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EFFECTS OF CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION ON ELEMENTARY STUDENTS' ABILITY TO RECALL, INTERPRET AND GIVE MEANING TO JAMAICAN WORKS OF ART

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Hazel Loraine Bradshaw-Beaumont, Dip., M. Sc. *****

The Ohio State University 1995

Dissertation Committee Approved By Vesta Daniel Jacqueline Chanda Arthur Efland Advisor Department of Art Education UMI Number: 9544517

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Copyright by Hazel Loraine Bradshaw Beaumont 1995 To the Development of Art Education in my Country JAMAICA and To my family, especially my darling son SADIKI

11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This has been a very challenging time for me and I would like to thank several individuals who have supported me both physically and emotionally throughout the last three years. Firstly, I would like to thank God for giving me health and strength to endure the trials and pain that I have endured. My immediate family, husband Glen and son Sadiki, for allowing me to be away from them for the entire duration of my course. Although I saw you both at the end of each quarter, I often wondered when the time would come so that I would be home for good. To the rest of my family thanks for all your prayers and moral support. Mom, I know I was always on your mind, when the times got rough I remembered some of your favorite words, "take it to the Lord in prayer." I know you might be thinking like I do right now, it's a pity Daddy was unable to hang around to see this day. Special thanks to my brother Khalil, his wife Ivy, and my sisters Delrose and Mauva for always being there for me. Your kind words of support were always appreciated. "Good friends are better than pocket money." For all my many friends both in Jamaica and the United States, I would like to say how much I have appreciated all that you have done for me in order to cope with this process. To Cassandra Broadus, Jan Federenko, Penny Miller, and especially Sally Shumard and Kendra Hovey, who stood by me to the very end. Dr. Michael Parsons and colleagues in the AE 795 Seminar in Dissertation Research, thanks for your comments and suggestion. For the members of the Caribbean Students Association, especially Twilla-Mae Logan, Clive Scott, Kurt Shade

111 and Garth Gardner, thanks for your support. For all my fellow Jamaicans: Mrs Norma Darlington (Principal of Shortwood Teachers College), Miss Vera Watson (Vice Principal), your support and encouragement have been greatly appreciated, and to my colleagues in the art department, Anna Cobban and Verona Barnes, thanks for your understanding over the last six months. Special thanks to Mrs Ellis the principal of Hope Valley Experimental School for granting me permission to conduct the study at the school, the class teacher Mrs. Burton, and a tremendous amount of thanks to the grade six students who participated in the study. To Marcia and David Dunn for assisting with video recording, and peer debriefing along with Verona who also assisted me several days during the duration of the study. Thanks to my informants and members of staff at the Jamaica Information Service for editing the video tapes for my study as well as providing me with valuable information. However, this process could not be completed had it not been for both help and encouragement from several of my professors. To the members of my committee: Dr. Vesta Daniel, Dr. Jacqueline Chanda, and Dr. Arthur Efland. Thanks for your suggestions, patience and encouragement. Special thanks to Dr. Chanda for her tremendous support and guidance, you have been a tower of strength for me, and to Dr. Judith Smith Koroscik, thank you for all your suggestions, especially during my general examinations and the preparation for my study. Finally I would like to say thanks to my co-workers at Shortwood Teachers College, and other colleagues in the field of art education in Jamaica especially Dr. Nadine Scott for your ideas, and words of encouragement and for seeing the need for all my endeavors.

IV VITA December 4,1956 Born - St Ann, Jamaica W. I.

1978 . Diploma in Art; Certificate in Art Education, The Edna Manley School for the Visual Arts (Formerly the Jamaica School of Art), Kingston, Jamaica

1981 M.S.Ed, Art Education/Therapy, and Certificate, Crisis Counselling, State University College of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York

1981 . Art teacher, Wolmers' High School for Girls, Kingston, Jamaica

1991-Present. Lecturer and Head of Art Department, Shortwood Teachers College, Kingston Jamaica

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Art Education

Psychology of Art in Education Dr. Judith Smith Koroscik Dr. Arthur Efland

Multicultural Education Dr. Vesta Daniel Dr. Jacqueline Chanda

Educational Research Methods Dr. Patty Lather Dr. John Kennedy

Education for the Learning Disabled Dr. Marjorie Schille Dr. Ralph Gardner TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

DEDICATION .11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .iii

VITA AND FIELDS OF STUDY .iv

LIST OF TABLES . .xii

LIST OF FIGURES . .xiii

LIST OF PLATES . .XV

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION .

Background to the Problem 1 Statement of the Problem. 5 Research Questions 6 Definition of Terms 7 Limitations of the Study . 8 Significance of the Study . 8 Summary . 9

IL HISTORY OF JAMAICA 10

Overview 10 Cultural History 10 Jamaican Art and Culture. 13 Development of Jamaican Visual Arts . 13 Religion and Jamaican Art 19 Revivalist Movement 21 Revival 21

VI CHAPTER PAGE

Pocomania . .. . .23 The Relevance of Dance as a Cultural Form . . . .25 Jonkonnu . . . .28 Bruckings . . . .30 Kumina . . . .32 The Jamaican Education System. . .54 The Transition of the Education System . . . .56 Art Education in Jamaican Schools . 57 The Infant and Basic Schools . . .57 Primary Schools . . .57 Secondary Schools . . .58 Multicultural Practices in Art Education . , . . . .60 Multicultural Content in Art Education . . . .65 Multiculturalism and the Jamaican Education System . . . .67 Summary ...... 69

m. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY. . .70

Overview ...... 70 Contextual Information and Learning . . 70 Formal and Informal Knowledge . 73 Learning Concepts . . . .74 Cognitive Development . . 74 Processing of Information . 77 Problem Solving . . .80 Recall...... 87 Interpretation . . . .90 Research Design . . . . .98 Participants and Location. . . .106 Procedures ...... 110 The Experimental Group . . .112 Task 1: Cueing . . .113 Task 2; Building Meaning . . . .113 Task 3; Building Deeper Meaning . . .114

VII CHAPTER PAGE

Task 4: Making Art . .117 Task 5: Interpretation of Art Making . . . .118 Task 6: Evaluation of Learning Experience . .118 Summary Experimental Group .119 The Traditional Group . . .119 Task 1: Cueing lecture . .120 Task 2: Building Meaning . . . .121 Task: Building Deeper Meaning . . .122 Task 4: Making Art . .123 Task 5; Interpretation of Art Making . . . .123 Task 6: Evaluation of Learning Experience . .124 Summary Traditional Group. .124 Ethical Considerations . . . .125 Reliability ...... 125 Procedures to Enhance Trustworthiness .128 Trustworthiness . . . .128 Peer Debriefing . . .128 Transferability . . .129 Dependability . .129 Confirmability . . .130 Validity ...... 130 Summary of Overall Teaching Methods .132

IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION . . . .154

Overview .... .154 Process of Analysis. .155 Cultural References .155 Art References .156 Relationships between Art and Culture .156 Scoring Procedures. .156 Phase One .... .160 Experimental Group .160 Task 1: Cueing Lecture .160 Task 2: Building Meaning .160

Vlll CHAPTER PAGE

Deeper Meaning .165 Task 4: Making Art .176 Task 5: Interpretation of Art Making . .184 Task 6: Evaluation of Learning Experience .190 Summary Of Experimental Group .195 The Traditional Group . .195 Task 1: Cueing Lecture .195 Task 2; Building Meaning .196 Task 3: Building Deeper Meaning .202 Task 4: Making Art .213 Task 5: Interpretation of Art Making . .224 Task 6: Evaluation of Learning Experience .227 Summary Of Traditional Group .232 Summary of Results Phase One . .232 Phase Two ...... 233 Experimental Group .233 Traditional Group . .237 Summary of Results Phase Two . .241 Phase Three ...... 238 Significance Between Traditional and Experimental Groups. .241 General Summary of Results on Teaching Methods . .251

V. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION .255

Overview ...... 255 Cognition . . . . .255 Aesthetics .258 Cultural History and Benefits .260 Models of Teaching and Teacher Training . .263 Conclusion ...... 269

IX CHAPTER PAGE

APPENDIXES

A. Letter of Request to Conduct Study . . . .274

B. Instruction Booklet Experimental: EXPRESSION . .272

C Instruction Booklet Traditional: PORTRAIT . . .306

D. Panel of Peer Debriefers ...... 336

E. Sample Evaluation Summary Sheet: Experimental Group .338

F. Sample Evaluation Summary Sheet: Traditional Group .340

G. Scores: Total Group Responses : Experimental Group .342

H. Scores: Total Group Responses : Traditional Group .344

REFERENCES ...... 346 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE

1. Comparison of Inquiry in Art Behaviours With Other Hierachies ...... 85

2. List of Key Artworks ...... 102

3. List off Comparative Artworks by Jamaican Artists . . . 103

4. List of Comparative Artworks from Cultural Heritage . . 105

5. Student Demographic Profile Age and Gender . . . 108

6. Student Demographic Profile Of Dominant Ethnic Identity and Religion ...... 109

7. Total Number of Students Response to Task 2 by Experimental Group ...... 163

8. Relative Frequency Student Matching Response to Task 2 by Experimental Group ...... 164

9. Total Number of Student Responses to Section 1 Task 3 by Experimental Group ...... 168

10. Total Number of Matching Regional Responses to Section 2 Task 4 by Experimental Group ...... 173

11 Total Number of Matching Dance Responses to Section 3 Task 3 by Experimental Group ...... 175

12. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 4 by Experimental Group ...... 177

13. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 4 by Experimental Group ...... 189

XI TABLE PAGE

14. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 6 by Experimental Group ...... 193

15. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 2 by Traditional Group ...... 201

16. Total Number of Student Matching Responses to Task 3 by Traditional Group ...... 207

17. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 3 by Traditional Group ...... 212

18. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 4 by Experimental Group ...... 215

19. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 5 by Traditional Group ...... 226

20. Total Number of Student Responses to Task 6 by Traditional Group ...... 231

21. Total Number of Group Responses to Task 3, 4, 5 & 6 by Experimental Group ...... 236

22. Total Number of Group Responses to Task 3, 4, 5 & 6 by Traditional Group ...... 240

23. Means of Student Memory Store by recall in Traditional and Experimental Group ...... 244

24. Means of Students Memory Store by Interpretation in Traditional and Experimental Groups ..... 246

25. Means of Students Memory Store by Recall in Traditional and Experimental Groups ...... 248

26. Means of Students Memory Store Relationships by Traditional and Experimental Groups...... 250

XU LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE

1. Service: Prototype Model of Information Flow Between Memory Components ...... 79

2.Armstrong: Stages of Inquiry in Producing Art . 82

3. Schematic Representation of Research Design . 100

4. Levels of Student Meaning by Rank .... . 159

5.Continuous Learning Model ...... 257

6.Inductive and Deductive Scheme of Reasoning . 267

Xlll LIST OF PLATES PLATES PAGE

I. Arawak Carving of a Zeme .... 15

IL Revival Group ...... 35 in. Pocomania Dance ...... 36

IV. Jonkonnu Street Parade ..... 37

V. Jonkonnu Band ...... 38

VI. Baffou ...... 39

VII. Set Girls ...... 40

VIII. Pitchi Patchi ...... 41

IX Pitchi Patchi and Cows Head .... 42

X. Actor Boy ...... 43

XI. Bruckings ...... 44

XII. Mayal (1974) ...... 45

XIII. Kum ina ...... 46

XIV. European Migration ..... 47

XIV PLATES PAGE

XV. African Scenario . 48

XVI. Negro Dance 1 49

XVII. Negro Dance 2 50

XVII. Celebration Dance . 51

XIX. Edna Manley at Work 52

XX. Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" Amongst Some of His Works 53

Key Artworks XXI. Edna Manley. Worship (1986). Acrylic on canvas, 20 X 16". Collection, Dr. Muriel Lowe, Kingston, Jamaica 134

XXII. Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." Heaven and Earth (1976). Painting, on Hardboard, 35 1/2 x 23". Collection, Olympia International Art Center 135

XXIII. Edna Manley. Pocomania (1936). Hoptonwood Stone carving, H 231/2" . . . . . 136

XXIV. Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." Obedience Covers All (1965). Mahagony carving, H 571/2". The Larry Worth Collection 137

Jamaican Comparative Artworks XXV. Osmond Watson. Masquerade. Painting, 7' x 5'. The National Gallery of Jamaica Collection . 138

XXVI. Carl Abrahams. Thirteen Israelites (1975). Painting, 30" X 41". Collection, Jamaica .... 139

XV PLATES PAGE

XXVII. Christopher Gonzales. Bob Marley (1982-1983). Bronze, 7'9" high. Collection, The National Gallery of Jamaica ..... 140

XXVIII. Gene Pearson. Head (1983). Ceramic Terra Cotta, 24" high. Collection, Guy McIntosh, Jamaica. . 141

XXIX. Barrington Watson. Dance of the Maroons (1989-1990). Oil on canvas, 183cm x 305 cm. Collection, Contemporary Art Center, Jamaica ..... 142

XXX. Susan Alexander. Revellers. Oil on canvas. Collection, Century National Bank, Jamaica . . 143

XXXI. Carl Abrahams. Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah (1965). Acrylic on board, 44 X 3 0". Collection,01ympia International Art Center and Hotel, Jamaica . . 144

XXXII. Karl Parboosingh. Dance of the Candles (1966). Painting, Oil on Hardboard, 16"x27-l/2". Collection Mike Henry ..... 145

Cultural Comparative Artworks XXXIII. Anonymous. Appliqued Cloth (1971). Collection. National Museum of Art.. . . . 146

XXXIV. Anonymous. Spirit Group. Wood Carving. Collection. J. Anthony Stout, Washington D.C. . . . 147

XXXV. Anonymous. Buddha (Curing Disease) (1968). Carving 20" x 24". Private Collection . . . 148

XXXVI. Anonymous. Playing Oriental Chess (1965). Painting 20" x 24'. Private Collection . . . 149

XXXVII. Henry Moore. Artistide Mailol (1902-1905). Bronze, approximately 41" high, base 45"x 24 3/4". Collection. The National Museum of Modern Art, Washington 150

XXXVIII. Sir Peter Paul Rubens. The Assumption of The Virgin (1626). Painting 125.4 x 94.2 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Samuel H Kress Collection ...... 151

XVI PLATES PAGE

XXXIX. Ela Menor.Portrait (1982). Painting 24"x24". Private Collection ...... 152

XL. Anonymous. Siva As Nataraja (Lord of Dance) (1000). Bronze figure 76.2 x 57.1 x 17.8cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art ..... 153

XLI. Experimental Student 2 . 178

XLII. Experimental Student 3 . 179

XLIII. Experimental Student 14 . 180

XLIV. Experimental Student 17 . 181

XLV. Experimental Student 20 . 182

XLVI. Experimental Student 22 . 183

XLVII. Traditional Student 1 . . . . . 216

XLVIII. Traditional Student 4 . . . . . 217

XLIX. Traditional Student 5 . . . . . 218

L. Traditional Student 7 . . . . . 219

LI. Traditional Student 9 . . . . . 220

LU. Traditional Student 13 221

LUI. Traditional Student 17 222

LIV. Traditional Student 20 223

XVII CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Problem Throughout my teaching career, I have often wondered why so much effort is focused on the quality of artworks that students produce, instead of on their ability to understand the multiple levels of meaning of artworks done by Jamaican artists. As Sandell and Cherry (1994) indicate, if we give "students the opportunity to study artworks they will be able to visually explore their relationships to an object, its form, subject and context, leading to a revitalized understanding of art history" (p. 24). In most art classrooms in Jamaica today, students tend to have little or no interest in getting involved in art activities. From observations in several schools in Jamaica one might be forced to believe that the misconceptions about art and lack of interest in the subject are partially due to the art teachers' negative attitudes toward the subject and their methods of teaching. Negative attitudes towards art are often exhibited by some administrative bodies in institutions, which therefore trigger similar attitudes among the teachers. From several experiences with student teachers, I realize that even though effort has been made to provide adequately (based on the available resources) for their teacher training, there were times when these teachers showed evidence of lack of understanding and relevance of Jamaican art and culture. This was evident, for example, during history of art lessons that I

1 2 instructed. As student teachers are exposed to the two main groups of Jamaican artists, mainstream’ and intuitives,^ several of these students would show little interest in trying to understand the art of the intuitives or art that shows a high degree of abstraction. There were instances also when students found it difficult to relate Jamaican artworks to their culture. They often describe them as being ugly and meaningless, also saying that they cannot associate themselves with the artworks because they were plain stupid. One may therefore argue that students pursuing the various disciplines in art are not being adequately prepared to take up the challenges in the world of art, especially the challenges of interpreting Jamaican art and its diverse cultural influences. If teachers are adequately prepared to teach elementary students they might be able to expose those students to methods that vary from the more traditional approaches wherein the students are sometimes given specific topics from which to create drawings without any kind of supervision. As is often observed in some schools, as soon as the teacher gives the class instructions, the teacher disappears sometimes for prolonged periods. This disappearing act often serves to be frustrating for the students since they are usually "demotivated." There were also times when the artwork that elementary students created were disregarded, as the teachers might not look at them or evaluate them. It is my belief that students should be exposed to creative methods of teaching from as early as their elementary years. Creative methods of teaching within the Jamaican context refer to anything that is new, or different from what teachers and students are accustomed to. One creative method of teaching art, and the one I am

■ Trained artist ' Untrained artist 3 concerned with in this study, involves the formal inclusion of culture with the study of art. This method will allow students to make connections to their own culture through formal instruction of related contextual information. It is hoped that through this method students will find art to be more interesting and fulfilling and improvements in students' interpretive abilities will become evident. Jennings (1986) states that "at the primary level of education in Jamaica, the Foundations of Self-Reliance Curriculum Guide represents the concerted efforts of curriculum developers over at least a decade to develop curricula in which relevance to Jamaican culture is key" (p. 19). Since culture is closely linked with one's heritage and identity, it can be assumed that culture determines behavioral patterns, symbols, imitations, values, and other human-made components of society. Culture is significantly relevant to the teaching of the visual arts. Evidence of cultural approaches to the study of art in educational settings can be seen throughout art education literature (Blandy & Congdon, 1991; Chalmers, 1978, Congdon, 1987; and Jennings, 1986). Henley (1992) once stated: . . . children routinely draw upon images in their culture, such as comic book heroes and other media figures for the subjects and themes for their art. By incorporating all parts of culture in their art reproduction, students are encouraged to leave behind their stereotypes and instead explore the form and style of a diversity of artists, (p. 83)

Henley's (1992) idea concerning drawing "upon images in culture" is quite relevant to Jamaican students in this study. This is so because the students will be involved in tasks that encourage them to focus on contextual information on Jamaican culture in order to recall information, interpret art and create their own artworks. On the contrary, as Henley (1992) continues 4 on matters of stereotypes in students' reproduction, stereotypes might not be left behind but instead be emphasized because the students might not be able to do original artworks. Recently, the Ministry of Education in Jamaica have been making great strides in creating curricula for the schools at all levels that include some aspect of culture. Such curricula changes usually include textbooks that (1) relate more to Jamaican and Caribbean heritages, (2) speak to historical truths such as the alleged discovery of Jamaica by Christopher Columbus, and (3) represent Caribbean images. It is necessary that when designing curricula for cultural awareness that art is not to included just as an after thought. In the past, pictorial images in texts were irrelevant because they included only traditional European images like representations of the English monarchy. Images such as these have now been replaced by photographs that document aspects of Jamaican life, and prints of works of art that interpret the life and history of the Jamaican people, such as slaves on the sugar plantations and other activities that reflect the period from colonization of the island by the Spaniards in 1665 (Whyte, 1983, p. 1), through Independence in 1962, to today. Prints and photographs that incorporate African and Caribbean influences help students to visualize aspects of their Jamaican heritage. Artists have continued to make their contribution to the preservation of Jamaican culture as they narrate stories about Jamaican heritage through paintings, sculpture and professional ethnic dances. As more artists become culturally aware, by participating in and working with institutions such as the Cultural Training Center and the Ministry of Education and Culture, we can predict an increase in the documentation of Jamaican culture and heritage. 5 As suggested by the "National Endowment for the Arts" (1994), art learning experiences that focus on cultural elements can assist in artistic development that facilitates intellectual and social growth as the students' self-knowledge and knowledge of others will improve.

Statement of the Problem In the Caribbean, where history and the economic system with the Euro-dominated cultural complex have put the people at a disadvantage, the people developed their creative energies in areas, either outside or in opposition to the dominant cultural complex. Dance, religion, languages and stories were the privileged "locus" for their cultural work and survival. For many decades these areas have remained for the most, part of the educational system. (Kreimer, 1986, p. v)

In the past, the student population in Jamaica was exposed to an educational system that was European because the island was once a British colony. Students took external examinations that were, originally used in England and had little to do with the Caribbean region. Several students have often indicated that curriculum content is usually boring because they find it difficult to make connections with the European focused curricula. I can remember one question that my son once asked: he wanted to know why African folk tales were not included in his history and literature classes instead of or along with the traditional Shakespearian plays such as "Hamlet" or "Macbeth." Today there is more active interest in the Caribbean historical legacy. Consequently, curriculum developers are becoming more aware of the importance of heritage and the ways in which cultural legacy can be retained. It is therefore necessary that art teachers become a part of retaining the Jamaican cultural legacy. An art curriculum that includes cultural content 6 through contextual information will facilitate deeper interpretations and an appreciation of diverse cultures in Jamaica. My desire is to investigate the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican visual and performing arts, and determine the level of students' recall and interpretation of these influences. This investigation will serve as a pilot study as I am proposing that we design creative units of study that encourage students to understand our diverse cultural heritage and its influences on the arts. Such units could assist students in broadening their knowledge-base of the role the arts play in the preservation of the Jamaican heritage. Given the premise that cultural context should be included in art instruction, I am now trying to determine the best methods for student processing of this cultural context. To do this I will look at different theories on learning. For this investigation I examined childrens' ability to recall, and interpret information, a very necessary step on the road to higher order thinking and processing (Chanda, 1995).

