story, lacking the conceit of an invisibility ring, emphasized the constraints on individual desire satisfaction that arise from others’ choices; it can be modeled as a three-player game in extensive form. Pages 1-6 are from an Introduction chapter, in progress. To speak of practical reason as a “discovery” invites comparison to Molière’s disingenuous M. Jourdain in Le bougeois gentilhomme (1670: act 2, scene 6): “Well, what do you know about that! These forty years now I've been speaking in prose without knowing it!”1 Molière’s renowned send-up of the pretensions of 17th century French intellectuals reminds us that the Greeks (and others) were quite capable of employing reason in pursuit of their goals long before the instrumental uses of rationality became a subject of theoretical inquiry.
    [Show full text]
  • Gendered Truth-Telling in Herodotus
    Syracuse University SURFACE Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects Projects Spring 5-2017 Modesty and Manliness: Gendered Truth-Telling in Herodotus Jennifer Shulman Syracuse University Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/honors_capstone Part of the English Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Shulman, Jennifer, "Modesty and Manliness: Gendered Truth-Telling in Herodotus" (2017). Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects. 1017. https://surface.syr.edu/honors_capstone/1017 This Honors Capstone Project is brought to you for free and open access by the Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Modesty and Manliness: Gendered Truth-Telling in Herodotus A Capstone Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Renée Crown University Honors Program at Syracuse University Jennifer Shulman Candidate for Bachelor of Arts and Renée Crown University Honors May 2017 Honors Capstone Project in Classics Capstone Project Advisor: __________________________ Jeff Carnes, Associate Professor, Classics and Classics Program Coordinator Capstone Project Reader: ___________________________ Craige Champion, Professor, History Honors Director: _________________________________ Stephen Kuusisto, Director Date: April 26, 2017 © Jennifer Shulman (April 26, 2017) ii Abstract In the Histories, Herodotus fashions himself as the first historian as he chronicles the saga of the Persian Wars. Although he tries to base his narrative solely on fact, Herodotus must dip into the realm of oral tradition, folklore and myth in order fill the gaps of recorded history. In doing this, Herodotus takes on the roles of both author and historian.
    [Show full text]
  • 11 Nediger and Otsason.Pdf
    Chicago Open 2018: The spice must flow Edited by Auroni Gupta, Jacob Reed, Will Holub-Moorman, Jordan Brownstein, Seth Teitler, Eliza Grames, and Joey Goldman, with contributions by Stephen Eltinge, Matt Jackson, JinAh Kim, Raynor Kuang, Dennis Loo, Rohith Nagari, Sriram Pendyala, and Victor Prieto Packet by xtra thicc description (Will Nediger, Rafael Krichevsky, Kurtis Droge, and Will Alston); and by Cornelia pointing to her children as her juuls (Jay Misuk, Rein Otsason, Derek So, and Joe Su) Tossups 1. Individuals with mutations of a protein in this family may suffer from hypomyelination, hypodontia, and ​ hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in a condition aptly named “4H syndrome.” The activity of these enzymes can be measured by incubating cells with BrUTP with sarkosyl in a run-on assay. Selectivity factor 1 is crucial to the recruitment of the fastest enzyme in this family, whose products have their “spacers” cleaved by C/D and H/ACA box molecules. 52 repeats of the heptapeptide YSPTSPS make up the (*) carboxy-terminal ​ domain of the best-characterized enzyme in this family, in which the pattern of phosphorylation of the two serine residues determines if the enzyme is IIA [“two A”] or IIO [“two O”]. These enzymes act without physically moving in a ​ ​ ​ ​ process called “scrunching” that takes place during “abortive initiation.” After losing contact with the -10 and -35 elements in promoters of these proteins at the end of elongation, the sigma factors dissociate from these complexes. For 10 points, name this family of enzymes that initiates transcription. ANSWER: RNA polymerase [accept more specific answers like RNA pol IIA; prompt on polymerase or Pol] ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ <Biology> 2.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ring of Gyges
    THE RING OF GYGES In The Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche argues that "the mind of early man was preoccupied to such an extent with price-making . that in a certain sense this may be said to have constituted his thinking."' A fundamental change in price-making constitutes a fundamental change in thinking. The development of money was such a change. Although minting was not a great technological innovation, money informed a powerful revolution in economic and verbal media.2 The genealogy of the money form is the study of a new logic that is the money of the mind. In this chapter, we shall study the "constitutional" rela- tionship between the origin of money and the origin of philosophy itself. To the Greeks the exact place and time of the introduction of coin- age was uncertain. Their genetic explanations of coinage do not de- pend, however, on exactitude of chronological and geographic data. They focus instead on hypothetical or mythical periods during which they suppose money to have originated. Wishing to discuss the ef- fects of coinage and the relationship between money and the mind, the ancient Greeks chose many different birth places, times, and event^.^ Their quarrel about the origin of coinage, however, is a de- 1. Friedrich Nietzsche, "Zur Genealogie der Moral," in Werke in drei Banden (Munich, 1955), 2: 811; trans. F. Golffing, The Birth of Tragedy and the Genealogy of Morals (New York, 1956), p. 202. 2. Coined money was not a technological breakthrough, but rather the culmination of several developments (Babylonian credit, metal-stamping, etc.).
    [Show full text]