Research Questions In order to identify how the child acquires and sustains contextual information, three questions were addressed: 1: To what extent can the student interpret diverse cultural influences in the Jamaican art of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds 'Kapo'? 2: Does contextual information assist in the ability of students to recall and interpret meaning in Jamaican works of art? 3: How do students' recall and interpretation of the relationship of diverse cultural representations in the visual arts and dance differ? Definition of Terms In defining key terms, the research questions will be more understandable. Contextual Information: statements or facts that are presented to elementary students that relate to the Jamaican heritage. Cultural Representations: facts, symbols, ideas, and themes that relate to the Jamaican heritage such as, dance, religion, slavery or emancipation. Influences: powers affecting students, things or course of events, especially without direct or obvious effort. Interpretation: to present or explain by making connections between artworks and diverse cultural influences. Diverse Cultures: the variety of socially transmitted behaviour patterns, arts, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought that exist among Jamaican people to create "oneness," as seen in the Jamaican national motto,"Out of Many One People." Recall: the recollection or repetition of information or events during the study. Relationship: the condition or fact of dance being related or connected to visual art. Meaning: students providing supportive arguments in order to make decisions about their interpretations of the stories or messages that an artwork portrays. Meaning therefore is the art product which shows significance. 8 Significance of the Study If students are exposed to their cultural heritage, they will be able to better interpret and understand the artworks by Jamaican artists. As art educators, therefore, we should connect the teaching of art to culture in order to enhance the child's self-esteem, appreciation of the arts and appreciation of diverse cultures. As students attempt to express their interpretations of the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican artworks they will be able to recall information from formal instruction. This study draws on the use of, a method used by researchers such as Koroscik, Short, Stravropolous, and Fortin (1992). Koroscik et.al. believes that as works of art "are seldom found in isolation ... and are frequently displayed within the contexts of other artworks, certain factors should be considered, for example how such displays might dictate students' thinking about a particular artwork" (p. 156). They recommend that art educators plan instructional interventions to capitalize on contextual effects. In support of planning instructional intervention the National Endowment for the Arts (1988), elaborates on the need for research. Research is needed to tell us what can and should be taught at what ages and how it can best be taught. Research should be included on the complete act of observing students' interactions with teachers, the use of resources in specific classrooms, and the influence of family and environment on learning in the arts in comparison to learning in other subjects. Research is needed to provide more information on how students acquire knowledge of, and learn to interpret, the arts; how students perceive, value, perform, create, and use the arts; and how learning in the arts broadens perspective, gives a sense of the human condition, and fosters reasoning ability, (p. 124)

In an effort to plan instructional interventions to capitalize on contextual effects in this study, a group of Jamaican elementary students' were g provided with cues that assisted them in giving meaning as they attempt to interpret diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. These cues were in the form of selected tasks that progressed from one to the other. Elementary students were exposed to diverse cultures within the Jamaican society and their influences on the artworks of two Jamaican artists, as well as comparative art conditions.

Summary The issue of designing creative teaching methods has been introduced and I assume that Jamaican student teachers and curriculum developers will support the need for planning interesting and creative art lessons. As the participants in the study became involved in teaching methods that were implemented in this study, they were expected to examine their memory store and decide on ways to make connections to Jamaican artworks and diverse cultures in Jamaica through recall and interpretation. Theories concerning the importance of cultural content in art lessons have been mentioned. Art teachers need to prepare themselves to introduce cultural content and assist students through the learning process. The research questions that direct the focus of this study address elements that can be included in the learning process such as memorization, recall, recognition, interpretation and meaning making. CHAPTER II HISTORY OF JAMAICA Overview Since this study focuses on the heritage of the Jamaican people and methods of teaching art, in this chapter I will present a brief history of Jamaica and its education system. The chapter is divided into three sections, the cultural history, the educational system and issues of multiculturalism and diverse cultures. The first part, "cultural history," will look at the diversity within the Jamaican population, the Jamaican art and culture. Religion and Jamaican art, the Revivalist movement and its "off shoots," Revival and Pocomania, and the relevance of dance as a cultural form, focusing on Jonkonnu, Bruckings, and Kumina. Secondly, this chapter will look at the Jamaican education system, beginning with a brief history of the education system, then the transition of the educational system, thenjurning to the subject of art education in Jamaican schools, the infant and basic, the primary, and secondary schools. In the third part, I will discuss ideas of multiculturalism and how it relates to my study as well as reasons for associating the term diverse cultures with the Jamaican people.

Cultural History Peoples of the Caribbean Islands are very diverse because they originate from many different cultures i.e. the African, Chinese, European and two

10 11 groups of Indians; the Arawak and Carib Indians who were the original inhabitants of Jamaica, and the East Indians. On his visit to the Caribbean in 1492, Christopher Columbus described Jamaica, now the largest English speaking Caribbean island, as an "effervescent little island set like a jewel in the Caribbean Sea" (Saunders, 1990, p. 7). The island's name Jamaica comes from the Arawak word Xayamaca, meaning land of wood and water, the general term Caribbean comes from the Carib Indians (Saunders, 1990). Originally, the Arawak and Carib Indians inhabited Jamaica. The Arawak Indians, who lived by fishing and farming, were a peaceful group; the Caribs were more warlike and lived by hunting and fishing. Significant historical references (Black, 1965; and Sterling, 1835) indicate that Jamaica has had a variety of ruling cultures with the Arawaks and Carib Indians being the first. The Spanish invasion (1494) brought destruction to the culture of the Arawak Indians through religion, technology, and slavery. The Roman Catholic Church encouraged such destruction in order to convert the "natives" to Christianity. The Spaniards and their Roman Catholic religion, however disappeared from Jamaica after the arrival of the English in 1655 (Black, 1965, p. 256). English colonists were encouraged by the monarchy to become citizens of Jamaica in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in order to retain the English population. Jamaica gained its independence from the English in 1962. The Spanish and English brought African slaves and Indian and Chinese laborers to Jamaica. The Africans were used as slaves on the sugar plantations while the Indian and Chinese inhabitants were referred to as indentured laborers and added to the servants who arrived in the island from Europe for contractual employment. The Indians and Chinese therefore were 12 assigned to homes where they were given duties as household servants. Two distinctions in social status became evident in the population, the white minority were at the top of the hierarchy, the Negro slaves at the bottom (Black, 1965). The negro slaves struggled together for survival and to maintain their sanity and identity because of the pressures they encountered on the sugar plantations (Black, 1965). In order to rebuild the pride and identity of the Jamaican people, the struggles continued through the emancipation of slavery until Jamaica gained its independence from England in 1962. A sense of pride and identity has since evolved. These struggles unite the entire Jamaican population, as reflected in the national motto, "Out of many one People." Over the years descendants from the Arawaks and Caribs have organized themselves into communities. One very popular group of Arawak and Carib descendants that still exists today, call themselves the Maroons and have named their community "Maroon Town," which is located in the eastern part of the island. These groups of people have made great effort to preserve their tradition and religious practices. Other communities exist, such as the German community, "German Town," which is located in the western part of the island. Sections of the island are also densely populated by the Indians. The main forces of diverse cultural notions, however, lie with the European-descended Jamaicans and the African-descended Jamaicans, (Alleyne, 1984). However the coming together of all of these different cultures has influenced both the visual and the performing arts. 13 Tamaican Art and Culture The diversity in Jamaican heritage has produced several rich artistic and religious traditions which are reflected in paintings, carvings, dances, drama and street parades. Several artists, such as Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo," have contributed to the preservation of Jamaican culture. They often focus their paintings and carvings on religious and Jamaican traditional dance themes. The works of these two artists who have both African and European cultural influences are most significant to my study of Jamaican children's understanding of art. The richness of Jamaican art can be seen in sculptural carving, styles of paintings such as surrealist intuitives, astute satirists, neo-African styles, art- deco symbolists, and neo-expressionists (Boxer, 1990a, p. vii). Jamaican artists are often thought to be committed to the search for spiritual realities. Artists frequently use religious themes in their works to make social, political, and personal statements because religion plays a significant role in the lives of the Jamaican people. Several of these religious themes can be seen from the beginning of the development of Jamaican art.

Development of Tamaican \dsual Arts The development of art in Jamaica is often referred to as the "art movement," and it began in the 1920s (Boxer, 1983). Prior to the beginning of the "art movement," however, evidence of art could be seen in Jamaica. Arawaks made art that consisted of "crude rock paintings and pictographs, rudimentary pottery remains, and small elemental stone fetishes named "zemes" (Boxer, 1983, p. 10). See Plate 1 14 European painters were said to have started a painting tradition from as early as the seventeenth century. Some of these artists are: George Robertson and Phillip Wichstead, who were famous for doing Jamaican landscapes; Joseph Bartholomew Kidd, who was known for his water colour series; and later, Isaac Mendez Belesario, whose works included portraits of very prominent Jamaican people and sketches of the John Canoe Dancers, who were later referred to as Jonkonnu (Boxer, 1983). 15

Plate I: Arawak Carving of a Zeme 16 Early evidence of local Jamaican art can be seen in the works of John Dunkley, Carl Abrahams, and Albert Huie, all of whom were painters (Boxer, 1983). At this time, however, these works could not be classified into a particular stylistic group. The "art movement" as Boxer (1983) states, started when Edna Manley, a sculptor and the renowned mother of art in Jamaica, came to the island from England in 1922. Edna was born in England in 1900, the daughter of a Jamaican woman, Ellie Shearer, and an English clergyman, Harvey Swizenbank. She spent most of her years in England attending school, where she met and later married her cousin Norman Manley. Shortly after, they both sailed to Jamaica- the country which Edna claimed as her home. On her arrival in Jamaica, it was said that Edna expressed disappointment. She believed that not much evidence of the country's growth and experience was documented in the works of art being done at the time (Boxer, 1983). Edna Manley was also recalled as saying that the art was, "nothing virile, nor original, nor in any sense creative, and nothing above all, that is an expression of the deep-rooted, hidden pulse of the country . .. that thing which gives it its unique life awakening" (Daily Gleaner. Sept., 1934). Boxer (1983) believes that Edna Manley's first solo exhibition in 1937 was the turning point for Jamaican art. Edna began identifying talents such as Albert Huie, Carl Abrahams, and John Dunkley, the latter considered Jamaica's first intuitive artist or what Boxer (1983) describes as self taught artist. Along with these artists, and others from the Institute of Jamaica,^ came the official birth of the Jamaican "art movement." Some of the first organized classes were held at the Junior Center of the Institute. The birth of

' Organized for the preservation of the arts, literature, and science in Jamaica. 17 the art movement therefore saw a community of artists coming together. This group included young artists such as Henry Daley, Ralph Campbell, David Pottinger, and Alvin Marriott, who had already made a name for himself (Archer-Straw & Robinson, 1990). The growth of the "art movement" also saw pioneers such as Carl Abrahams, another painter, and Cecil Baugh, master potter. The 1950s saw a further development with the establishment of the Jamaica School of Art. This school has now been renamed "The Edna Manley School for the Msual Arts." The school is located at the Cultural Training Center, which was established in 1976. It also houses the schools of dance, drama, and music. Mth further development in the 60s and 70s, the mainstream or pioneering artists were joined by highly trained artists such as Gloria Escoffery, Barrington Watson, Eugene Hyde, Karl Craig and Karl Parboosingh. Today, however, younger artists can be identified within this mainstream, including artists such as Kay Sullivan, Judy MacMillan, Christopher Gonzales, and Kofi Kayiga. Later intuitives such as Mallica Reynolds "Kapo," Everald Brown, and Albert Artwell also made their contributions. The youngest group of artists to be found in Jamaica today are often referred to as the young generation and includes artists such as Cheryl Phillips, Cheryl Daley Champagne, David Dunn, Robert Cookhorne "African," and Stanford Watson. With the growth in the "art movement," several galleries were established, such as the National Gallery of Jamaica, Bolivar Gallery, Frame Center Gallery, and the Mutual Life Gallery. Efforts were made to secure a national collection of Jamaican art. This collection was first housed at Devon 18 House, an architectural monument on the island but was later removed to the National Gallery of Jamaica, which is located in the city of Kingston. More recent developments in the Jamaican art movement are associated with recent graduates from The Edna Manley School for the Visual Arts. With the formal training that is offered at the school, each year a new group of artists strives for professionalism, adding to the group of artists that are called the young generation. With two distinct categories of Jamaican artists, mainstream and the intuitives or self taught, two main sources of cultural influences on Jamaican art might be identified. The mainstream usually shows more European and North American influences, while the intuitives are more African-oriented. Conscious attempts have been made over the years to preserve aspects of the Jamaican heritage. Fortunately for the people of Jamaica, the country has always been governed by a political system that believes we should strive for a Jamaica that serves the common man. The Cultural Commission, which is now linked with the Ministry of Education, constantly organizes activities that bring the people of Jamaica together. These include development programs focusing on competitions among small communities and schools, or Festival celebrations at the national level that commemorate Jamaican independence from England. A continuous effort is being made to document the diverse cultural component in Jamaican society. The education for students in the arts has included this component in the schools' curricula, both at the tertiary and lower levels. Jamaica's heritage of diverse cultures is also supported by several Caribbean writers such as Nettleford (1985): The creative acts of our people, forged collectively over time or by individual protagonists,.. . have thrown up classic expressions which 19 in turn are becoming prime sources of energy for that vital quest for cultural certitude .... All such expressions emanating from social interaction now serve as the living archives of our patrimony as well as the testament of a valid collective experience signifying the germ of a definitive civilization (Nettleford, 1985,p. 13).

Artistic contributions therefore are usually considered vital for cultural development and social change. For the visual arts, groups of artists found it necessary to document the traditions and general lifestyles of the Jamaican people in their works of art. Popular samples of these traditions and practices can be seen in the use of traditional and celebratory themes arising as religious practice and dance.

Religion and Tamaican Art The Jamaican culture is embedded in religion. Much of the visual art reflects religious concepts and beliefs. The people of Jamaica are always involved in religious practices. These practices can, for example, be seen in schools where students become involved in devotions every morning before classes begin, or in the religious education classes that are a part of the schools' curriculum. Although several religious denominations, for example, the Church of God, Seventh-Day Adventist, Jehovah's Witness, and the Ethiopian Orthodox, are represented in the Jamaican society today, there is still a very strong representation of some of the older religious denominations that existed during slavery, such as the Church of England, the Baptist Church, and the Roman Catholic Churches. Other religious faiths have continued to play a significant role in the religious beliefs of the Jamaican people, such as Revivalism and Pocomania. 20 As stated by Scott (1992): A significant feature of religious life in Jamaica is the widespread allegiance to the English non-conformist churches. These non conformist churches are those like the Methodist, Moravian, and Baptist denominations which separated from the Church of England. This allegiance developed as a result of missionary activity in the latter decades of slavery, when these non-conformist missionaries actively sought converts among the slaves, often in the face of official prohibition or disapproval. From these denominations evolved some popular and revivalist sects which based their beliefs in Christianity, with a more African flavor, but their forms of worship have differed widely from those accepted by most orthodox churches due to their high trance-evoking emotional content, (pp. 1-2)

The artistic community in Jamaica has continued to make very strong representations of religious themes in their artworks in order to preserve their rich heritage. Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" are exemplary artists in this tradition. In Manley's carving Pocomania, for example (see Plate XXm), there is a representation of a shepherd in "praise," raising his hands and advancing towards the viewers. The theme Pocomania is one that is also associated with the Pocomania religion. Kapo's painting Heaven and Earth (see Plate XXII) is another example. Looking at this work of art, one is able to identify different aspects of religion - the cross, the clasping of the hands that signifies the act of worship, and figures representing Angels. Angels are considered to be a distinct feature of "Kapo's" work; he often states that the Lord instructed him through his Angels. In describing "Kapo's work. Archer Straw & Robinson (1990) indicates that the "frequent use of religious imagery is a consequence of his own spiritual involvement as the shepherd, or head, of a Revivalist group in Kingston" (p. 126). The Revival movement is described as a combination of the African and Christian faith, but is considered to be more African than European. 21 Revivalist Movement. Between 1860-61 Jamaica experienced a religious movement called the "Great Revival" (Seaga, 1969, p. 3). From an historical perspective, one must back to the days of the African slaves and their English slave masters. Religion was the backbone of the emancipation from slavery, which explains why religion has played such an important role in the history of the region. The Revivalist movement started after the Baptists, Moravians, and other missionaries came to the island and tried to convert the slaves to Christianity (Seaga, 1969). Instead the slaves, united among themselves for religious freedom and hence, the birth of Revivalism. Revivalism stemmed from the Mayal Precession .. ., from the basic African religious belief that the spirit world was not separate and apart from the temporal world but formed one unified whole; this belief in the unity of the spirit world has persisted today among those sections of the population whose cultural formation remains Afro-Christian (Seaga, 1969, p. 4).

The Revivalist movement has had its fair share of criticisms as it is often considered to be connected with witchcraft and superstition. Kapo himself was once imprisoned as he was accused of practicing obeah, or mingling with the dead, but he was later freed of these charges. As the practicing of this faith continued, different groups were formed. In describing the great Revivalist cult, Seaga states that from this came the birth of two other major Afro-Christian religious sects: the Pukkumina and Zion Revival. The term Pocomania, which is the more familiar spelling, is said to be Spanish, meaning "little madness." Revival. The Revivalist group (Plate 11) is usually divided up into bands. Although they believe that God is the creator of all living things, they strongly believe in the existence of supernatural beings. Revivalism focuses 22 on aspects of healing and obeah, where the healing process is either done privately, or in special services, and as Seaga (1969) explains, it involves the laying on of hands, fasting, and constant singing and praying. This is considered a cleansing process, where the evil spirits are driven from the body that is to be healed. Although several Revival bands can be seen in Kingston, they are still very popular in the more rural parts of the island. The meeting grounds for the Revival bands are sometimes identified by their large booths and tall poles made out of bamboo branches. At the top of these poles, flags are often attached, representing the particular band. Several shorter poles can also be seen around the ground with drinking glasses containing water. These signify the purity of the ground used to drive away evil spirits. Members of the Revivalist cult are often drawn from the lower socioeconomic sector of the Jamaican society, and are often unemployed. Active female members are called "mammies," while the men are called "soldiers." The leader of the Revivalist group is usually led by a male "captain" and a female "mammy" who are referred to as the "shepherd" and "shepherdess." These leaders are sometimes under the scrutiny of head captains or "mammies" that might be seen in the more established and larger Revivalist groups in the island. Their costumes for worship usually include long white or blue robes, and expertly wrapped turbans. At times, scarves would be wrapped around the waistline of the members, and the "shepherd" sometimes carries a rod. Several of the leaders in the movement earn their income from offerings that are collected at meetings, or from individuals who seek healing. 23 The meetings are often opened to the public although there are times when the public is restricted from entering the grounds where the meeting is conducted, for fear of being disturbed. At these meetings music plays a very important role, and is played mainly with cymbals, drums, rattles, and tambourines. This music is accompanied by dance moves which are usually done in a counterclockwise rotation around the altar. As the members dance, breathing patterns develop, sometimes making it difficult for them to sing, resulting in loud laboring sounds. At times the members will become so tired and overwhelmed that they lose their balance and fall to the ground, where they continue making very strong thrusting movements with their bodies. This is considered an act of the spirits entering the soul. Pocomania. Pocomania is often referred to as 'Toco" for short, and is very similar in many ways to the Revival groups. Unlike Revival that was more Euro-Christian oriented, Pocomania retained or revitalized strong African elements. Although Pocomania is linked to Africanism, it has been stated by Hogg (1965) that the Indians could also be considered a part of the group. The Pocomania movement in Jamaica started in the 1930s in Spanish Town, and today can still be identified among groups of people or "bands" as they are also called. Within these "bands" major figures such as the male leader or "Papa" and the female leader "Mama"can be identified. Similar titles such as "Shepherd" and "Shepherdess" of the Revivalist group are often used for these leaders, who are the chief organizers of the band meetings (Scott, 1992, p. 68). Other sub-groups can also be identified and have other responsibilities bestowed on them such as peace keeping and leading the dance. 24 The Pocomania group is often associated with healing, consequently spirits play a very important role in their reveling or dancing. Individuals seeking healing are usually treated with a bath and then given herbal medicine to take. This medicine is said to be related to the spirits as it is believed that through the leaders, the spirits are able to prepare whatever medicine the patient requires for healing. The body movements associated with Pocomania are called "dry jump," but is popularly known as "chup," especially in the very rural areas of the Island. During meetings, as the members of the Pocomania group do the "chup," they often become possessed by the spirits and speak in "tongues." These "tongues" are usually a combination of different dialects in Jamaica and can seldom be identified. In some communities, when the Pocomania group arrives for meetings, they are often regarded as taking a warning or message with them for the people of the community. I can remember as a little girl, I could see truck loads of these people passing through the district where I lived, with heads neatly wrapped in turbans that were adorned with strips of "bandana" fabric, the national fabric of Jamaica. They would also wear long gowns that were mainly white but sometimes also blue. One of the very popular meeting grounds or "balm yard" at that time was located in Watt Town. This was quite exciting to me as a child since there were times that my father's trucks were hired out to groups of people in the community to attend the Pocomania meetings. Pocomania is still alive among Jamaican people and is expressed as dance and religious concepts in works of art by several Jamaican visual and performing arts. 25 Religious awareness among the Jamaican people has continued to be uplifting for everyone. Several more recent groups of worshipers have been identified. These groups are usually organized by individuals who prefer to be non-denominational, but still see it fit to practice religious rites. Religion and dance were often combined and from this dance and religious movements based on religious concepts evolved. Other dance forms are Pocomania, danced among the revivalist group; Bruckings, a celebration dance; Kumina, a dance with a very strong hip movement that tells the story of the King and Queen giving the slaves their freedom; Quadrille, a very elegant and stately dance; and Jonkonnu, a masked dance usually seen at Christmas time in street parades. All these dances originated from African slaves who worked on plantations, and Indian and Chinese indentured laborers. These dances continue to be performed at annual celebrations such as the Jamaican Independence Festival. This festival includes a grand gala of floats and parades traveling along the streets in Kingston to the National Stadium. The different celebrations and festivities are significant features of the culture and the islanders always consider them to be thrilling experiences.

The Relevance of Dance as a Cultural Form Dance in the Jamaican culture has been recognized not only in the island but globally, especially with the very popular reggae. There are other dances, however, that to some greater extent have kept aspects of our culture alive. The spiritual beliefs and practices are contributing factors to the richness of the role that dance plays. These dances originated mainly from "the slaves who created them as a form of relief of persistent poverty and 26 psychological and cultural isolation" (Nettleford, 1978, p. 21). Nettleford (1978) believes that it is typical for Jamaicans to find refuge in collective endeavors. Circles of protection — whether provided through community cooperation, configurations of the extended family, or ritual dances performed in the round to exercise evil or celebrate communal achievements — offered the African-in-exile some kind of solace. Dances for recreation such as ring games, where the dancers would jump happily around, were danced clockwise in a circle during the full moon. The ceremonial worship of the spirits can be seen in dances such as Pocomania and Zion Revival, where the dancers move around a table, or in the Kumina dance, where the drummers beat their drums, invoking ancestral spirits to reinforce the protective aspects of group activities. It has been said that dance was the organic link with Africa, helping to alleviate the isolation that threatened the cultural heritage of the individuals who ended up in the Caribbean .... The dance is not only a performing art, it is also an art of community that proclaims the virtue of cooperation over unrestrained individualism. It is self evident how this relates to self government, nation building, and social organization." (p. 21)

The folk dances that can be identified in Jamaica today usually relate to religion, or the feasts and festivities that are connected to religion. Although most of these dances display African traditions, Spanish, English, Chinese, and Indian influences are often reflected in both the costumes and the characters that the dancers represent. Today these folk dances are mainly performed in the rural parts of the country, where Campbell (1984) believes residents' "lives have not been affected by modern industry or sophistication" (p. 8). These dances, explains Campbell (1984), "seem to be taken from elaborate ceremonial rituals celebrating births, deaths, wedding feasts etc., while others seem to be more festive in nature, or danced purely for communal entertainment, and are more social in their orientation" (p. 10). 27 Nettleford (1985) believes that the arts in the Caribbean will not succeed unless the people themselves show respect for their intrinsic characteristics and view them as having a central position in the society (p. 24). Since these dances were mainly practiced among the slaves or lower class structure in the Caribbean society, they were often considered to be of little importance. Nettleford (1985) continues by saying: In the Caribbean the art of dance was connected to class status and racial consideration because of a historical race-class correlation. The dance forms of the establishment population were naturally Eurocentric. The European classical ballet, despite its firm roots in the national folk dances and court dances of Europe, became the hallmark of refinement and culture to the uncritical colonial (p. 25).

In an effort to retain some of Jamaican folk dances, several dance groups in Jamaica have utilized both African and European dance movements in their productions. The National Dance Theater Company has, for example, documented traditional dances as they continue to create similar dances that are combined with both the more modern Jamaican reggae, and the European classical ballet. Some of these dances are even combined with more modern dance moves to add variety and show versatility of the traditional moves. Requa (1986), in supporting the study of dance forms, believes that the following opportunities for curriculum development exist: - Through Traditional Folk Dance, we are able to recall historical growth and identity; we are able to examine origins and influences which help us to understand spiritual growth and social progress over the years. Study of belief systems and philosophies of life are not documented. - Most dance forms provide an outlet for recreational activity and creative development and reinforce educational concepts by helping to develop cognitive, social and motor skills. - Dance in schools plays a large part in developing aspects of the child's character which are sometimes ignored in the classroom. Through 28 observation of others in class, the child develops personal relationships and insights which often lead to a greater understanding and acceptance of one's own and others' strengths and weaknesses. Dance encourages non-verbal expression in the slow learner. Dance also provides a recreational activity which is non-competitive; the least able can achieve through participation in informal dance, (p. 109)

All these concepts can be seen in the different dance forms explained below. Tonkonnu. The Jonkonnu Christmas masquerade or parade is the earliest form of dance that has both European and African traditions. As the plantations expanded, so too did the slave population. Highly organized rebellions such as the 1831 Christmas rebellion in the Western end of the island, served as a warning to all plantation owners. After much hardship and struggle, emancipation was finally won in 1838. This and the immigration of East Indians and Chinese to the Island, served to influence the appearance of Jonkonnu. It was one of the few forms of celebration that the slaves had on the estates. A potpourri of colorful costumes and masks, of exuberant movements and pulsating rhythms are what Jamaicans commonly call Jonkonnu (Smith, 1988). Much of the Jonkonnu is a repository for almost every dance evolving in Jamaica. Specific steps and movements can be seen in the part played by the characters. A wide variety of masked characters can be seen in the Jonkonnu dance. Some of these include the Chineyman figure, Bellywoman, Cowboy, Sailor, Lady Mindi, Baffou, Set Girls, Pitchi Patchi, Jack in the Green, Cuckoo or Actor Boy and others (see Plates IV - IX). Although many of the original characters can no longer be seen, 19th-century historian Bellesario has captured some of these in prints, one of which is the Jack in the Green (J.I.S.,1990). This character bears a striking resemblance to a British May Day Masquerader. He is completely covered with coconut throngs making it 29 impossible to tell the direction in which he is looking, a feature of his character that has conjured up a joyous image to Jamaicans. Characters such as the Chineyman, Cowboy, and Sailor would be dressed in costumes so that they would be identified among the other Jonkonnu members. Bellywoman represents a pregnant woman. Lady Mindi a stately woman on the sugar plantation, and Baffou evolving from the frightening hound or wolf. The Set Girls were always dressed alike for the Christmas celebrations in the 18th century. The "Sets" seemed to have been introduced from the French islands. They wore very elegant costumes and never danced outside in the streets but in private homes. Cuckoo or Actor Boy was always gaily dressed, and would move around trying to gain attention, as he performed selections from a very gardened version of Shakespeare. The Pitchi Patchi was more a ritual character because it had a closeness to the vegetation and a very spiritual link (J.I.S., 1990). Pitchi Patchi was put together with numerous strips of coloured material that were sewn together. Since the Jonkonnu movement seems to be losing some of its spiritual quality, Pitchi Patchi also seems to be disappearing. By the 1830s, dramatic performers had died out, but they could still be seen throughout, parading out in the streets of Kingston, exhibiting their costly attire, and passersby would be asked to make a selection of the best costume. Smith (1988) noted that the English aspect has somewhat faded, leaving more of the African flavor. A variety of masks used in the early days can still be seen. Unfortunately, because of funding the costumes today are not as elaborate as those of the past, since in the past costumes were sponsored by the plantation owners. Today, for example, head costumes are made of card board and decorated with bits and pieces of glass. Some can also 30 be seen decorated with cow's horns (tusks) and a cow's head (skeletons), that are usually properly cured after the meat is taken out. As members of the band play and dance during Christmas time, spectators are seen making donations in pans that the dancers carry as a part of the celebration, the joy of giving and sharing. The Tonkonnu musical instruments of the pre-emancipation period were largely African. The Gumbe drum was commonly used along with rattles, stringed instruments, and cows' horns. Today most of our Jonkonnu instruments consist of a fife, bass drums, rattling drums and a grater. Joel Henry (personal communication, 1988) of the South West Jonkonnu Band states that the fife-man is considered of great importance as it is he who determines the pace and change of the rhythm at any given time. Drums are made from goat skins, kegs, or small barrels and pans. The individual members of the band also have other roles to play, such as collecting money, keeping order, and generally providing enthusiasm among spectators. With the lack of funding, much of the activity depends on begging that grows out of the spirit of the celebration. Some researchers believe that the loss of interest in this celebration is due to the lack of plantation sponsors. Today the Jonkonnu dance takes place more in the poorer parts of the island areas and is sometimes seen as a city activity (Smith, 1988). Sponsors are needed to bring back some of the values and meaning in folk culture. Bruckings. Another traditional dance form is the stately dance called Bruckings (Plate XI). Bruckings or Bruckings party, as it is also called, is a post Emancipation dance, a celebration of Jamaica's history and culture, a crucial part of our heritage which dates back to the Emancipation of slaves in 1838 (August 1), during the reign of Queen Victoria of England. Participants dip 31 and glide throughout the movements, using a typical thrust and recovery action of the hip and leg. Wooden swords carried by a King and Queen are used to accentuate the action of the body. Delores Patrick, a social studies teacher of the Manchioneal all-age school in Portland describes this as: ... a celebration dance, said to be linked with the emancipation of slavery. In Manchioneal it is believed that they started out by going to 'Lazjr Bridge', on the main road to Kingston. They were going there because they had heard about the emancipation of slavery and were not sure if this was really true. They decided to meet at 'Lazy Bridge' and had a discussion, as a result of which rejoicing and celebration, the dance started, (personal communication, 1988)

The music used in Bruckings reflects the origins of the dance. One of the popular songs says, "Queen Victoria sets me free, this is the year of jubilee." This dance represents the Royal throne, a concept of the time. The celebration includes the King and other participants that is, the staff sergeant, the grandson and the Queen and her granddaughter. The form and content is reminiscent of certain 19th century dances. Participants are divided into two groups, one the red set and the other the blue set. Each set is led by children, knights and followers. In a second communication, Richard Derby, a member of the group in Manchioneal (1988), explained that the Queen plays the major role, since she is the one who gave freedom to the slaves. She is seen as taking the message to the slaves that they now have their freedom. The dance is in three parts: (1) the procession in which the set enter, (2) the competition in which the sets take turns dancing, and (3) a finale in which both groups come together. The costumes are very rich and colorful. Today Bruckings party is found in the Kensington, Manchioneal area of Portland where the tradition is continued by both the old and the young. 32 Patrick (1988) believes that this is very important to the community. She claims it is a valuable part of our folk culture that should be preserved and properly documented since it plays such an important role in the Jamaican heritage. A combination of the religious beliefs and dances can also be seen among the Jamaican people. One such example is the Kumina dance which is also considered to be a religious cult. Kumina. Kumina (Plate XIII) is a spiritual dance having religious connotations, centered around communications with ancestors, that is the spirits of the dead related to the people alive. It developed from the interaction of Central Africans, other groups of African people, and the Europeans they encountered when they entered Jamaica. As mentioned by Ryman (1988), this dance was brought to Jamaica when Central Africans were taken to the Islands as indentured laborers after Emancipation. They brought with them a whole system of literature, folklore, and traditions which included Kumina. This was similar to forms already in place such as revival. The people from Central Africa settled mainly in St. Thomas in the eastern end of the Island. St. Thomas is considered the traditional home of this dance form. The nature of this dance and the rituals that accompany it gave the people of St. Thomas a reputation for practicing voodoo (or "obeah" as it is called in Jamaica). Today the people of St. Thomas refer to themselves as Africans. The dance they do in St. Thomas is sometimes referred to as a "Kaloonga" dance. The Kumina ceremony is centered on the dance done by groups, couples, or individuals and relates to a combination of body movements. The body is usually held upright with feet slightly apart. The central feature of the movement is a "dippy" action with the hips. As 33 Africans they see themselves as upholding traditional beliefs in which music, dance, drawing, and possession by the ancestors or "Encruya" are important features. Special occasions for the ceremony include mourning, baptism, memorial, thanks giving, prosperity, and marriage. There are various groups of leaders in the Kumina ritual, depending on the need. The main purpose of the group is to recall the African ancestor. As science specialists and organizational leaders, these people attempt to perform rituals to attract and communicate with the ancestors. One of the popular leaders. Jingle, demonstrates the Kumina dance in a ritual where he sets out to tie the unknown to the known and heal the sick. They would start out by having a warm up session in which they would anoint the drums, greet each other, raise a song, and play a basic kind of rhythm which would suddenly end up with a change in the pace of the music. A goat is then brought in, killed, the blood is spilled, then consumed. At times the blood would be mixed with rum or herbs that were brought in to anoint some of the older members of the Kumina group. This was usually the peak of possession at which time the ancestral spirits would arrive and take part in the ceremony through the bodies of the living. The carcass of the goat would then be cleaned and prepared in a meal. One portion would be cooked without salt and put aside for the spirits together with a selection of costumes that were gathered. This act cleanses and uplifts the community. It is a way of thanksgiving and promoting peace. The dance varies as the vigor of the ritual continues and the night progresses. As the drums vibrate, there is a feeling that the music and dance are compelling. Ryman (1988) explains that the Kumina group believes that this dance form makes sense of their life, this is what gives meaning, and this is 34 true for those forms that can be found in the Caribbean relating to Kumina. It has sustained a large group of people who normally might have lost hope had it not been for these ceremonies. The strong religious concepts that these dance forms exhibit has made a significant contribution not only in dance and the visual arts, but also in other religious beliefs, such as Revivalism, of the diverse cultural groups present in Jamaica. In addition to the development of the arts, further development can be also seen in the education system. 35

Plate II: Revival Group 36

Plate ni: Pocomania Dance 37

Plate IV: Jonkonnu Street Parade

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Plate V: Jonkonnu Band 39

Plate VI: Baffou

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Plate VII: Set Girls

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Plate VIE: Pitch! Patch!

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Plate IX: Pitch! Patch! and Cows-Head 43

Plate X: Actor boy 44

Plate XI; Bruckings Party 45

Plate XH: Mayal (1974) 46

Plate Xni: Kumina 47

Plate XrV: European Migration 48

Plate XV: African Scenario 49

Plate XVI: Negro Dance 1

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Plate XVII: Negro Dance 2 51

Plate XVIII: Celbration Dance 52

Plate XIX; Edna Manley at Work 53

Plate XX: Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" With Some of His Works

" * k :V<-' 54 The Tamaican Educational System Only "white" schools were set up during slavery for the children of the privileged, as it was deemed unnecessary for the children of the slaves to be educated. After making an attempt to introduce Christianity to the slave population, missionaries saw it necessary to administer the Negro Education Grant, which was passed after the abolition of slavery in 1834 (Lumb, 1898) in order to provide education for everyone. With the allocation of the Negro Education Grant, day schools were established and were used for infants, noontime and adult classes, as well as Sunday Schools. For efficiency, inspectors were appointed to supervise these schools. Employed teachers were of several categories: some were Europeans sent out by the parent missionary societies in England and other white persons who were residing on the island; others were the adult coloured persons who were sufficiently literate to conduct schools (Whyte, 1983). This grant allowed for an agreement between the government and the church in developing an elementary educational program, but didn't make proper provisions for funding. Thus, due to economic strains, the grant was terminated. With the arrival of the missionaries to Jamaica the first schools were established. These were patronized by whites who were unable to send their children back to England. As was the custom in England, a few Jamaican families had governesses to teach their girls music, writing, and feminine graces. No consideration was given by anyone in this society to building schools for the slave children during the greater part of this pre-emancipation period. Only informal education was available for them as the Missionaries discreetly took the opportunity during Sunday schools to teach simple arithmetic and writing. Groups of very young children were looked after by 55 one of the older slave women until they were old enough to join the plantation workers. In August 1833, the British Parliament passed the Act of the Abolition of Slavery in the British colonies (Lumb, 1898, p. 38). Among its clauses was a providing for the moral and religious education of the Negro population upon liberal and comprehensive principles (Whyte, 1983). Due to a lack of funds in the early 1840s, the responsibility for financing education was placed on churches and legislatures. The churches continued to maintain their schools despite financial hardships in both England and the colonies. The Jamaican Assembly showed awareness of its responsibility by establishing an Education Board in 1843 and voted to approve one thousand pounds per year for educational purposes (Lumb, 1898, p. 38). For a fairly long period of time thereafter, the church played a dominant role in the education of the country. Even today, several schools in Jamaica are still strongly supported by churches. Church boards may be responsible for certain administrative functions of the school; while the students would be required to attend regular service at the church that is associated with that particular school. The church boards are also involved in fund raising activities for the school as well as school feeding programs for the less able students. Several problems in the educational system arose throughout the 18th century to the middle of the 20th century (Whyte, 1983). The economic depression of the early 1930s created significant hardships in the West Indies. Poor social and economic conditions among the laboring class led to much discontent. Attempts to organize labor resulted in riots throughout the British West Indies between 1935 and 1938. Educated members of the middle 56 class became more disenchanted with the Crown Colony Government, and their criticisms and demands helped to gain Representative Government for Jamaica in 1944. The new constitution provided for greater participation in the government by the people, and the role of education in national development became greater than under the previous constitution. The fact that the output of the educational system would influence all other spheres of the government's activities had become evident (Whyte, 1983).

The Transition of the Educational System. With the more recently established Caribbean Examinations (first established in 1976), students are given the opportunity to take exams at the local level. These exams focus on materials that enhance knowledge acquisition of information relevant to the Jamaican and Caribbean society, and replace the previous General Certificate Examination. At the tertiary level, (the College of Art, Science, and Technology, teacher - training colleges, and the University of the West Indies and its sister campuses in the Caribbean), the people of Jamaica have been provided with relevant information to educate them about their heritage. The Regional Educational Development in the Caribbean (PREDE) has also maintained special care concerning the relation between educational processes and each groups culture. National projects and publications have been encouraged to carry out the objectives of maintaining folk cultures and including them in the curricula, in teacher training, in school texts, and generally in all aspects of the educational process. As part of its framework, it affirms "the need to more adequately align the educational systems with the demands of economic, social, and cultural development" (OAS, 1987, p. 1). 57 From the primary to secondary schools in Jamaica, different aspects of culture are introduced in the classroom environment. This can be seen as students prepare for the "National festival competitions" where they display their talents in dance, music, drama, art, and poetry. The tertiary institutions and community at large are also involved not only in these competitions, but to commemorate aspects of the different groups of people to be found in the Jamaican society. Some of these include Spanish, English, Chinese, Indians, Germans, Maroons, and Africans.

Art Education in Jamaican Schools From observation and research, I will share what I have seen as the teaching of art in the Jamaican schools. The Infant and Basic Schools. Art education in the infant and basic schools is usually taught by untrained teachers and considered as a pastime rather than an academic subject. In most cases, children would do drawings mainly with pencils because that was the only drawing medium available. Primarv Schools. Art education is considered an academic subject and in the recent past, is taught in a more structured manner in primary schools. As stated by the Ministry of Education, all children at this level should be exposed to art classes. However, little interest has been given to the subject by most teachers as it is occasionally taught once per week, usually on a Friday afternoon. Lessons were often taught by untrained teachers and were seen as adjunct to the school curriculum. The activities taught include mainly drawings with titles such as "a day at the beach," "my birthday party," "market day," "a trip to the zoo," and "a rainy day." Another very popular activity was object printing that is mainly done with vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots. 58 cabbage, or other objects, like a cotton reel, that serve as a printing tool. Prints are done on fabric and sometimes complimented with embroidery. Art then, to a large extent is combined with needlework and treated more as craft. Because of this combination, these classes consist mainly of girls; the boys are sent outside to work in the gardens where vegetables and plants are grown. Both sets of activities are considered to be extremely useful as both boys and girls are encouraged to become members of the 4H Club (Hand, Head, Heart, and Health), which allowed them to produce work for displays and national competitions. The items produced by the students are often displayed at the schools on "Open Day," which is held at least once each year for parents and individuals living in the community. A concert is often held to climax this activity. More recently, however, more interest is being given to art students in the primary schools as teachers are more adequately trained to accommodate students' needs in art learning. One can also see a difference in the variety of art materials that are used although they are limited to some extent because of financial constraints and art exhibitions that are sponsored by the Ministry of Education. The primary and all-age schools mounted their first exhibition at the Institute of Jamaica in 1975; this exhibit was sponsored by Neville Dawes,who was then the Chairman of the Institute, and it was coordinated by Clifton Campbell who was the Education Officer responsible for the primary schools. Secondary Schools. \Mthin the secondary school system, art is compulsory from first form to third form (7th to 9th grade) and is usually taught by a teacher specialized in art education. Students interested in doing external examinations will continue to do the subject to fifth form (11th 59 grade). In the past, the exams (General Certificate Examinations) were based strictly on drawing-and painting-skills and were originally instituted in England. This required that students submit a portfolio of course work done during the fifth year, along with exam work that had 3 parts. Part (1) figure drawing, (2) life drawing, and (3) still life. If the students were successful, they would continue to do art in grades twelve and thirteen, where they would take the advanced level of the General Certificate Examination that basically had the same requirements. Today, administrators and teachers see it fit for students to take the recently established Caribbean Examinations, since they are more relevant to the students' environment. Although there are similarities in both examinations; in the course work requirements and the three parts, there were several obvious differences. Differences can be seen in the structure of questions where under the British exams students were sometimes asked to draw objects or fruits that are not found in the region. Another obvious difference is that the recently implemented Caribbean examination requires students to do an illustrated paper as a part of their course work. The illustrated paper often allows students to acquire knowledge of Caribbean artists and the different kinds of art forms that are found in the region. The recent efforts in Jamaica to formulate curriculums appropriate to and inclusive of the diverse Caribbean culture are in some always, but not in all ways, related to the concept of multiculturalism as expressed outside of Jamaica, specifically in the United States. In looking at diverse cultures however, concerns of multiculturalism forced me to see how it applies to the Jamaican people. The term multiculturalism might not apply specifically to Jamaicans but relates to the diverse cultures that are a part of the Jamaican 60 heritage. Therefore, I decided to substitute the term diverse cultures when referring to Jamaican heritage in this study, because of the blending of cultures among the Jamaican people which I have indicated earlier reflect in the Jamaican national motto, "Out of Many one People." The term, diverse cultures also allows the students in this study to see the diverse cultures that are represented in the artworks of Jamaican artists, as well as protecting me from political issues that might arise from administrators in Jamaica. Some of these political issues are centered around the fact that within the Jamaican society factors such as gender or sexual preferences (although might exist), are not obvious enough for the public in general to be concerned about. As seen in countries like the United States, the concept of multiculturalism attempts to address the inclusion of all race and cultures that are present across the nation and issues such as gender and sexual preferences. The shared diversity of culture found in the United States and Jamaica makes looking at theories of multiculturalism appropriate to my study and has motivated me to explore the "relationship of contextual cultural information and learning on students' ability to recall, interpret and give meaning to Jamaican works of art." Hence I will talk briefly about the multicultural content in art education, and how Jamaican students might learn about culture and art through formal and informal instruction.

Multiculturalism and its Practices in American Art Education The word culture usually refers to the customs, skills, ideas, art, etc., of a given people over a stated period of time. The study of culture focuses on the behavioral patterns, symbols, institutions, values, and other human-made components of society. However, anthropologists have 61 defined culture as a common way of perceiving, believing, and evaluating. Writers such as Bourguinon, 1979; Wallace, 1961 have described culture as a shared organization of ideas that include the intellectual, moral, and aesthetic standards. This definition as suggested by Bourguinon and Wallace, is useful as it encompasses both social (man as a member of society) and psychological (the acquisition of patterns of behavior and cognitive orientations) components of culture. The individual's expression of culture depends upon the continuing opportunities she or he has had in a society to learn both the primary culture and a diversity of sub-cultures and what she or he has chosen to accept or reject from these. A holistic view of culture encourages how we interact in and experience our surroundings, what objects we make and utilize, and what we do, think, feel, and say. Hodges (1987) believes that culture patterns the ways in which we perceive both our physical and social environments, what we believe to be true about the environment, and how we organize our responses to it. In looking at the need for both the identification and inclusion of diverse cultures in Jamaican artworks, it seems necessary to try and understand the need for multicultural education. Several definitions have been recognized for multicultural education in the United States. Nieto (1992) suggests the following: A process of comprehensive and basic education for all students. Multicultural education challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, gender, etc.) that students, the communities, and teachers represent. Multicultural education permeates the curriculum and instructional strategies used in school as well as the interactions among teachers, students, and parents, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as its 62 underlying philosophy and focuses on knowledge, reflection and action (praxis) as the basis for social change, multicultural education furthers the democratic principles of social justice, (p. 307)

Many controversies have arisen regarding the development of the concept of multiculturalism. Several American writers have argued for implementation of a multicultural curriculum in the general education system (Banks, 1991; & 1986; Blandy & Congdon, 1991; Congdon, 1987). Some of these studies have shown that lack of exposure to multiple cultures results in absence of: (1) esteem for cultures, (2) knowledge of historical perspectives and (3) differences in world perspectives. It also inhibits the ability to successfully interact with individuals and groups with different cultural backgrounds (Daniel, 1990).

Multicultural Content in Art Education Although I was unable to locate studies that investigated multicultural influences of art, art has been seen to contain a variety of functions in society and is often studied in terms of how it communicates and directs meanings. It also serves as a tool in communication of ideas and emotions from one person to another. Art is used to give character, identity, and status to groups of people through mutually recognized symbols found within their own cultural systems. Through art one can recognize social behaviors and social structures in a society. In this way art maintains a sense of reality in a culture's belief system and it identifies the status and roles of peoples and institutions. Art can also provide opportunities for the individual to relate to his or her environment. Cultures differ not only in how art functions within that society but in what is primarily looked upon as art. 63 A multicultural curriculum should reflect the cultures of diverse groups as well as the common culture. The schools' curricula, therefore, should respect the ethnic affiliations of students and make positive use of them. The goals of educators should not only be to help students function in the common culture, but in their own and others as well (Daniel 1990). A multicultural curriculum should not be limited to the view of the country of origin but should utilize a global point of view. This approach means the inclusion of cultures on an international level, the study of global problems and of the various cultural materials necessary to understand them. Some of these examples include the economic, political, and social norms in a particular society; or the study of cultural conflicts in the world; or the study of worldwide concerns such as war, environment, and poverty. Looking at multicultural content in art education enabled me to see the relevance for reminding Jamaican elementary students about their multiple cultural heritage. Since art is so embedded in cultural traditions, comparisons of artistic values and styles are difficult to measure according to any universal standard. In examining art from a cultural perspective, anthropologists tend to identify most examples of visual symbolism and decoration as art. Kaeppler (1976) gives a description of art from an anthropological point of view in the following: ... art may be defined as cultural forms that result from that creative process which manipulates movement, sound, words, or materials. . . . An anthropologist cannot be said to understand the art of another culture unless he or she can comprehend how that art is regarded by the society in question, (p. 21) 64 For effective teaching of art from a multi-cultural perspective, teachers will need help in structuring the mass of data about race, culture, and ethnicity in relation to art to make it manageable. Daniel & Daniel (1979) suggest six approaches towards this end: 1) DIVERSIFYING THE EXISTING CURRICULUM - requires only that the ethnic materials be inserted into existing curriculum, developing new materials that solely address ethnic content. In this approach ethnic perspectives and viewpoints are ignored, permitting only the use of stripped examples.

2) THE ENHANCEMENT OF BASIC SKILLS - encourages the use of ethnic materials for teaching fundamental skills. For example, the skills of color discrimination and recognition of shapes can be taught to young learners using Navajo weavings. This approach also permits students to participate in some decision-making about their preferences for various pieces and to question the reason for these preferences.

3) THE CONCEPTUAL APPROACH - organizes information that is applicable to all ethnic groups. In art, generic concepts such as communication, symbology, propaganda, ritual, spiritualism, environment, and changes are examples. Enhancement of this method requires looking beyond the Euro-centric mode for materials which are non-traditional and possibly non-majority which collectively form a widely applicable umbrella concept. The goal here is to move from the development of concepts to the selection and organization of curriculum materials to the development of classroom activities and instructional strategies for implementation.

4) THE THEMATIC APPROACH - emphasizes themes that characterize the human condition and are pervasive across cultures and ethnic groups, possibly over long historical periods. The themes largely act upon the current condition of the nation as exemplified by survival tactics, cultural coping mechanisms, responses to inequities and injustice, generational conflicts, and freedom struggles. Such organizing principles place the focus on the individual ethnic group.

5) THE EXTENSION MODEL - is designed to make ethnic content more comprehensible, cohesive, and far-reaching throughout the various areas of art and on a grander scale, throughout the schools' instructional programs. It encourages the extension of cultural content beyond a single course such as "Art and World Cultures," or "Art and Ethnicity" to other courses in ceramics, weaving, and painting among 65 others. This permits the addition of perspectives pertinent to a concept from several disciplines. In using this approach teachers need not be expected to extend themselves beyond their areas of expertise.

6) MATERIALS AND PROCESSES - learning experiences are based on materials and processes common to cultural groups which may be diverse. That is, a unit of study which could be based on wood sculpture from West Africa, Asia, and Colonial America or the process of fabric batik might touch methods from Java, India, and Nigeria. Units of study prepared at this level provide for exploration of idiosyncratic approaches motivated by cultural tradition, function and aesthetic preference, (p. 10-11)

Some of these issues discussed by Daniel and Daniel (1979), relate to the Jamaican situation. For example: (1) the introduction of text that focuses on historical truths (as discussed earlier) into the existing curriculum, (2) the development of materials that relate to the syllabus for the recently established Caribbean Examination; (3) the use of Jamaican folk tales to teach social studies; (4) combining the Ministry of Culture with the Ministry of Education in order to organize principles or in the language of Daniel and Daniel Daniel, "survival tactics, cultural coping mechanisms, responses to inequities and injustice, generational conflicts, and freedom struggles" (p. 21). In looking at developing new ideas, in this study evidence of the "extension model" and "material and process" can be seen where contextual information about the Jamaican heritage was introduced as instructional material for teaching art in order to expose students to diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. These approaches can be adjusted to accommodate the needs of students and the community to be served. Diverse cultural instruction in art must be directed to aiding students in developing ideas which they can apply to new situations. 66 Chalmers (1978) indicates that art needs to be understood within its original context, because not all people respond in the same way. Art may move us emotionally, but that experience does not help us to understand it. Isolated admiration or appreciation of works of art from other cultures by sensual experience alone can lead to misunderstandings. If we accept the notion that there are culturally different aesthetic perspectives, then we are ready for the multi-cultural challenge. This challenge can be met by focusing curricula on comparative aesthetics, looking at art and interpreting works of art from multiple perspectives (pp. 18-25). In many cultures, art is considered one of the most vital tools for communication, and its aesthetics facilitates its comprehension. These views are usually approached through a branch of philosophy which establishes structures for interpreting the meaning of beauty, or a group of concepts for understanding matters of art (Ambush, 1993). In relation to cognition. Ambush talks about the process of aesthetic appraisal, communicable interaction between knowledge, a subject, and a cultural object capable of being appreciated. As art teachers, we need to be knowledgeable about ethnic groups and aspects of our own heritages that are represented in our community. Effort should then be made to share this knowledge with our students. Quite often, art teachers are selecting artworks for their students to study that represent a mono-cultural view. Blandy and Congdon (1991) encourage art educators to stay away from a mono-cultural view of our world or of our communities because such an approach is no longer tenable. An obvious example is the replacement of European focused exams with more Caribbean oriented examinations in Jamaica. Blandy and Congdon (1991) believe that: 67 Integral. . . should be a consideration of the discourse with which these works are brought to the attention of students as well as the history of the discourse already associated with this art. What people say about the works is intimately connected to the theories and practices guiding the current collections from which these works come. (p. 27)

The art culture system causes us to ask where the masterpieces are and who the great artists are without questioning the concept of masterpieces or of the appropriateness of such questions (Blandy & Congdon, 1991). Other problems might evolve, such as economics and biases among the social strata. Hence, there may be problems in deciding which artworks are appropriate to introduce to students for the purpose of learning and understanding. Who makes these choices also becomes problematic: A historical contextual understanding of art and the collecting process which has caused us to value one work over another is needed. We can no longer study artwork without knowing about the artist and the culture from which it was produced and appreciated. We should also understand who collected it and how and why they made their artistic choices (Blandy and Congdon, 1991, p. 35).

Art educators should ensure that adequate preparations are made to accommodate students as they engage in their art learning experiences. If teachers help students become more aware of art in different contexts and cultures, students may be better able to understand themselves in terms of their own cultural background. Students may in turn be more critically aware of the message relayed in their own and other people's art.

Multiculturalism and the Jamaican Education System As mentioned earlier, the notion of multiculturalism might not be specifically related to the Jamaican society, therefore the term diverse cultures will be substituted. However, with the effort being made by the Ministry 68 of Education to include texts that are more relevant to the Jamaican heritage, evidence of diverse cultural issues have been addressed in the education system. With help from the Organization of American States (OAS) and United Nations Educational and Scientific Organization (UNESCO), effort has also been made to expose students to diverse cultural education. Although only few schools have shared this experience of diverse cultural education, the OAS and UNESCO has organized educational programs with embassies from different cultures that are present on the island, in order to expose the Jamaican students to various cultural norms. These norms often include the arts, especially the visual arts. If Jamaican students experience a learning situation where they are exposed to the works of art relating to their cultural diversity, they will be better able to relate to their heritage and the connections between each cultural group. The diversity of individuals in the art classroom establishes a richness of cultural structures. Education through art implicitly confers a development of personal expressiveness, richly textured and multidimensional. As Edna Manley once indicated, the art of Jamaican people has often omitted documentation of its heritage. She emphasizes that the Jamaican people should be encouraged to relate to the "African aspects of their heritage" (Boxer, 1983). With continuous effort being made by Jamaican artists to use the arts in helping to retain the multiple cultural heritage, it should be considered important to include context on diverse cultural influences in the teaching of art in Jamaican schools. 69 Summary This chapter looks at the history of Jamaica and is presented in three sections: the cultural history, the educational system, and theories of multiculturalism and their applicability in a Jamaican context. This information will allow readers to understand factors such as the heritage of the Jamaican people, the cultural influences and the key focus of this study: how two teaching methods affect the abilities of elementary students to recall and interpret of diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. CHAPTER 111 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Overview In this chapter, I will first explain the main theory of the study and the research design, as it relates to the title, the "Effects of contextual information on elementary students ability to recall, interpret and give meaning to Jamaican works of art." Results will be examined by focusing on the way in which information is acquired be it through formal or informal instruction, and by examining the effects of instruction on the learning of concepts in order to recall information, interpret ideas and possibly give meaning to a work of art. The second part of this chapter will describe the two teaching methods and the selection of participants and location. This chapter also provides a description of the treatment during experimentation, and the data gathering techniques and connections with the theory and research questions. In addition I have also looked at issues of validity and procedures to enhance trustworthiness.

Contextual Information and Learning Having looked at the need for Jamaican elementary students to study artworks that relate to their diverse cultural heritage and influences, I saw it necessary to investigate the literature associated with contextual information

70 71 and learning. This investigation allowed me to identify how the students utilized their memory in order to recall and interpret contextual information. In learning, contextual information can be explained as concepts, processes, facts, and values that are being taught about a particular subject. Issues of contextual information have been discussed in several fields of education. For example; in the field of psychology, Dubitsky, (1981) looked at "verifying inferences from conversations." In this study, Dubitsky measured students latency responses that both related or did not relate to contextual information. The results indicated that responses that "that related to context took less time to verify and were rated truer than those that were not compatible with the context." For responses that did not relate to context "both true and false types based on implied information were rated closer . . . and took longer to verify than those based on explicit information" (p.3). In reading comprehension, Teale (1977) looked at "the act of reading written speech and the role that contextual information plays in reading" (p. 1). Teale concludes that "reading comprehension is dependent not merely on the text but on the transaction that occurs as a result of reader information meeting author information" (p. 1). In the visual arts, the idea of contextual information and learning has been supported by researchers Chanda, (1992); Koroscik, (1992b); Koroscik, Desmond & Brandon, 1985; Chapman, (1978); and Feldman, (1973). Contextual information is a necessary step to contextual understanding which Chanda (1992), indicates "comes from connecting the work with its environment - social, cultural, political, economic - in an attempt to see how these phenomena have influenced the creation and presentation of the work of art" (p. 1). In looking at contextual information and learning and 72 contextual understanding, one might be able to see some form of connection since understanding can be considered as an indication of learning. However, as seen in this study, differences in these two concepts can be identified since contextual information and learning relate to the students' ability to grasp historical facts about the Jamaican heritage and artworks. On the contrary, contextual understanding (although not a part of this study) focuses on the students' ability to connect factual information with artworks in order to see how these facts have influenced artworks that are produced by Jamaican artists. Chapman (1978) looks at context and explains that it is important because without context one might not be able to determine the importance of things that we might encounter. Therefore, for the Jamaican students, contextual information on Jamaican works of art will assist them in understanding the role that cultural heritage plays in the artworks that are produced by Jamaican artists. ! Different approaches can be taken to introduce contextual information to students, and as seen in this study, students were often asked to compare artworks with contextual information in several of the tasks. Koroscik etal (1985) supports classroom practices where students compare artworks with related written statements and explains: These approaches to the study of art engage viewers in complex cognitive activity as visual forms are translated on the basis of contextually presented or spontaneously generated verbalization. (p. 13)

In the study presented in this paper, contextual information served as cues for the students as they proceeded from one task to the next. In order to become familiar with what students did with contextual information, I 73 believe it is necessary to examine ways in which students can learn or make use of contextual information which can be acquired either by formal or informal instructions. In this study, contextual information included historical facts as well as critical statements that have been made about Jamaican works of art. This information might be considered to be a factor of formal knowledge. On the contrary, information that students gather through daily experiences such as the encounter of a Pocomania band while walking on the street, can be referred to as informal knowledge.

Formal and Informal Knowledge Formal knowledge is provided when the teacher interacts with students, giving them precise instructions and background information. In the context of this study informal knowledge might be equated with the students exposure to cultural norms at home such as religion, dance, music and so on. For this study both formal and informal knowledge were important in order to provide students with cultural information that guided them in their responses to the tasks. Through formal instruction students are exposed to the contextual information that relates to the major races that make up the Jamaican heritage, the Africans, Chinese, Europeans, and Indians. The students are then better able to develop an understanding of Manley's and Reynolds's background and how the term diverse cultures relates to the island and its population. Formal and informal knowledge can come in different ways such as listening about art and making art. Contextual information can then be gathered by formal process which is the actual instruction given by the 74 teacher, or by informal process such as casual conversation with friends and parents, and observation of culture. As an art educator who believes in creative methods of teaching I have implemented methods of teaching which involve formal instruction of contextual information that might help students express their ideas either by recall or interpretation. However, I strongly believe that if students are expected to make efficient use of formally instructed contextual information during an art instruction, it is necessary for teachers to be familiar with concepts of learning and information processing. Since Jamaican elementary students become engaged in formal art-learning activities in this study, I will make an attempt to look at aspects of memory, the stages of inquiry in art, and the relationships between recall and interpretation.

Learning Concepts Learning concepts are often looked at in terms of (1) cognitive development, (2) processing of information, and (3) problem solving. I believe if a student processes information appropriately their learning can be enhanced, or if students attempt to solve problems they can learn by or through solving that problem. These three learning concepts are important to my study as they help me to identify how students develop ideas for recall and interpretation of cultural information relating to Jamaican works of art. The learning concepts also enable me to identify the attempts students make at responding to learning tasks that were implemented. Cognitive development. An important issue in the area of cognition is understanding the stages of development. The notion of stages is certainly not new and they are sometimes referred to as levels of development. Both 75 cognitive psychologists and art educators have looked at the stages of development (Piaget, (1952); Vygotsky, (1978); Lowenfeld, (1964); Chapman, (1978); and Shuell, (1986)). Piaget's theory of developmental stages are centered around four factors: (1) the sensory-motor stage from birth to one and a half year old, where a child experiences the world through basic sense (memory) and motor (through action/motor), (2) the preoperational stage of thinking from approximately age one and a half to six years where the child's thoughts precedes reasoning with logic, (3) concrete - operational thinking where although logic might be influenced by reality, the child attempts to show evidence of logic throughout thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking which begins at about age six and continues to adolescence. During this stage operations are embedded into reality where logic shows signs of elaboration by thinking abstractly and hypothetically. Vygotsky's focus in on experiential learning. For him, learning by contact with society, its symbols and other cultural factors id the source for human development. He identifies the concept of the "zone of proximal development." This zone is defined as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration," (1978, p. 86). This concept reflects the belief that culture plays an initial role in learning and the development of oneself. This idea of culture and development by Vygotsky supports my idea of exploring the relationship between contextual information about the Jamaican culture and works of art. This contextual information as suggested earlier will be formal or informal. Informal in this case relates to Vygotsky's 76 idea of "experiential learning," learning from experience or in this study, to be more precise, cultural experiences. In looking at cognitive development in art, Lowenfeld (1964)has utilized Piagets' stages and suggests that in art a child goes through basic stages which involve (1) scribbling (2-4 yr. old), and is the first form of creative expression of which the child should not be denied. The child has little control over muscular co-ordination and movement is usually from the shoulder, the child has no control over what he or she scribbles and the scribbles often relate directly to the child's own development; (2) pre schematic or descriptive symbolism (4-6 yrs.), sees the child achieving mastery of materials and beginning to use art to express his or her concepts or images from observation; (3) schematic (6 - 9), the child attempts to relate his experiences and impressions, the child does x-ray drawings that are two- dimensional, and there is evidence of base-line; (4) gang age or visual realism (9 -11 yrs.), the child shows an awareness of the things he or she is exposed to, begins to draw from nature more than memory or imagination, and the drawing shows a third dimension; (5) repression or stage of reasoning (12-13 yrs.), and (6) crisis of adolescence from age 13 where the child focuses on drawing to please himself by drawing what he wants to, or might even develop his own style in his representations. These two last stages are of particular interest to me since the 6th grade elementary students in this study were recognized at this stage, not only by age but also by the effort they applied in reasoning when giving meaning to their individual works of art. Chapman's (1978) ideas of the stages of development are sometimes referred to as levels of development and are similar to Lowenfeld's stages of artistic development. According to Chapman at the level (1) the child makes 77 markings in a scribble like manner in their first encounters with art making; level (2) is associated with age 3 and the child begins to draw instead of marking and the child is observed to be making connections or associating lives and shapes; level (3) occurs around age 4 or 5 and the child uses lives and shapes to represent the content of their drawing such as people, animals and objects; level (4) involves the child formulating his or her own ideas that are expressed in their individual artwork. This level is described by Chapman as an early experience stage and suggests that this last level might lead the child into looking "for models of performance in peers, adults, or in their own previous work" (p. 145). Chapman also explains that at this level there is a tendency for the child to "capture the most important features of their personal experiences,. .. the imagery becomes very personal and detailed" (p. 146). This last level of Chapman is quite similar to Lowenfeld's "stage of reasoning" and the "crisis of adolescence." From this study, evidence of children's thoughts at these last stages as suggested by Chapman and Lowenfeld, will be gathered as they create their individual artworks. Shuell (1986) has indicated that "cognitive psychology is concerned with various mental activities (such as perception, thinking, knowledge, representation, and memory) related to human information processing and problem solving" (p. 414). Therefore for students to express what they learn, processing of information will be involved. Processing of Information. The stages of a child's development is sometimes related to the development or comprehension of a heard message that might require stages in processing information, such as, recall recognition and interpretation. In looking briefly at the information 78 processing stages. Service’* (1987) suggests that one of the most popular views • of human information processing was based on a three-box memory system. The three box-memory system suggests that information is first stored in a sensory register that sorts the information into category and then connects them to whatever information is already in memory. This new information is then stored in Short Term Memory (STM). STM is made up of small bits of information which only last for a very short period of time or as Efland suggests, are inert because they are not in immediate use. However, by unlimited attempts at rehearsal, retrieval of information can sometimes be enhanced and transferred to Long Term Memory (LTM), which is believed to be more or less permanent. Long Term Memory is so described because it relates to the mental faculty of retaining and recalling an experience or facts that are in effect for a long time. The problem of forgetting needed material as Service indicates, will affect LTM. As seen in her figure for a prototype model of information, LTM searches for information from STM, leading back to the sensory store (see Figure 1).

'^Professor: Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki. 79

REHEARSAL

IMPUT > SENSORY > STM <------> LTM STORE

OUTPUT

Figure 1. Service: Prototype Model of Information Flow Between Memory components.

As suggested by Allport (1980), there is little evidence about the capacity of STM. The capacity limits of STM as he continues, do not seem to be set by any particular quantity or bits of information but rather by the processing time. This indicates that the amount of information that can be placed in STM might not be limited to any specific quantity but will depend on the length of time it remains in STM. Therefore the faster information leaves STM, the amount of information that might pass through, it will increase. The structure of the methods of instructions in this study was informed by the three-box memory system. Continuous exposure to cueing tasks, may have helped students to secure information in their STM in order 80 to respond to tasks that follow. This information could be retrieved at a later date from LTM where the information eventually will be stored from task to task. Because of the short period of time for this study (one week), I referred to LTM as the students' ability to retain contextual information from formal instruction and prior informal experiences with culture and art in order to make connections with each tasks. Baddeley (1983) explains that the memory model in learning was developed mainly to explain and predict the processing of information in every day activities. The processing of information might therefore result from an interpretive process and "maintenance of true-to-life representations possible when necessary" (Service, 1987. p. 87). For information to be interpreted, recall is often seen as a necessary step in the learning process, which might ultimately lead to solving problems. Problem solving was seen in this study where students were expected to recall contextual information in order to respond to instructional tasks Problem Solving. Problem solving can be related to talking about art or making art. Problem solving is reflected in the art making process so I will consider students' behaviours while creating art during the study, or what Armstrong (1986) refers to as the inquiry in art. Perkins and Simmons (1988) consider problem solving to be domain specific and to contain general search strategies. The key concept for Perkins and Simmons is organization. Parsons (1990) believes that for a problem to be solved there is a "correct solution or a narrow range of solutions" (p. 4). To relate the problem solving frame to the arts Parsons (1990) suggests that the notion of decision making would seem to fit because throughout this process one is required to make decisions that are adequately supported. For the 81 Jamaican elementary students, problem solving can be associated with tasks such as task 3 where the students were asked to match key artworks with selected artworks. During this study students are expected to make decisions as they respond to their tasks. Such decisions could be ones where students try to match artworks with ones that they believe are similar and by stating why they have made their particular choices. Decisions will be based on the processing of information relating to the components of their memory: what is stored and the quality or amount of information that can be retrieved from LTM in order to either show evidence of recall or interpretation. In designing teaching methods such as the ones in this study where students are allowed to develop concepts that are art related, the students must be constantly motivated as they proceed from one task to the other. In looking at the phases that students go through in my study, from recall to recognition and later interpretation, I would also look at what might be considered the phases of inquiry in producing art to see how it relates to my study, especially since students were involved in actually making their own artworks as a problem solving activity. Since we learn in stages, for Jamaican students to connect logic and contextual facts that are presented to them, they will need to have reached a level of cognitive development. At this level the student would be expected to think logically because they might be influenced by contextual information presented to them. The inquiry in art model as explained by Armstrong (1986), "consists of a hierarchy of thinking behaviours that are common to most persons producing art" (p. 37). The stages as Armstrong (1986) suggests, might lead 82 students to (1) discover, (2) visually analyze, (3) classify, (4) personalize, (5) hypothesize, (6) reorder, (7) synthesize, and (8) evaluate. (See Figure 2)

SET A DIRECTION DISCOVER HYPOTHESIZE

VISUALLY a n a l y z e REORDER

CLASSIFY PERSONALIZE SYNTHESIZE

Prlmiry sequence

Looping ______"sequence repeated for each concept e v a l u a t e

Possible parallel development ■“

Figure 2: Armstrong; Stages of Inquiry in Producing Art

Of these 8 behaviors mentioned, the ones that best relate to this study are, (1) discover, (2) classify, (3) personalize, and (4) evaluate. In the discovery stage the student attempts to acquire useful information that might be recalled, information such as media and cultural influences. Armstrong explains that this stage is important for teachers to consider " since general attention contributes to subsequent selective focus on pertinent sources of information, this stage serves to get students on "track" (p. 38). The relationship of this stage to the components of memory can be 83 closely linked to input of formal contextual information about the Jamaican multiple cultures. Another behavior classification, might be momentary and possibly unperceived, but it is considered an important stage of inquiry in art, as it involves the organization of masses of information. Dewey (1958) supports the importance of classification by saying, "New ideas come leisurely yet promptly to consciousness only when work has previously been done in forming the right doors by which they may gain entrance" (p. 72). Entrance here could be associated with the flow of input towards the sensory store and STM. Bruner on the other hand informs us about issues of confusion if the information is disorganized or lacks connectivity, "the key to retrieval is organization, or in simpler terms, knowing where to find information that has been put into memory" (Bruner, 1965, p. 95). To personalize is often associated with being original in the visual arts. One's personal value, interpretation, and subjectivity are emphasized at this stage, and as Armstrong (1986) indicates, "artists guard their right to prefer, to interpret, and to portray their chosen truth. They cherish individuality and harbor strong inclinations to pursue their predilections" (p. 39). For students to personalize, LTM comes into play as the student's LTM looks back at STM for whatever relevant information that can be retrieved. During the stage of evaluation the students are asked to reflect on the artworks that they produce. Evaluative questions might focus on the students accomplishments which guides the student into his/her own criterion-referred evaluation or as seen in this study, students are either questioned about their drawings or asked to talk about them. 84 In comparing models, Armstrong (1986) has identified five hierarchical constructs - problem solving, inquiry skills, art behaviours, creative process and learning process - and these are shown in Table 1. These comparisons show some level of compatibility between behavior and productive thinking skills. Although similarities can be identified, Armstrong (1986), believes that only the inquiry art model "comprehensively accommodates behaviours collectively deemed critical to creative art production by artists, art educators, psychologists, and philosophers" (p. 44) 85 Table 1 Comparison of Inquiry in Art Behaviors With Other Hierarchies

Inquiry Problem Inquiry Art Creative Learning in Art Solving Skills Behaviors Process Process Armstrong Dewey Koos Davis Hutchinson Gagne' (1983) (1910) (1970) (1971) (1949) (1974)

Set a Recognize Identify Expectancy Direction need phenom Internal ena to in ize vestigate problem Identify question. Discover Seek in Preparation formation from Attention: sources Visually Gather Discrim Perception Selective analyze data inate behaviors percep between tion likely & Knowing unlikely behaviors causes Classify Analytical Coding: behaviors M emory storage Personalize Reacting Incubation behaviors H ypothe Form hy Select Execution Insight, Retrieval size pothesis hspothesis behaviors Illumination Transfer method; Respond Identify- ing indepen dent variable to test Reorder Test hy Identify Judgement Elaboration pothesis assump and Eval Revision tions to uation interpret behaviors plan. Identify data pro duced by test. Synthesize Form gen Identify Execution Verification eralization justifi behaviors able conclu Evaluate sions Valuing Evaluations Reinforce Identify behaviors ment new questions 86 In looking at art-learning one is better able to understand how students apply their knowledge in recalling and forming interpretations of artworks as they become involved in tasks during art learning activities. Students' visual analysis and classification might enable students to better interpret and give meaning to selected works of art. By accepting that recall and recognition are stages leading to interpretation, the relevance of recall and in this study as the first phase leading towards interpretation becomes apparent. This is so because in order to ask students to interpret Jamaican artworks it is necessary for the students to recall relevant information from LTM that can be connected to the artworks before interpretation can occur. Therefore, I will first try to identify issues that relate to recall and then continue with a discussion on interpretation. By focusing on recall one can speculate on the relationship of recognition and interpretation based on individual responses to tasks, especially as seen among individuals who progressed to a more sophisticated level of elaboration by making meaning. It should be understood that this present study is not an attempt to test Armstrong's stages of inquiry in art production. Rather this study can be seen as an initial opportunity to explore students responses to tasks by ranking levels of recall (repetition of instructional content). As I conclude by looking at Bruner (1960), he states that different phases of childrens' intellectual growth progress through different stages. At each stage of development the child has a characteristic way of viewing the world and explaining it to himself. The task of teaching a subject to a child at any particular age is one of representing the structure of what can be thought of as translation, (p. 33) 87 In accepting that children go through different phases of intellectual growth, studying stages of interpretation seems quite appropriate. The focus of the following section therefore, will be on recall which, as I mentioned before, is a necessary step for children to develop interpretations. While reviewing the literature on recall, I was unable to identify any recent articles that deal specifically with the stages of recall as very little empirical evidence is available on the introductory phases of learning. However, I will attempt to design what I consider to be the different stages of recall with some reference to Bagley (1914).

Recall Researchers such as Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, and Anderson, (1988) indicate that recall is often associated with the introductory phase of learning. Therefore, I believe that whatever is to function effectively in consciousness must be capable of being recalled. This implies therefore that recall of experiences will be of extreme importance for interpretations, or as Bagley (1914) suggests, "the factors which condition the retrieval of experience will be of extreme importance from the educational point of view" (p. 169). Cognitive theorists, such as Anderson (1984), suggest that learning begins with students being able to convey ideas that are related to recall. This is due to the factual content that is involved. Students usually focus on retrieving factual information that is associated with formal and informal instructions. When examining the function of recall, I believe it is necessary to attempt to identify separate factors. These, as Bagley (1914) relates, are: (1) exposure (2) primacy, (3) vividness, and (4) frequency. 88 This first factor exposure, or input as the three-box memory system suggests, involves, as the term denotes, contact with the information to be recalled. As Bagley (1914), suggests, the more recently communicated is the information that is passed on, the more likely it is that the information will be brought up again. This might be considered the simplest form of knowledge since it takes no great cognitive effort to relay information. The second factor primacy, in the process of recall, often it is the most current thing that stays with us. Hence, in this study, in order to assist students towards primacy, the introduction of formal instruction was carefully and creatively presented. After exposure the information is lodged as a kind of first reference point. First impressions according to Bagley influence later ones. An example of this can be looked at for instance when one enters a new environment. What they see for the first time might remain with them but the preceding events while at this environment could remain very vague or shadowy. This relationship to my study therefore looked at the introduction of early tasks as they relate to the behavior and responses during later tasks, or what Armstrong (1986) describes as categorization and, for Service (1987) would be memory store. Looking at this stage it seems important for one to introduce the topic or subject to be studied in as comprehensive and agreeable as possible in order to help students. The value of vividness another factor, in promoting recall might be considered common knowledge because sections of the formal instruction might create a "deep" impression on students' minds. For students in this study, this could be similar to evoking life like impressions or images in their minds, or personalizing contextual information. Vividness is extremely important in education especially in the early stages when learners tend to 89 exhibit a low attention span. Unfortunately, contextual information might not go beyond STM. Impressions can be made more vivid through the contrast between one fact in the formal instruction and another. This can be addressed by cueing procedures where effort can be made to connect tasks to one another, allowing the retrieval of information from LTM. Frequency, is a key factor in recall, and also is the most common factor in recall. Frequency is essentially the number of repetitions. The greater the number of repetitions the more efficient the recall. Effort to avoid monotony should be addressed throughout the stage of frequency by designing tasks that vary to some extent, as seen in this study. In looking at the four stages of recall, attention plays an important role. The vividness of impressions enhances the students' attention. Bagley (1914) explains that vividness and frequency may be said to bear inverse relationship to each other since the less vivid the impression, the greater the number of repetitions necessary to insure recall. The relationship between attention and primacy is fairly clear. During the teaching process new impressions remain because they are vivid. Although the four stages being discussed here may be important factors in the process of recall, organization is also important to maximize efficient and relevant recall of facts. This is referred to by Perkins (1988) as "thought connections," or the grasping together of factual information. Combinations of sentences or facts that have no relation to one another can result from facts that are fixed within the mind by verbal repetition. An example of this in this study would be the students remembering facts from contextual information that are not related such as the discovery of Jamaica by Christopher Columbus and aspects of slavery that are represented in 90 artworks. Continuous exposure to those facts might allow them to remain in memory, but does not mean they will be organized in a relevant way. On the contrary, as Bagley (1914) suggests, once sentences or facts are relevant to each other, they may be lodged in memory without relying on sheer repetition for efficient recall. In this study, instead of students memorizing facts that might not be connected or relevant to each other, the focus was to emphasize the connection between facts, showing how each is related. As Efland (1992) suggests, similar to other subjects, information in art is not random but rather has the attributes of structure i.e. : It is structured in such a way that it can be either stored or retrieved efficiently. Information that is inadequately structured, by contrast is difficult to enter into storage (memory) or recalled. The structure of a body of knowledge is what gives it its disciplined character. (Efland, 1992, p. 44)

These theories of recall and organization have informed the structure of my study. The student will acquire new information, make connections, and organize them which might result in interpretations. By recalling and organizing facts from contextual information on Jamaican diverse cultures, the students might begin to move towards meaning by making interpretative responses to tasks.

Interpretation Reflecting on the researchers Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich and Anderson (1988) there are suggestions that recall is a necessary step towards interpretation. Spiro et.al (1988) talk about recall as the introductory phase of learning that leads to interpretations or advanced knowledge acquisition. As I focus on the term interpretation, I will look briefly at interpretation in art 91 and among several other fields, specifically from (1) from a philosophical, (2) critical, (3) historical, (4) ethnographic, and (5) anthropological perspective. Since students might attempt to give meaning to their interpretations, I will briefly look at the connection between interpretation and meaning. Most art educators believe that students efforts should concentrate on interpreting works of art. Sharing a definition of interpretation from a philosophical point of view. Parsons, (1990) suggests that: Interpretation requires making connections and organizing them into overall patterns or networks, rather than finding solutions or making decisions. If one understands an artwork well, one has to make many connections, and to organize these in some comprehensive way that creates relationships, makes sense of them, as is in the end the interpretation, (p. 42)

Although I believe that Parson's view is relevant to the definition of interpretation, I disagree with his point that interpretation does not require finding solutions or making decisions. This is so because the elementary students in this study combined interpretation with decision making. The students were expected to interpret artworks in order to make decisions in tasks where they were asked to match key artworks with selected artworks and Jamaican dances. The connections suggested by Parsons are associated with recall of contextual information on culture in this study, as the students attempt to connect information with what they already know. In the field of criticism, looking specifically at photography, Barrett (1993) suggests several principles of interpretation. They are as follows: 1. Artworks have 'aboutness' and demand interpretation. 2. Interpretations are persuasive arguments. 3. Some interpetations are better than others. 4. Good interpetations of art tell more about the artwork than they tell about the critic. 5. Feelings are guides to interpretations which can be different, competing and contradictory interpretations of the same artwork. 92 6. Interpretations are often based on a world view 7. Interpretations are not so much absolutely right, but more or less reasonable, convincing, enlightening and informative. 8. Interpetations can be judged by coherence, correspondence, and inclusiveness. 9. An artwork is not necessarily about what the artist wanted it to be about. 10. A critic ought not to be spokesman for the artist. 11. Interpretations ought to present the artwork for the artist. 12. The objects of interpretations are artworks, not artists. 13. All art is in part about the world in which it emerged. 14. All art is in part about other art. 15. No single interpretation is exhaustive of the meaning of an artwork. 16. The meaning of an artwork may be different from its significance to the viewer. 17. Interpretation is ultimately a communal endeavor, and the community is ultimately self corrective. 18. Good interpretations invite us to see for ourselves and to continue on our own. (p. 71)

Although these principles were designed for critics and specifically photography many are also relevant to this study. For instance, Barrett holds that "feelings are guides to interpretations." Barrett explains, "a person's ability to respond to a work of art is emotional as well as intellectual,... distinction between thought and feeling is false; on the contrary, thought and feeling are irrevocably intertwined" (P. 73). This is quite applicable to Jamaican elementary students since they will be looking at art that is embedded in the Jamaican culture and thus potentially full of personal and cultural resonances. Barrett (1993) also holds that interpretation is a place for dialogue. The students in this study, like any group of individuals, are likely to differ in opinion. This diversity in interpretation "values an artwork as a rich repository of expression that allows for a rich variety of responses" (p. 73). 93 Yet Barrett also holds the position that some interpretations are better than others. This is relevant to this study since ranks of interpretation indicate how well students have organized their interpretations and have elaborated in order to give meaning to works of art. An opposing position as Barrett (1991) indicates, holds that all art interpretations have the same value and none are more certain or true than others. On the contrary, Barrett states that "all interpretations are not equal. Some interpretations are better argued, better grounded with evidence, and therefore more reasonable, more certain, and more acceptable than others" (p. 72). We see in Barrett's view that an artwork does not have any one true interpretation but "good interpretations are not so much "right" as they are compelling, original, insightful, and so forth." (p. 74). A good interpretation, as Barrett explains, should be coherent in itself and correspond to the artwork, "coherence is an autonomous and internal criterion. We can judge whether an interpretation is coherent without seeing. Either the argument makes sense or it doesn't. Correspondence is an external criterion that asks whether the interpretation fits the work" (p. 74). Concerning historical interpretation, in attempting to interpret diverse cultural influences, Jamaican students might focus on what some historians such as Panofsky (1955) explain as symbols. In discussing his theory of interpretations and iconography. Panofsky defines iconography as images or symbols that might be sacred and are associated with an artform especially painting. The students in this study might look for religious symbols such as the halo that surrounds the Angel in the works of several Jamaican artists or the pride of freedom from emancipation that is often associated with 94 Jamaican artworks. In doing so these students might show evidence of interpreting Jamaican artworks from a historical perspective. Ethnographers, such as Stokrocki (1991), state that "interpretation is the pervasive process of understanding, involves cultural choices" (1991, p. 1). She stresses that a "researcher should proceed with ethical fairness and dignity, if demanded, and at times the abandonment of the project if necessary" (p. 10). From another ethnographic perspective, Geertz (1973) cautions that all ethnographic writings are either second or third level interpretations because only native sources can be considered first order. From Geertz's statement it can be assumed that there are levels of interpretation. From the field of anthropology Denzin & Lincoln, (1994) explain that in cases where interpretations of mute materials such as artifacts are required, the interactionist view is under pressure: "How can an approach that gives considerable importance to interaction with speaking subjects deal with material traces for which informants are long dead or about which informants are not articulate?" (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p. 398). There is a need therefore for material evidence in order to provide the capacity to discern the true nature of a situation into components of lived experiences. Denzin and Lincoln (1994) conclude that written texts pose a problem for interpretive approaches that often stress the importance of dialogue with, and spoken critical comment from participants. The existing material culture serves as bits and pieces of information for the interpreter, from which he learns. The interpretations as Denzin and Lincoln explain, "can be confirmed or made more or less plausible than others using a fairly standard range of internal and external (social) criteria," for example, as both writers suggest. 95 where the data and the interpreter bring each other into "dialectical fashion" (p. 401). This internal and external criteria as suggested by Denzin and Lincoln will also aid in giving meaning to interpretations because the interpreter will be immersed in the sources that provides data, for example: the people and the environment. Certain scholars remind us of one reason interpretation is important. According to Dewey (1958) and Hofstader (1987), art is not merely for communication, but also experience, expression and communion. The focus of this study, students' recall and interpretation of Jamaican art, steered me into looking at Dewey's beliefs. As Hofstadter (1987) supports Dewey, he states that a work of art is literally full of the meaning of human experience and above all it is the medium that is able to reach human beings in their humanness and communicate itself to them in full humanness. From the information that I have provided on interpretation, all of the factors mentioned relate in a way to my study. However, more focus was placed on the principles of Barrett (1993) and will be explained in more detail as I introduce the teaching methods. This humanness is highly recognizable in many artworks by Jamaican artists since they often focus on retaining aspects of their cultural heritage. In looking at some of these artworks a viewer might consider them to be communicating a message to an audience. However, one might not be able to construe a meaning of the messages in these artworks unless they are familiar with the human experience that is involved in creating the artwork. In looking at artworks that are done by Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" for example, several Jamaicans believe that his artworks are meaningless, or might even consider them to be gross or filled with evil. These possible comments are 96 associated with the viewer's interpretation of the artworks by Kapo. Since Kapo's works are usually influenced by his Religious beliefs (Revivalism), if the viewer is allowed to experience or participate in a Revival meeting then they might be better able to give meaning to the artworks that are created by Kapo because of the experience and the communion. For students to give meaning to an artwork, most art educators believe some form of interpretation will be involved. In students' attempts to share meaning. Chapman (1978) believes that the level of awareness and imagination that students take into a classroom environment, influences the possibility of sharing personal meanings. She has suggested several ways in which children might approach interpretation. "In recognizing and naming" she indicated that "as children become skilled in recognizing and naming what they see and feel, they are better able to interpret their experiences (p. 133). The idea expressed by Chapman was evident during this study since students were encouraged to develop skills in naming and recognizing by giving their perceptions both in written and oral responses. This method is based in the idea of recall being a necessity towards interpretation. Through "empathizing," Chapman states that "children can begin to empathize with things that they see by trying to personify them" (p. 133). For Jamaican students the recognition of cultural symbols in Jamaican works of art (such as religious) might invoke their own spiritual feelings. By speculating, children might give definite evidence that what they have seen is clear or not clear. Synthesizing is Chapman's last point. She suggests that synthesizing is the reflection on repeated qualities within an artwork and the theme or moods that these qualities create. I believe that 97 students should be made aware of the factors that relate to their heritage in order to synthesize information and give meaning to Jamaica artworks. This will be achieved as students are given the opportunity to view artworks from the different cultures that have contributed to the Jamaican heritage as well as looking at different forms of art that have been influenced by their heritage. Although this study has been described as a pilot to identify students' ranks at recall and interpretation, in this context, these processes are intricately related to a deeper understanding of Jamaican art and culture. Thus it is of interest to look at meaning. I will therefore examine ways in which students begin to make meaning about Jamaican works of art. Though it might be difficult to separate interpretation from meaning, meaning can be considered as a step beyond interpretation, and may display facts or thoughts that have been signified or conveyed. Differences between interpretation and meaning could also be looked at in terms of interpretation as the process that is involved in making meaning. As we look forward for methods that will enhance students' learning in the arts, I will share the research design and methods of instruction that are presented as tasks that explore the relationships of contextual information and learning on the students' ability to recall, interpret and give meaning to Jamaican works of art. The purpose is to provide empirical evidence of recall and interpretation attained by two groups of students during interdisciplinary teaching activities involving art and dance. The traditional methods of assessing students' interpretation of the arts as seen in the Jamaican art education system is usually limited. Students are assigned a grade based on how well they can draw, paint, or how well they can recall information about specific artists. Examples of this type of assessment can be seen not only in the 98 schools but also in the external examination that students take, such as the Caribbean Examination for 11th graders in high school. Some art educators like myself, however, believe that although the traditional methods of teaching are important, other methods should be designed to examine the quality of the students' interpretation of the arts. As an art educator hoping to be involved with the implementation of more effective art programs in Jamaica, it is my desire to design teaching methods that will facilitate understanding of diverse cultures in Jamaica, the subject matter, and formal qualities in works of art that they might be exposed to. This pilot study therefore investigated the effect of specially designed art lessons on enhancing the recall of instruction for further comprehension of specific concepts that are usually taught in the traditional Jamaican elementary schools.

Research Design The experimental design consisted of one independent variable, two groups of elementary students (traditional and experimental groups) and one dependent variable, facets of interpretations memory store, formal and informal knowledge, learning outcomes, recall, recognition, and interpretations and meanings). Two groups of students were selected because of the two teaching methods that I implemented. The focus of the research is on the experimental teaching method but because of the practical reality both in schools where resources are plentiful and where they are lacking, I decided to design two methods of teaching. The second method was more traditional to meet limited resources. Although the terms experimental and traditional were assigned to each group of students, for the purpose of identification. 99 during the research I referred to the traditional group as the 'portrait' group and the experimental group as the 'expressions' group. These labels were used because I did not want the students to feel intimidated in either group by being referred to as traditional or experimental. As the student entered the experiment it was anticipated that there might be traces of prior knowledge of Jamaican heritage existing in their memory store, since the principal indicated that the students were exposed to some cultural content in social studies classes. In Figure 3 a schematic representation of this research design is provided. 100

JAMAICAN ELEMENTARY STUDENTS

INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT VARIABLE VARIABLE

JAMAICAN ELEMENTARY INTERPRETATION STUDENTS OF MULTICULTURAL INFLUENCES ON JAMAICAN ART

INPUT - MEMORY STORE

FORMAL AND INFORMAL KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

RECALLRECOGNITION

INTERPRETATION AND MEANING

TRADITIONAL APPROACH EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH FOCUS ON THE LIFE FOCUS ON MULTICULTURAL HISTORIES OF EDNA THEMES IN SELECTED WORKS MANLEY AND MALLICA BY EDNA MANLEY AND MALLICA REYNOLDS (KAPO) REYNOLDS (KAPO) (VISUAL ART (VISUAL ART AND DANCE COMPARISON ONLY) COMPARISON)

Figure 3. Schematic Representation of Research Design 101 The students in this study were presented artworks relating to their culture. The first group of students focused on a more traditional approach to studying art in Jamaica. In this traditional approach students were presented with a brief history of the Jamaican heritage. In addition the students were given formal instruction relating to the background of the two artists, Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds ("Kapo") along with examples of their artworks (see Table 2). The artworks by Manley and Kapo were compared to artworks by other Jamaican artists which have either similar titles or themes (see Table 3). In this traditional group, sixth graders were expected to further expand their STM during formal instruction in order to recall, recognize, or interpret information about Jamaican heritage and the ways in which the artists Manley and Reynolds developed ideas for their artworks. 102 Table 2 List of Key Artworks.

Edna Manley. Worship (1986). Acrylic on canvas, 20" x 16". Collection, Dr. Muriel Lowe, Kingston, Jamaica.

Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." Heaven and Earth (1976). Painting, on Hardboard, 35 1/2 x 23". Collection, Olympia International Art Center.

Edna Manley. Pocomania (1936). Hoptonwood Stone carving, H 23 1/2". Collection, Wallace Campbell, Jamaica.

Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." Obedience Covers All (1965). Mahogany carving, H 57 1/2". The Larry Worth Collection. 103

Table 3 List of Comparative Artworks by Jamaican Artists.

Osmond Watson. Masquerade. Painting, 7' x 5'. The National Gallery of Jamaica Collection.

Carl Abrahams. Thirteen Israelites. (1975). Painting, 30" x 41". Collection, Jamaica.

Christopher Gonzales. Bob Marley. (1982-1983). Bronze carving, 7'9" high. Collection, The National Gallery of Jamaica.

Gene Pearson. Head. (1983). Ceramic Terra Cotta, 24" high. Collection, Guy McIntosh, Jamaica.

Barrington Watson. Dance of the Maroons (1989-1990). Oil on canvas, 183cm x 305 cm. Collection, Contemporary Art Center, Jamaica.

Susan Alexander. Revellers. Oil on canvas. Collection, Century National Bank, Jamaica.

Carl Abrahams. Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah. (1965). Acrylic on board, 44 x 3 0". Collection, Olympia International Art Center and Hotel, Jamaica.

Karl Parboosingh. Dance of the Candles. (1966). Painting, Oil on Hardboard, 16"x27-l/2". Collection Mike Henry. 104 The approach for the second group of students was more experimental in nature. It differed from the more traditional group because of an interdisciplinary approach that focused on visual art and dance comparisons. Unlike the traditional approach, a scenario was set up where students would recall information about the cultural content in the key artworks done by Manley and Kapo. This scenario included tasks where the students compared examples of artworks (comparative exemplars) from the four main cultures (African, Chinese, Indian, and European) from which the Jamaican heritage evolved. The comparative art exemplars shown to students in the experimental group included visual art from these four cultures and videotapes of Jamaican dances that bore either similar content or had similar names or subject matter to the key artworks (see Table 4). I wanted them to see how artists make use of content in their artworks and that Jamaica is a society with many different cultures. The dependent variable was developed to provide me a means to evaluate the level of students' recall, recognition, and interpretative abilities, that would later lead to meaning of diverse cultural influences on selected Jamaican artworks. Both written and oral student responses were analyzed in order to provide evidence of the students' levels of recall, a necessary step towards understanding. In the memory store facet the focus was on learning outcomes, the amount of contextual information the student acquired, and their ability to repeat the instructional content which also gave evidence for levels of recall, or as the student elaborate on the instructional content by interpretation. 105 Table 4 List of Comparative Artworks from Cultural Heritage.

Anonymous. Appliquée! Cloth. (1971). Collection. National Museum of Art.

Anonymous. Spirit Group. Wood Carving. Collection. J. Anthony Stout, Washington D.C.

Anonymous. Buddha (Curing Disease). (1968). Carving 20" x 24". Private Collection.

Anonymous. Playing Oriental Chess. (1965). Painting 20" x 24." Private Collection.

Henry Moore. Artistide Mailol (1902-1905). Bronze, approximately 41" high, base 45"x 24 3/4". Collection. The National Museum of Modern Art, Washington.

Sir Peter Paul Rubens. The Assumption of The Virgin. (1626). Painting 125.4 x 94.2 cm. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Samuel H Kress Collection.

Ela Menor. Portrait. (1982). Painting 24"x24". Private Collection.

Anonymous. Siva As Nataraja (Lord of Dance). (1000). Bronze figure 76.2 x 57.1 x 17.8cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art. 106 Participants and Location This study was conducted with two groups of sixth-grade students at The Hope Valley Experimental School in Jamaica in a regular art education environment. The Hope Valley Experimental School is located in Kingston, the country's major city and capital. This location is ideally suited because it is adjacent to the Mona Rehabilitation Center and the University of the West Indies where studies are often conducted on both the typical and special needs student population. Several noted Jamaicans have contributed to this school, one of whom is the late D. R. B. Grant an outstanding educator. He wrote: Out of the need for disabled children to learn and live with other children has come this school designed to be a little world where they might grow into well rounded men and women. This school was conceived in hope for the future.

The blocks representing the hard work of those who planned and strive to get it built. The cement represents their friendship. By working together there is nothing we cannot achieve. (8th Nov., 1972)

Although this school was designed to accommodate the special needs student population, there were none among the 62 sixth-graders who volunteered to participate in the study. With a school population of approximately 1,000 students, enrollment begins from as early as 4 years old in grade 1 to an average of 11 years in grade 6. In grades 5 and 6 the students are prepared for the Common Entrance Examination. This examination is for entrance into high school. A request was made to the principal of the Hope Valley Experimental School five months prior to the implementation of the study in order to gain entry to conduct this study. 107 Frequent calls were made to the school so that I did not lose contact with the administration. Several visits were also made to the school before the day the experiment commenced. In two chosen classrooms, students were independently assigned to two groups through a random selection. Sixth graders were chosen to participate in this study because at this age, children have fairly good writing and verbal skills and are somewhat culturally aware. As indicated by the principal of the school, these students had already been introduced to the school's curriculum that deals with Jamaican heritage. The student volunteers were randomly assigned in equal numbers to either the traditional or experimental group. The random selection process consisted of ballots that could be identified as either the traditional or experimental group. These ballots were identified in a closed box for the student volunteers who were then asked to select only one to determine the group in which they were to participate. Although 62 students volunteered for this study at the beginning, only 43 were able to complete the process, resulting in the Traditional group (n=21) and Experimental group (n= 22). This attrition rate was due to illness and absences. The students who were absent also requested not to participate in the remaining tasks for the study. There were two cases where a student switched from one group to the other, forcing me to omit their booklets from the data collection process in order to prevent contamination of the remaining data for the two groups. Each student was asked to complete a short demographic questionnaire to identify their gender, race and religious background. The results are summarized in Tables 5 and 6. In table 5 information on the gender and age 108 of the students for both groups are presented while Table 6 will share the dominant ethnic identity and religious faith to which the students belong.

Table 5 Student Demographic Profile Age and Gender

Traditional Group Experimental Group

Gender Age; 10 11 12 Age: 10 11 12

Female 8 2 5 1 10 3 7 0 Male 13 2 10 1 12 2 9 1

Total 21 4 15 2 22 5 16 1 109 Table 6 Student Demographic Profile of Dominant Ethnic Identity and Religion

Traditional Group Experimental Group

Dominant Ethnic Identity

African 20 20 Chinese 0 1 Indian 1 1 European 0 0

Total 21 22

Religion

Baptist 5 3 Church of God 7 7 Hope Gospel Assembly 0 2 Nondenominational 3 4 Open Bible 1 1 Pentecostal 1 2 Seventh Day Adventist 4 3

Total 21 22 110 Procedures The experiment was conducted over a period of five days, and I played the role of teacher-researcher. One hour per day was allotted for each group beginning with the experimental group for the first three days. For the last two days, the traditional group was the first group to be taught. Effort was made to achieve validity among the groups by designing tasks that were parallel throughout the experiment, or as seen in task 6, where both groups were exposed to the same set of instructions. Both groups were exposed to formal instruction during the presentation of: (1) background information and reading of key ideas, (2) matching key ideas with artworks, (3) introduction about Jamaican art - context, formal qualities, and influences, (4) looking at Jamaican dances, (5) looking at art from Africa, China, Europe, India and (6) matching art from Africa, China, Europe, and India to Manley and Kapo. Tasks for both teaching methods were related to the theoretical framework of the study and the research questions. Following, I will explain how each task was related to the theory and research questions. For Task 1 in both the experimental and traditional groups, the relationship between factor input in recall and research question number (2): "Does contextual information assist in the ability of students to recall and interpret meaning in Jamaican works of art?" could be seen. In Task 2 the factor of vividness can be identified as students were cued into connecting one task to the other. Focus was also on research question number (2) for both groups. Emphasis was put on the students' cognitive ability to reason as Piaget (1952); Lowenfeld (1964); and Chapman (1978) 111 suggest, in order to connect contextual information with Jamaican artworks in order to give meaning to the artworks. As the students focus on Task 3, the experimental group and the entire sections of Task 3 for the traditonal group, the intention was to have students answer research question (1): 'To what extent can the student interpret diverse cultural influences in the Jamaican art of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds 'Kapo'?" In this task students were lead to recognize what possible influences existed in the selected works of art from the study. In section 3C of the experimental group, research question (3): How do students' recall and interpretation of the relationship of multiple cultural representations in the visual art and dance differ?" was the focus because the students were involved in a dance and visual art comparison. Tasks 4 and 5 for both groups of students related to research question (2). During Task 6 even though question (2) can be answered by this task, question (1) showed more relevance because of specific mention of diverse cultural influences on the works of both Manley and Kapo: " To what extent can the student interpret multiple cultural influences in the Jamaican art of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds 'Kapo'?" All factors of interpretation discussed earlier were related to this last task among both groups of students. Looking at the different fields of interpretation: (1) philosophical, (2) critical, (3) historical, (4) ethnographic, and (5) anthropological, and the factors of recall: (1) exposure (2) primacy, (3) vividness, and (4) frequency, all applied in some way to each task. For the two groups of students. Task 1 related more to historical interpretation and the exposure factor of recall. In Task 2 for interpretation, critical and historical were important as well as factor primacy recall; Task 3 112 critical and philosophical interpretations, and factor vividness in recall were emphasized; Task 4 for both groups, related to critical, anthropological and ethnographic interpretations and factor vividness. Anthropological and ethnographic interpretations were involved, because of the three levels of interpretations: first "native sources," then the artists, and lastly the students ability to recall information from LTM in order to make relevant interpretations. The students' ability to recognize cultural symbols or characteristics was key for the students to show interpretations or give meaning to their drawings. For Tasks 5 and 6 critical and philosophical interpretation, and factors vividness and frequency, were emphasized.

The Experimental Group I introduced myself to the students of the experimental context group and explained the reason for conducting this study then proceeded to design seating arrangements for this group. Students were placed either individually on lecture chairs or in pairs at benches attached to tables. The key artworks were then introduced to the students (see Plates XXI - XXIV). These artworks were reproduced in the form of 8"x 10" coloured prints and issued to the students who were then divided into sub-groups of four so that they could all easily look at the coloured prints. Additional prints were also placed on the blackboards and walls in the classroom. The students were again told that this was not a test but that they should do their best since I would like to know how much they understand about Jamaican diverse cultural influences on the artworks of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds. The students were then instructed to open their task booklets and turn to the page with the introduction and background 113 information for the study. While I read the passage, the students were asked to follow along (see Appendix B). Task 1: Cueing. The cueing process allowed the students to develop a memory store from the formal instruction of contextual information. As the reading with the background information ended, the students were told to turn to the next page of their task booklets and read along with me. This task was conducted over a period of 15 minutes and consisted of a list of eight key ideas that the students read. The key ideas were selected from articles written by Jamaican writers and art critics (Braithwaite, 1984). The purpose of this task was to introduce the students to the diverse cultural influences on the artists Manley and Reynolds along with their artworks. These key ideas were identified separately for each artist (see Appendix B). Task 2: Building Meaning. Task 2 was divided into two sections that were completed over a period of 20 minutes each. Primacy because important since the aim of Task 2 was to allow students to recall information from Task 1 that was stored in LTM. This is described by some researchers such as Smargorinsky and Coppock (1993), as "stimulated recall" which is " used to elicit retrospective accounts" (p. 2). The first part of Task 2 focused on having students match the sentences from the last task to selected paintings by Manley and Kapo. From a list of numbers (1 to 8) representing each sentence, the students were asked to circle the number that they believed matched the painting, Worship, by Manley and the painting. Heaven and Earth, by Reynolds. For students to make relevant matches, they would need to be able to recognize key factors from the 8 sentences given, by recalling them from their memory in order to make their decisions. In the second part of Task 2, the students were asked to match words and phrases with the carvings by 114 Manley and Reynolds. These words and phrases were taken from the sentences (1 to 8) that were presented to the students about the artists Manley and Reynolds and their artworks (see Appendix B). Task 3: Building Deeper Meaning. Task 3 was also divided into three sections and the first part was done on the same day as Tasks 1 and 2. The students were exposed to advance organizers such as additional cueing and introduction of comparative art exemplars and dance in order to improve their ability to recall and interpret during this task. The students were asked to read the information for Task 3 along with me. This information focused on Jamaican art: (1) the cultural context from which it came, (2) the formal qualities of a work of art, and (3) cultural influences from one work of art to another. This idea to cue students further into the meaning and use of the term 'diverse cultural influences' and the use of the themes by formal instruction is supported by Rinehart, Barksdale-Ladd, and Paterson, (1993), as they emphasize the importance of prior input by some researchers (Anderson, Herbert, Scott, & Wilkinson 1984), in reading comprehension. Reinhart et.al believe that these studies "have found that building or activating background knowledge through story previews or advance organizers can improve comprehension" (p. 237). On the second day the experimental group continued with the second part of Task 3. They were presented with a world globe, and volunteers were asked to go to the front of the class and try to identify the four main regions of the world (Africa, China, India, Europe) that are now represented in the Jamaican heritage. Following this, they were presented with selected artworks from these regions (see Table 4), to assist them in understanding the 115 formal qualities that are usually represented in the traditional works of art from the different regions. The students were then directed to look very carefully at the works by Manley and Manley while they thought about questions that focused on the formal qualities within the artworks and the cultural content that the artwork might represent such as the shapes or dance related to cultural content. For the next 2 sections of Task 3, the students were expected to match the selected artworks from the four regions (Africa, China, India, and Europe) with the key artworks. The selected artworks were coded in order to assist the students in clearly identifying each artwork. The students were then asked questions that focused on the similarities between the key artworks and the selected artworks from the four cultures (see Appendix B). The purpose was to have the student interact more with the diverse cultural influences that might be present in the artworks. The students were expected to recognize cultural similarities, or begin to create meanings and interpretations of cultural signs or symbols that were recognized. The interdisciplinary aspect for the experimental approach was introduced in the final section of Task 3, and was used to stimulate the students to recognize or interpret cultural influences. Three minute excerpts of Jamaican dances were shown to the students twice for 3 sets of matching tasks. These were dances, performed by the National Dance Theater Company in Jamaica, which had either similar names or themes to the artworks by Manley and Reynolds, or which showed the dancers creating similar forms to those in the paintings and carvings of Manley and Reynolds. 116 The dances were: 1. Many Rivers to Cross : This dance depicts struggles that the Jamaican people might encounter throughout their daily experiences. There are 2 figures in this dance that resemble the figures in both the painting Worship by Edna Manley and the carving Obedience Covers All by Mallica Reynolds.

2. Pocomania : Pocomania is a very lively dance with colourful costumes. The king and queen play a dominant role in the dance and can be easily identified. This dance was selected because of religious content and the title that is identical to the carving Pocomania by Edna Manley.

3. Court of Jah: This dance is considered to be very aggressive and represents a young group of people which focuses on Jah, meaning God, to give them the power and wisdom to live. The forms that the figures create signify the strength and power of the black man, similar to the carving "Pocomania" by Edna Manley.

4. Jail Bird: This dance depicts the life in jail to freedom. The movements of the figures are slow, giving the impression that the escapee is trying to be very discreet in getting out of jail. The use of dark costumes and flickering lights gives the viewer a very scary feeling, and also is a reminder of the carving "Obedience Covers All" by Mallica Reynolds. 117 The names of the dances were given to the students along with assigned codes "A," "B," "C," & "D" similar to the selected paintings. The students were then asked to look carefully at the dances in order to find similarities to the key artworks, and to identify which dance best matched each key artwork (see Appendix B). This section of Task 3 was completed over a 30 minute period and was followed by another set of instructions to be completed in 20 minutes. In this next set of instructions the students were asked to look at the dances once more, then write their reasons for whatever choice they made for the previous instructions when they tried to match the artworks with the dances. It was suspected that again students might show evidence of what Rinehart et.al describes as "factual and interpretive recall." Because of the amount of contextual information that the students were exposed to in this task, their responses were based on both critical and historical interpretations. Critical because of Barrett's suggestion of their interpretations being both emotional and intellectual. These students examined art and dances that are embedded in their own Jamaican culture. The differences in opinions also provided a diversity of interpretation, another of Barrett's principles. Historical interpretation played a role because of the signs and symbols that they might be able to recognize. Task 4: Making art. For the third day the students were instructed to turn to the blank sheet of paper in their booklets for Task 4. This task was instituted for students to create their own artworks in order to assess their ability to relate the information that was presented to them in previous tasks into their own artworks. The focus was on the students' ability to recognize Jamaican diverse cultural influences and themes represented in both the artworks and dances, and to recall or show how they have interpreted these 118 influences in their art productions. The students were then told they had 45 minutes to complete this task, and to listen carefully for instructions that were read to them (see Appendix B), Task 5: Interpretation of art making. Since the students were expected to reflect on contextual information in order to explain meaning behind the artworks they created, I thought it was quite relevant to have students interpret their drawings in this task. An attempt was made in Task 5 to see if students were beginning to show any signs of interpretation the fourth day, or even approaching the making of meaning. This task also allowed the students to be interactive in relevant discussions in order to show evidence of critical interpretations. This was done through oral responses by the students as they expressed what was portrayed in their drawings. The students were asked to share their drawings as they were divided into three groups for an interview session. The first group of students were interviewed by the teacher, the second consisted of peer interviews where they were given a set of guiding questions in order to begin, as well as ask questions of their own about the multiple cultural influences and formal qualities in works of art. They were told to take five minutes to complete each interview. For the third group the students were asked to get together in order to conduct a group discussion. All three groups were both audio-and video-taped. Task 6: Evaluation of Learning Experiences. For the final activity of the experimental group on the fifth day, the students were challenged to make a summary base on utilizing recall of diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art by Edna Manley and Mallica Kapo. With this final task, I was able to look closely at the learning outcomes; whether they were just levels of recall of instructional content or levels of elaboration of instructional content 119 through interpretations. The students were asked to write extensively for 30 minutes in their booklets after reading a set of instructions (see Appendix B). Summary of the experimental group. For the entire period the students were involved in this study, they were encouraged to do their best. They were constantly told not to think of the tasks as tests, but as a way of sharing with me how much they could relate contextual information Jamaican art, and recall or interpret Jamaican diverse cultural influences. I found this teaching exercise to be stimulating to the students especially when they were exposed to the dances. They started giving their responses verbally as they recognized aspects of culture, but were told to write instead since I did not want them to influence each other in making their individual decisions, or as Perkins and Simmons (1988) would say, "problem solving." In situations similar to this, it is important that teachers exercise control in the classes where students become involved in unfamiliar methods of teaching, to ensure originality of responses. Using tasks as advanced organizers to constantly cue students exposed them to all the factors of recall that have been previously mentioned. By frequency of exposure to contextual information the students were able to input information to sensory memory store, STM and retrieved by LTM where the information was recognized, recalled and interpreted to respond to tasks. Evidence for fields of interpretation were associated with tasks, where critical and historical fields were focused on.

The Traditional Group The instructions for the traditional group were similar to the experimental group on the first day. Students were asked to fill out the 120 demographic questionnaire on the cover of their booklets. As with the experimental group, I played the role of teacher-researcher and instructed the students to turn to the first page with the introduction for the study. This ____ introductory information was put together from historical readings as well as from my knowledge base gained through experiences I have had relating to my Jamaican heritage. Unlike the experimental group, the background information for the traditional group was much more intense and presented as a lecture format. The information therefore made very strong reference to the four main cultural groups (African, Chinese, Europeans, and Indians), the festivities and celebratory activities that took place among the ancestors of the Jamaican people, a brief life story of the artists Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds, and also information on formal qualities in works of art. This lecture was one of the key differences between both groups . Task 1: Cueing Lecture. Task 1 was related to research question (2): "Does contextual information assist in the ability of students to recall and interpret meaning in Jamaican works of art?" The lecture to students went for a period of 30 minutes, and was broken down into two sections. In the first section portraits of the two artists were shown to the students and they were asked questions relating to the heritage of both artists (see Appendix C). Exposing students to formal instruction during this task is again supported by Rinehart et.al. (1992) as they emphasize the importance of prior knowledge which to me was important for students to build on memory store. The students were presented with the painting Worship (1986) and the carving Pocomania (1936) by Edna Manley, and the painting Heaven and Earth (1976) and the carving Obedience Covers All (1965) by Kapo (see Plates XXI - XXIV). 121 Other examples of works done by the artists were shown to help students trace similarities in the key artworks. For the second section of the lecture, the background information on the Jamaican heritage and the two artists was read to the students. The students were given markers and encouraged to underline sections of the text that they thought were most important. They were encouraged to be involved in an open discussion during brief pauses throughout the reading as I asked them questions that related to the passage, making sure that they were also following along (see Appendix C). Task 2: Building Meaning. The students were given fifteen minutes to complete the first part of Task 2 as the set of instructions was read to them. They were asked to write 8 points that they could remember concerning all that was read in the first part of the instructional content on the history of Jamaica and the diverse cultural influences; the different races; and the forms of celebrations such as dance and religion. The role of recall was very important in this task because the students were asked to focus back on the formal instructions. This task was used to cue students to the cultural influences on Jamaican heritage which, again as Rinehart et.al (1992) suggests, helps students to build an active background of knowledge. The instructions continued as the students were told to turn to the next page for the next task that continued for ten minutes. By cueing students to the notion of cultural influences on Jamaican art, my aim for the next section of Task 2 was to further expose students to information on the background of the two artists which I hoped would be stored in memory. The aim was for students to be able to identify possible cultural influences on each artist as the students 122 looked for similarities and differences in the key artworks. The artworks were separated into two groups- first the paintings, then the carvings- as a set of instructions was read to the students. These instructions asked the students to write about the similarities and differences that they found in each set of artworks and to give their reasons for their answers. The students were told to look carefully at the artworks and the sentences that they wrote in the last task. They were guided into writing their responses with sentences such as: "The paintings are similar because.. . . The paintings are different because..." (see Appendix C). Task 3: Building Deeper Meaning. The students continued to build an active background of knowledge. As the students proceeded to Task 3 also on the second day, it was hoped that they would begin to understand more about diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art by looking at examples of artworks by other Jamaican artists. They continued to work for twenty minutes and were asked to select comparative art exemplars from the selected group of Jamaican artworks, and state which one they thought best matched the cultural, formal and subject matter of the key artworks that were presented to them separately (see Table 3). As the instructions for Task 3 continued, the students focused on the different ways in which they thought content was represented in each of these artworks by looking at them individually. They were asked, "what formal qualities can you identify? Think for example of the lines, colours, and shapes that you might see." The students were then asked to match the selected artworks by other Jamaican artists with the cultural, formal and subject matter of key artworks (see Appendix C). 123 The students then proceeded to the final section of Task 3 and were told to look at all four key artworks once more. This was a written task where students wrote short passages for 30 minutes. These were about either Manley or Reynolds, depending on which artwork the student chose as his favourite. The students were encouraged to think about Religious. Diverse cultural Influences, and Themes, the results should show evidence of both "factual and interpretive recall" (Rinehart, et.al, 1993, p. 237). This task was used to prepare students for Task 4. As suggested by Barnhart (1992), "when children participate frequently in activities involving various forms of discourse, such as repeated encounters . .., they are able to abstract a frame of reference that guides their expectations and interpretations of similar texts in the future (p. 2)." Task 4: Making Art. On the following day, the students did exactly the same task as the experimental group by creating their own artworks in a period of 45 minutes. They were told, "on the blank sheet of paper provided, please draw a picture that you think will represent your essay about the diverse cultural influences and your favorite piece of artwork." These students were constantly encouraged to do their best (see Appendix C). Similar also to the experimental group, the focus was on the students' ability to recognize and recall Jamaican diverse cultural influences and themes represented in both the artworks and to show how they interpret these influences in their art productions. Task 5: Interpretation of Art Making. The issue of interpretation was again very important to me because of the focus of my study. Unlike the experimental group, the traditional group was not interviewed. The teacher alerted the students on the fourth day that they were to be involved in an oral 124 expression for Task 5. This was done over a 50 minute period as the students were asked to share their drawings with the rest of the group while they were both audio-and video -taped as they individually spoke about their artwork. Task 6: Evaluation of learning experiences. For Task 6 on the last day of the experiment, the students in the traditional group were involved in the same task as the experimental group. They were asked to "reflect on all the activities that you did throughout this experiment: the historical background, the words and phrases that were used to describe the artworks, the dances, religion, and criticisms of the formal and informal qualities in the works of art. The students also worked for 30 minutes after reading a set of instructions (see Appendix C). Summary of the traditional group. Similar to the experimental group, the students in the traditional group were encouraged to do their best at all times. The students showed concern about not being given the chance to view the dances. They were reminded that both groups would be involved in teaching methods that would better assist them in developing interpretations of the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. With this explanation, the students in each group realized that what they were doing was equally important. The students then attempted to show ownership of ideas as instructions for the tasks were read. As an act of reciprocity, the Principal, teachers, and students were thanked for f.hëir cooperation - the principal for allowing me to conduct the study at the school, the teachers for helping to keep order and accommodating me in their classroom, and most of all, the students who volunteered to participate in the experiment. They were all presented with small tokens of my appreciation. 125 Ethical Considerations It is important that ethical concerns are addressed in every kind of research. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) have stated two issues that have dominated recent guidelines of ethics in research with human subjects: "informed consent and the protection of subjects from harm" (p. 53). These guidelines, as both authors (Bogdon & Biklen 1992, and Eichelberger, 1989) believe, attempt to insure that: (a) "subjects enter research projects voluntarily, understanding the nature of the study and the dangers and obligations that are involved; and (b) subjects are not exposed to risks that are greater than the gains they may derive" (p. 53). One should always be "familiar with ethical guidelines and principles that apply" before doing research with human subjects (Eichelberger, 1989, p. 39). I tried to acquaint myself with the principles and rules of the school, by which I made a great effort to abide. Effort was also made at all times to be understanding with the students and exercise patience, so that this research project would be as reciprocatively educative as possible.

Reliability According to Miles and Huberman (1994), the underlying issue of reliability is "whether the process of the study is consistent, reasonably stable over time and across researchers and methods" (p. 278). In terms of assessment, as stated by Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (APA, 1995), reliability is "the degree to which test scores are consistent, dependable, or repeatable, that is, the degree to which they are free of errors of measurements" (p. 93). 126 In order to provide results free of errors, reliability tests focused on repeated analysis of student responses based on levels of students recall and interpretations, the relationship of scores from peer debriefers (inter-rater consistency) and the relationship of scores by each peer debriefer at different times (intra-rater consistency). From as early as the instrument for the study was designed, a list of relevant queries based on Miles and Huberman's (1994) domain was designed. These queries included: 1. Are the research questions clear, and are the features of the study congruent with them? 2. Is the researcher's role and status within the site explicitly described? 3. Do findings show meaningful parallelism across data sources (informants, contexts, times)? 4. Are basic paradigms and analytic constructs clearly specified? (Reliability depends, in part, on its connectedness in theory.) 5. Were data collected across the full range of appropriate settings, times, and respondents, as suggested by the research questions? 6. Are results comparable across peer debriefers? 7. Were coding checks made, and did they show adequate agreement? 8. Were data quality checks made (e.g. for bias, deceit, informant knowledgeability?) 9. Do multiple observer's accounts converge in instances, settings, or times when might be expected? 10. Were any forms of peer or colleague review in place? 127 During the implementation of these procedures, peer debriefers were recruited to assist in different aspects of the experiment. Peer debriefers can aid in the credibility of findings as they present impartial findings to the research without creating biases. Four peer debriefers, including the original teacher of the classes being studied and three fellow art educators were selected. They were involved in aspects of data collection: they took notes of activities among the groups that I might have missed as I proceeded to teach; they assisted in issuing materials, kept track of time during the implementation of tasks, and in scoring procedures. Because of the noise factor in the classroom, the peer debriefers also assisted in keeping order among students. Woodbrook (1991) mentions that "the peer debriefer helps make the researcher more aware of his or her values and how they are influencing the study" (p. 337). This "allows new meaning to be explored and interpretations to be clarified" (p. 341). Member checking also allows students the opportunity to make responses, as was seen during interviews, and oral comments about their drawing and written responses. In addition to the tasks that were implemented for data collection, there were 2 tape recorders, 2 video cameras and 2 photographic cameras operated by the peer debriefers. The recorders and cameras assisted in assessing body movements, peer relationships, and comments that I could have missed during my interaction with the students, and during the interviews I conducted. 128 Procedures to Enhance Trustworthiness Trustworthiness Both the positivist and the naturalistic paradigm were investigated to ensure trustworthiness in this study, as stated by Woodbrooks (1991) "traditional research investigators attend to issues of internal and external validity, objectivity, and reliability" (p. 117). Lincoln and Cuba (1985) draw a parallel between these methodological issues and trustworthiness as they entertain the process used by the researcher to convince an audience that research findings are worthwhile. To avoid any possible bias by the researcher's interest the degree to which the findings in this study emerged, was grounded in the perspectives of the participants. No amount of trustworthiness techniques build into a study will ever compel anyone to accept the results of the inquiry; it can at best persuade. (Lincoln and Cuba, 1985, p. 329) The criteria for the naturalistic paradigm according to Lincoln and Cuba (1985), will provide guidelines for trustworthiness, and in this study credibility, through triangulation of methods, peer debriefing, and member checks, transferability, dependability and conformability. Peer Debriefing can aid in the credibility of findings as they bring impartial findings to the research. Peer debriefers were involved in aspects of data collection, and assisted with scoring procedures. Two sets of peer debriefers were selected to check for consistency in scores. The first set consisted of trained Jamaican art educators and the original class teacher of the two groups, who are all ingrained in the heritage of the Jamaican people. The second set of peer debriefers were selected from a culturally diverse group of doctoral students at the Ohio State University who received formal 129 instructions about aspects of the Jamaican heritage. These instructions included oral, slide, and video presentations. For an overall check of consistency. Dr. Jacqueline Chanda made several reliability checks as listed above, and for the statistical significance, two statistics majors along with Dr. John Kennedy assisted me in checks for consistency. Transferability as Lincoln and Cuba (1985) describe, is crucial, as it is "the single most important action inquirers take" (p. 85). This might be considered parallel to the positivist use of external validity or generalizability. Lincoln and Cuba (1985) further explain transferability as they refer to the use of "thick description." This is defined as "salient features of the content," that illustrate "everything the reader may need to know in order to understand the findings" (p. 125). Transferability then as Woodbrook (1991) suggests, "is actually claimed by the study" (p. 125). This is done as the writer supplies the data in enough detail to qualify as "thick description" (p. 316). In this study, effort was made to achieve transferability by explaining in great depth, the instrument for analysis - contextual background. In addition, constant reference to the appendices, of the theory behind the study, and the three phases of analysis assisted in achieving transferability. Dependability relates to the overlapping and consistency of methods. With the help of peer debriefers, key findings were carefully reviewed to enhance dependability. The peer debriefer in this case served as an auditor of findings. All theoretical perspectives were documented through notes taken during observations as well as through additional data collecting that were implemented (video- and audio-taped recordings), providing a dependable source of overall record-keeping. 130 Confinnability was facilitated through triangulation of multiple investigators or "practicing reflexivity" (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This was achieved in this study through triangulation of methods for data collection such as interviews, observation and through the analysis of tasks. From a positivist perspective, both internal and external validity were utilized to support the possible results from both the qualitative and quantitative methods of inquiry.

Validity Within the range of possible results that were gathered and the setting in which this study was conducted, I attempted to achieve validity through balance and control. Balance was maintained by similar assessment procedures for both groups of students; by designing tasks that were similar; and also by having both groups do exactly the same tasks at some points such as seen in Tasks 4 and 6. Control was achieved by not allowing each task to go too far beyond the prescribed time, and encouraging each student to do individual work when necessary to avoid peer influence. Balance and control were also accomplished by having the students in their own setting. Researchers Gay (1987); Kennedy and Bush (1985); and Patton, (1990) share the view that although lab sites are usually preferred for the investigation of experimentation, the natural or field settings have their advantages, especially for certain practical problems. Effective implementation of an experimental study will provide a researcher with the best evidence concerning hypothesized cause-effect relationships. A researcher then, as Gay states, should strive for a balance between control and 131 realism. This was accomplished since the students participated in their own home school setting. Careful attention was placed on internal and external validity which provided satisfaction that the treatment was responsible for experimental outcomes and not some extraneous agent. Internal validity was achieved since the students were directly involved in the tasks that were implemented in this study. Students were carefully monitored as they approached these tasks consecutively. The study, being conducted in its natural setting, "permits the researcher to exercise sufficient control to ensure adequate internal validity, while at the same time maintaining a degree of realism necessary for generalizability" (Gay, 1987, p. 265). The random selection of students allowed each to have an equal chance of being selected, hence external validity was also achieved (Kennedy and Bush, 1985, p. 14). External validity was also sought as the results of the study confirms the cause and effect relationships when compared to other groups of students from another setting with similar conditions. As Gay (1987) explains, an experiment is valid if results obtained are due only to the manipulated independent variable, and if they are generalizable to situations outside of the experiment: "An experimental study can only contribute to educational theory or practice if there is some assurance that confirmed relationships and observed effects are replicable and likely to occur at other times and places in other groups" (Gay, 1987, p. 264). Since this study included a cultural component which was interpreted by the students, focus was also centered on cultural and interpretive validity. This provided an empirical base for meaning to this research process. Through cultural validity, students' concerns were to recall and interpret 132 diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. With interpretive validity, the student focused his or her memory on goals and how to achieve recall and interpretation. This focused memory set the stage for the student to recall and create his or her own interpretation of the key artworks studied.

Summary of Overall Teaching Methods I have explored the theoretical base of this study that will determine how the results of this pilot study will be read, specifically how students' levels of recall and interpretation will be ranked. Though the ideas presented might not be fully accepted, as art educators we need to think about the relationship of contextual information during both formal and informal instructions as it relates to elementary students learning in the arts. The effects of instructions that include contextual information about the Jamaican diverse cultural heritage on the learning of concepts in order to recall and interpret have been discussed. These concepts were examined at 3 levels (1) cognitive development, (2) processing of information, and (3) problem solving. The research design was explained with descriptions of both teaching methods. In both groups the students showed enthusiasm by asking me questions about my heritage, and also about my responses to several of the tasks. I found this interesting and felt a sense of accomplishment because they too were seeing me not just as a researcher but also as their teacher. Throughout both groups, the students became involved in these tasks for meaningful learning and were expected to make connections between new contextual information and prior contextual information as they progressed from one task to the other. Examples of these connections could 133 be seen as the students recalled both oral and written statements about Jamaican heritage from one task to assist them in their responses to a proceeding task. Based on experiences in teaching both groups, I would encourage art teachers to be aware that the ability to be flexible is very important. For example, rather than read to the students I asked them to read along with me. This helped to maintain the students' attention. On the whole, the students cooperated well throughout the study as several indicated that they were happy to be given the opportunity to share what they knew about their heritage. In the next chapter, results of the students' responses in both groups will be presented and discussed in three phases. The presentation of results will show students' ranks in terms of recall, interpretation, and also statistical significance between each group. 134

Plate XXI: Edna Manley. Worship (1986). Acrylic on canvas, 20" x 16". Collection; Dr. Muriel Lowe. Kingsston, Jamaica.

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Plate XXII: Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." Heaven and Earth. (1976). Painting, oil on hardboard, 351/2 " x 23 ". Collec tion. Olympia Inteantiona Art Centre 136

Plate XXni; Edna Manley. Pocomania. (1936). Hoptonwood stone carving, H 231/2 ". Collection, Wallace Campbell, Jamaica. 137 138

Plate XXV: Osmond Watson. Masquerade. Painting, 7 'x 5’ Collection, The National Gallery of Jamaica.

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Plate XXVI: Carl Abrahams. Thirteen Israelites. (1975). Painting, 30'x 41'. Collection, Jamaica. 140

Plate XXVII: Christopher Gonzales. Bob Marley. (1982-1983 Bronze, H, 7'9". Collection, National Gallery of Jamaica.

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Plate XXVIII: Gene Pearson. Head. (1983). Ceramic Terra Cotta, H. 24". Collection, Contemporary Art Center, Jamaica.

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Plate XXIX: Barringhton Watson. Dance of The Maroons. (1989-1990). Oil on canvas, 183 cm x 35 cm. Collection, Contemporary Art Center, Jamaica. 143

Plate XXX: Susan Alexander. Revellers. Oil on canvas. Collection, Century National Bank, Jamaica. 144

Plate XXXI: Carl Abrahams. Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah. (1965). Acrylic on board. 44" x 30". Collecton Mike Henry.

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Plate XXXII: Karl Parboosingh. Dance of the Candies. (1966). Painting, oil on hardboard, 16" x 271/2". Collection, Mike Henry. 146

Plate XXXni: Anonymous. Appliquée! Cloth. (1971). Africa. 147

Plate XXXIV: Anonymous. Spirit Group. Wood carving 20" x 24". Private Clooection. 148

Plate XXXV: Anonymous. Buddah (Curing Disease). (1965). Carving 20" x 24", Private Collection. 149

Plate XXXVI: Anonymous. Playing Oriental Chess. (1965). Painting, 20" x 24". Private Collection.

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Plate XXXVII: Henry Moore. Artistide Mailol. (1902-1905). Bronze, approximately 41 " high, base, 45" x 24 3/4". Collection, The National Museum Art, Washinghton.

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Plate XXXVni: Peter Paul Rubens. The Assumption of The Virgin. (1626). Painting, 125.4 x 94.2 cm. The National Gallery of Art, D. C.. Samuel H. KressCollection. 152

Plate XXXIX: Ela Menor. Portrait. (1982). Painting, 24" x 24". Private Collection. 153

Plate XL: Anonymous. Siva As Nataraja (Lord of Dance). (1000). Bronze Figure, 76.2 x 57.1 x 17.8 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

MM% XsXVWNs'ÿ » CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Overview The results of this research are based on. qualitative evidence of what sixth grade students said and did in an art classroom. The data gathered included video- and audio-taped recordings, observation, and written and oral responses. Results for this study will be presented in three phases. First, the results of the traditional group and the experimental group. These results will be presented in the order in which the tasks were executed. An explanation will be given about the assessment of each task, followed by a report on what was discovered about the students' levels of recall and interpretation of diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. The second phase of the results focuses on how students made connections among tasks as they recalled and interpreted information from their memory store in early responses to later responses. In the third phase, although not a part of the focus for this study, I will compare results for both groups of students based on the results in phases one and two. These results will be compared to see if there was any significant difference between either teaching method. A statistical analyses, Kruskal Wallis Non Parametric test, was done. As I share the results below, each group of students is identified by their section, either traditional or experimental.

154 155 Process of Analysis The analysis focused on the goals of the study (the relationship of contextual information and learning on the students ability to recall and interpret Jamaican works of art by examining the following research questions; 1: To what extent can the student interpret diverse cultural influences in the Jamaican art of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds TCapo'? 2: Does contextual information assist in the ability of students to recall and interpret meaning in Jamaican works of art? 3: How do students' recall and interpretation of the relationship of diverse cultural representations in the visual art and dance differ? To establish the degree to which students recall or interpret instruction about the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art by Manley and Kapo, categories were developed based on the research questions. The categories within recall and interpretation accounted for ranks in relation to (1) cultural references, (2) art references, and (3) the relationship between cultural and art references from the learners' memory store. Cultural references. References are words or phrases that can be identified with the Jamaican heritage such as (1) the four major cultures; African, Chinese, Indian and European and (2) significant themes that are represented; religion - worship (Anglican, Baptist, Pocomania, Revival, Roman Catholic); and dance (Bruckings, Kumina and Pocomania). An example of a cultural reference would be the student referring to the painting or carving as a dance or a religious ritual. 156 Art References. References that focus on the artworks such as the elements of design (colour, line, shape, value, texture), the title of the artwork, or technique (painting, carving, pottery, and printmaking). For an art reference the student might talk about a carving from wood or a painting with many colours. Relationships between art and culture. The learner's reference to the cultural influence represented in the artwork and the formal qualities that she or he identifies. An example would be an instance where the student describes the colours on the figures in the artworks, and explains that the figures represent the Pocomania dance from Africa. Another would be if the student uses formal qualities to identify or connect works of art from different cultures.

Scoring Procedures For the process of analyzing the students' "recall or interpretation of diverse cultural influences," an inductive approach was administered. A model was first developed (see Figure 3) focusing on the nature of students' responses. For this model, levels of recall or interpretation of cultural references, art references, or cultural and art references were ranked from (1) the simplest repetition of contextual information (recall), to (6) where the learner begins to assign his or her interpretations as he or she elaborates on the contextual information. Scoring procedures for each individual task were ranked on a scale of 1 to 3. The scale of 1 to 3 was selected because I believed that this would allow me to identify more meaningful results with the statistical analysis for any differences between the scores of the two groups. At rank 1, the student was 157 considered to be at the highest level of recall or at the stage of primacy because the contextual information that is in memory is being simply retrieved. Rank 2 was the middle, where although the student retrieves contextual information, there is an attempt to personalize this information, and thus the student could be considered to be at a stage of vividness. Rank 3 was the lowest rank of recall because not only does the student retrieve specific contextual information, but also makes several repetitions of the given information in attempt to elaborate. (All the above terminologies have been explained in chapter 3). Although the students might achieve a high rank of 3 in the recall category, the response might not be considered to be sophisticated enough to begin to show interpretation. The overall highest rank at 6 is reserved for interpretation. This level of interpretation is considered at a low level when the student makes a deduction based on prior knowledge, or at a high level when the student elaborates and attempts to give meaning. These responses were carefully looked at in terms of: memory to recall and interpretation to meaning. Recall. Students show the ability to memorize information presented to them in both formal and informal instructions. This information includes words and phrases from cultural experience, or from historical information, or the types of colours, shapes, styles, and the titles of the artworks. Interpretation. This refers to the way in which the information is utilized. The students' elaboration then gives evidence of their ability to attach meaning to Jamaican works of art. Connections as suggested by Parsons (1990) can be of different kinds, one of which can be where the student tries to link aspects of the artwork and the artist, such as the "history 158 and culture within which the work was created" (p. 42). Concerning interpretation, the students in this experiment were not expected to explicitly talk about what was being seen but rather what made an impact on the perceptual process. Through interpretation then, the student was involved in a re-creative effort to formulate their meaning of the cultural references, art references, and the art and cultural relationships portrayed in Jamaican artworks. The student's performance on each task was assessed individually and was presented on a summary sheet for each group with levels of meaning from rank of 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). For an overview of the levels of students' responses by rank see Figure 4. 159

NATURE OF RESPONSE CULTURAL ART ARTAND CULTURAL REFERENCES REFERENCES RELATIONSHIPS

RANK THE REPETITION 1 The learner only repeats spedfic words from information given during OF INSTRUCTIONAL instruction about culture (for example, "Africa," "Chinese "Europeans," CONTENT or "religion"), and art (for example, the title of the artwork, colour, shape or media).

2 The learner repeats phrases from instructional content about culture (for example, "Pocomama dance from the Africans"), and art (for example, "the artwork was done by Kapo").

3 The learner combines elements (words or phrases) from the instructional content about art or culture (for example, "Kapo is a revivalist and he dances Pocomania;" "Edna carve the Pocomania statue").

4 The learner attempts to interpret cultural or art references that might be represented in the artworks by using words or phrases from instructional content (cultural references for example, "1 can see different cultures such as African, Chinese, and Europeans), and art references (for example, "1 think the artwork is a carving from wood").

5 The learner elaborates on instructional content in terms of the relationships between art and culture (for example, "I think the painting is about the Pocomania dance; Kapo is painting about the revivalist people").

THE ELABORATION 6 The learner further elaborates on instructional content with regard to OF INSTRUCTIONAL the relationship between art and culture (for example, "this is a religious CONTENT group of people because the people look similar to the ones 1 usually see at religious meetings. 1 think Jamaican artists are religious because of the messages in their artworks").

Figure 4. Levels of Students Meaning by Rank. 160 Phase One

Experimental Group Task 1: Cueing Lecture. Task 1 was essentially a cueing task involving essentially assessment as in this stage contextual information was presented to the students. The students were introduced to the two Jamaican artists and the selected artworks to be studied. The task was implemented to cue students into the idea that two of the major cultural influences on these artists were the African and European. It was assumed that this cueing task would help students to recognize the subject matter that was represented in these artworks in order to make connections to themes such as dance and religion. The students were told to read eight short sentences on what people wrote about the artists and their works. Since the information was formally presented to the students, new information was added to their sensory store. It was hoped that the cueing process would assist the students to categorize information that would be retrieved in LTM. This stored information would assist students in responding to later tasks. Task 2: Building meaning. The second task of the experimental group was divided into two parts and involved continuation of the cueing process. While the students read over the sentences relating to the key artworks, they proceeded from one section to the other while their ability to recognize relevant or irrelevant information was analyzed. Recall was analyzed by examining students attempts to match the appropriate key ideas with each artwork. Levels of recall and interpretation were ranked from 1 to 3 (recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). The first part of the contextual information was used to cue students to the multiple interpretations of the key artworks each of which had a total of 4 161 matching interpretations. The investigation showed that 19 of the students' selections fell between 3 and 4. In order to assess the students ability to recall relevant information from the previous tasks, students' selecting more than 4 sentences were penalized by -1. For example: a selection of 5 sentences would be -1; 6 would be -2; 7 would be -3; and 8 would be -4. This would therefore indicate that the student who made a selection of 8 sentences would be equivalent to the student who selected 0 sentences, a selection of 7 would be equivalent to 1, a selection of 6 would be equivalent to 2, and a selection of 5 would be equivalent to 3. Since 19 out of 23 students ranked 3 or more, these results showed that the students were well able to recall information from formal instruction. For the second section of Task 2, the students were given a selection of words and phrases that were taken from the sentences that they were given in the first level. It was anticipated that this task would assist the student in categorizing information for sensory memory store. This might also be associated with vividness in the factor of recall where there might be a need to cue students continuously because of low attention span. This might assist students to achieve higher levels of retention. Out of the total (16) of these words and phrases, there were 11 correct matches. Students were asked to match these words and phrases with the selected artworks, and their responses were ranked on a scale of 0 -11. A total of 4 intervals of link 3 were used to categorize the data, making it consistent with 3 rank analysis procedures for the preceding tasks. The intervals were as follows: 0 - 2 = Weak; 3 -5 = Fair; 6 -8 = Fairly Good; 9 -11 = Very Good. The ratings of Weak, Fair, Fairly Good and Very Good were used because they are similar to 162 the ratings that are used in most Jamaican schools. Results indicate that the students matched as many as 11 and as few as 5. These results clearly indicate that the students were again able to recall previous information that was given to them about the Jamaican heritage as well as information about these two artists, their background and their work. This inforamtion could have been mainly from formal instruction. For the total number of student matching responses to Task 2 see Table 7 while relative frequency student matching responses to Task 2 can be seen in Table 8. 163 Table 7 Total Number of Student Matching Responses to Task 2 by Experimental Group Degree of Matching

Student Number Correct Matches Rank

1 9 4 2 7 3 3 6 3 5 7 3 6 7 3 8 9 4 9 7 3 10 6 3 11 7 3 12 8 3 13 2 1 14 10 4 15 8 3 16 8 3 17 11 4 18 9 4 19 5 2 20 11 4 21 7 3 22 10 4 23 11 4 164 Table 8 Relative Frequency Student Matching Responses to Task 2 by Experimental Group Degree of Matching

Ranking Student Frequency %

1 1 5 1 1 5 3 12 54 4 8 36

Total 22 100 165 Task 3: Building deeper meaning. As the students progressed to Task 3, which also had three sections (2 visual arts component, and 1 dance component), they were further exposed to cultural influences and their connection to Jamaican works of art. It is believed that continuous exposure to the Jamaican heritage and the diverse cultural heritage will foster later interpretations and meaning. The students were first asked to locate the four main regions that are represented in the Jamaican culture: Africa, China, Europe, and India. Selected artworks from these cultures, coded for identification, were then presented to them. The students were expected to recognize and differentiate between the artworks of the different cultures as they became aware that each culture has its own style or expressive qualities. In order to assess the students' responses their levels of recall and interpretation of contextual information relating to the artworks were examined. These concepts were expressed in the analysis of this task. Levels of recall and interpretation were ranked from 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). Throughout this task differences among learners were identified as their ability to recall and interpret information from prior learning experiences was examined. The students' abilities to identify Jamaican diverse cultural influence in the examples, and the process by which they related them to their own art productions were significant. After looking at the selected artworks the students focused on the key artworks by Manley and Reynolds. They then used different methods to help connect artworks by both the Jamaican artists and those from the four main cultures. One example of connection was through retrieval of categories of information that was passed on to LTM. These connections focused on the 166 formal quéilities in art, as the students recalled information from the formal instruction relating to typical features that can be identified among the different cultural groups. Features such as the shape of the eyes in the Chinese, the colour black associated with Africa, the colour white for Europeans, the type of clothing worn in each culture, and the textural quality of hair among each group. Students were asked several questions and their responses seemed to be fairly consistent. When they were asked if there was anything in the paintings or sculptures that looked familiar or that reminded them of the four cultures, the students spoke mainly about the shapes and colours. As evidence of connection with contextual information was collected, I found that several students indicated that the messages portrayed in the artworks related to dance and religion, while others said the stories were only about either dance or religion. The students also stated that Manley and Reynolds took things from these cultures to create their artworks: the round face with slanted eyes from the Chinese, and the wrapped heads from the Africans and Indians. Although the student might seem to be showing just more signs of recognition, there is evidence that they were able to elaborate a little more about what they were able to recall. In terms of colour, the students did not look only at the colours of the costumes in the paintings, but also the colour of the bodies. The second section of this task was implemented in order to encourage the students to recall the information from the last task. The results indicated that the students were able to recall the information that they had gathered while being cued to further contextual information about the Jamaican diverse cultural influences in the works of art. 167 Results for section 1 of Task 3 indicate that 67% of students were at levels of interpretation, while 33% were at levels of recall. For total number of student responses to Task 3 by rank see Table 9. 168 Table 9 Total Number of Student Responses to Section 1 Task 3 by Experimental Group

Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 18 26.865 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 3 4.477 14 20.895 Art References 1 1 1.492 2 2.985 2 0 0 4 5.970 3 0 0 5 7.462 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 8 11.940 3 0 0 12 17.910

Total 22 32.835 45 67.162 169 As students studied the selected artwork from Africa, China, Europe and India, they focused on recognition by looking for similarities and differences. When asked to choose whether A1 Portrait from India, matched the painting Worship by Edna Manley more than A2 Playing Oriental Chess from China, 78% of the students selected A1 and chose to focus on the theme of religion. While these students could be considered to be successful in their effort to recall contextual information because they selected A1 which was quite similar to the painting Worship, they could not give relevant explanations of why they had made such a choice. Because of this, I was able to identify a limited amount of information that was stored in memory. This indicates that memory could have been lost even before it could migrate to the sensory memory store. The result: nothing was processed for learning at either levels of recall or interpretation. When asked to look at El Appliqued Cloth from Africa and B2 The Assumption of the Virgin from Europe, and decide which one best matched Heaven and Earth by Reynolds, everyone selected B2. This provides evidence that the students were able to recognize common cultural features in the artworks. It could also be due to the "deep" impressions that were left on students' minds because of constant cueing from contextual information. As seen also in the A1 and A2 category, religion was considered he main theme that was expressed in the HI and B2 category. This was clear in responses such as: "I chose B2 because you can see Angel of the Lord and the glory of God shines on them and they are worshiping and praying," ".. .. because that picture looks like heaven because I know that God made people 170 and babies and the people are looking up on the Lord and so this remind me more of Heaven and Earth and more like Europeans." One student that looked closely at the subject matter of the Heaven and Earth and the subject matter of B2 stated, . . there are Angels on both pictures and Angels come from heaven, there is a person who looks similar to God." This is also evidence of the student making relationship between contextual information and the works of art. Other directions that students took to arrive at their selections included looking at style and quality such as, the colours used, at the shapes of the figures, and at the use of form to create different types of objects such as crowns and crosses. Recall of the above information can be seen in the following responses: "I think it is B2 because on Heaven and Earth the people have wings too," "The two pictures have about the same amount of people and they look like Christians. The people have wings like Angels and they are putting crowns around their heads. . .. they are on earth and going up to heaven." Ranked sample responses for the matching sets of regional artworks can be seen in the following. Recall 1. It looks like Pocomania.

2. Pocomania is Worship and dance.

3. There are the same African, Indian, Chinese a kind of people.

Interpretation

4 .1 chose B2 because it look more like Heaven and earth cause they are on earth and up in Heaven.

5. Because it is sculpted by someone in Europe and Pocomania is sculpted too. 171

6.1 like the colour of the art and the dance. The people in the dance were happy, the movement of the people and the dance.

By sharing popular artworks from the four main regions of cultural influences on Jamaican art, new contextual information was therefore added to the students' memory store, in addition to what had already been introduced in earlier tasks. It was expected that on completion of this task students would be able to make more relevant connections. At the same time their levels of recall and interpretation of diverse cultural influences and themes in the two sets of artworks could be observed. One example of a student showing signs of connection between the artworks and the diverse cultures came from an 11 year old girl, "Edna Manley wrap the woman head like how the Indian woman them cover their head to look holy." To me this showed signs of recognition as this student's knowledge of what might be considered typical of the Indian culture among the Jamaican people, was expressed by comparing something in the artwork with something found in the Indian culture. The way in which the student organizes information in her memory store seems to show evidence that she realizes that artists can be influenced by cultural context. This dialogue with the students therefore helped me to understand how much they knew about the main cultures that influenced the Jamaican heritage, and how well they were able to recall or interpret. The interpretations that these students made also indicated how they were able to make relevant or irrelevant meaning of whatever informal or formal information they had about these cultures. 172 For the students who were not able to connect contextual information on cultural themes and subject matter in art, lack of familiarity with the cultures represented in Jamaica could be considered the cause. For degree of experimental group matching of regional responses see Table 10. 173 Table 10 Total Number of Matching Regional Responses to Section 2 Task 3 by Experimental Group Degree of Matching

Key Artworks Coded Artworks Matching %

Manley Painting A1 17 78 A2 5 12

Reynolds PaintingB1 11 50 B2 11 50

Manley Carving Cl 13 59 C2 9 41

Reynolds Carving D1 15 68 02 7 32 174 This third section of Task 3 was based around question three of the research, where differences of recall and interpretation between art and dance were examined. While students searched for matches among the key artworks and selected Jamaican dances that were coded for identity, they looked closely at body-forms, colour and the themes of both art forms. Again recognition seems to have been dominant. Their responses also showed evidence of levels of recall and were compiled with the first section of task 3 to give a total degree of recall of the overall task. For matches between dance A (Many Rivers to Cross), dance B (Pocomania), and the paintings Worship ty Manley and Heaven and Earth by Kapo, 86% of the selections were for dance B while 14% were for dance A. Matches for the carvings Pocomania by Manley and dance C was 64%, Obedience Covers All by Kapo and dance D 34%. Based on the results there is evidence that the students responded mainly by showing signs of recognition, although at this point I was hoping to see more thematic interpretive -based matchings. For table of matching dance responses see Table 11. 175 Table 11 Total Number of Matching Dance Responses to Section 3 Task 3 by Experimental Group

Degree of Matching Dances

Artworks Coded Dances Matching %

Paintings A 3 14 B 19 86 Carvings C 14 64 D 8 36 176 Task 4: Making Art. This drawing task is similar to the one in the traditional group. As Bradford (1964) suggests art-making is a transactional process by which the students negotiate and attempt to "influence or control the stream of events and to satisfy his personal needs" (p. 192). The directed needs of these students were to recall relevant information about the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. The assessment therefore focused on the students' memory store and their levels of recall and interpretation and were ranked from 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). The focus for this task was on the students' ability to represent in their drawings visually identifiable cultural references, art references and a combination of cultural and art references. Therefore the results might indicate evidence of the students ability to retrieve contextual information from LTM in order to make relevant connections. The results in Table 12 indicated that 79% were at ranks of interpretation, while 21% were at ranks of recall. Exceptional examples can be seen in numbers 2,3,14,17,20, and 22, (see Plates XLI to XLVI). These students are be considered to show signs of relevant connection unlike students who tried to copy directly from the key artworks. Students in the experimental group were asked to explain their drawings in Task 5. 177 Table 12 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 4 by Experimental Group Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 6 12.500 2 4.166 2 0 0 4 8.333 3 3 6.250 1 2.083 Art References 1 1 2.083 2 4.166 2 0 0 10 20.833 3 0 0 4 8.333 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 0 0 5 10.417 2 0 0 5 10.417 3 0 0 5 10.417

Total 10 20.833 38 79.166 178

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V -v-v 184 Task 5: Interpretation of art making. Task 5 was implemented to help me make decisions about the level of students' meaning as it is applied in and their works of art, the depth of their memory. Therefore the focus was on the students' levels of recall and interpretation from rank 1 to 3 recall to 4 through 6 interpretation. For this task the students were asked to explain their drawings while they were audio- and video-taped. Most students stated that they were representing Africa in their drawings because they were black. This might be evidence that the students were more familiar with the African aspect of their heritage. Both the audio-and video-tapes were analyzed: The students in group one were very enthusiastic about giving explanations of their artworks in their interviews. Each student was interviewed by me for five minutes and each one showed signs of recalling information from previous tasks to their drawings. An example of oral response by rank follows. Interpretation 5. My drawing is showing my African ancestors and I try to make the people like Africans. I wrap the head because I use to see the people from Pocomania wrap their head like in the dance jail bird. I only know about African people:

Although this student might have had limited prior knowledge about the different groups of people that have influenced the Jamaican heritage, he showed relevant connection in explaining his drawing in depth, which definitely showed African influences. Again this could be a sign of evoking lifelike images or the personalization of both informal and formal instruction, which in this case went beyond STM since it was retrieved. In the previous response, it was also evident as he tried to make use of memory 185 to connect the dance excerpts with the Pocomania movement in Jamaica. It is clear that he knew that Pocomania originates in Africa. In the second group where the students, in pairs, interviewed each other, the following questions were asked: QUESTIONS 1. How well did you understand what the teacher was trying to teach us? 2. Was there anything that you did not understand? 3. Which task did you like best? 4. Which task did you like least? 5. What are some of the multicultural influences and themes that you learned in Jamaican art? 6. What are some of the multicultural influences and themes you displayed in your own artwork? 7. Did you understand what the teacher meant when she talked about formal qualities in art? 8. What formal qualities did you use most? The responses to question (1) showed that all the students were able to make connections between contextual information and works of art, and even began showing signs of meaning. For the third question, four of the students indicated that they liked Task (2), where they matched sentences with the key artworks best. The reason for this could have been because a task such as this was a new experience for them. It could also be that they each had their own copies of the key artworks, giving them some kind of ownership. The other two students indicated that Task 5 was their favorite because they liked to draw. This could have been due to the students' need to 186 interpret or give meaning to the Jamaican diverse cultural influence. The least favored task was Task 3. As one student said, "it was hard, I like the globe but there was too much writing." From the responses that were gathered for question (5), it was obvious that students were eager to talk about the different cultures in their Jamaican heritage because they all acknowledged the fact that they did not know that some of these cultures were sources of influence on the Jamaican people. For question (6) they all said that they emphasized African aspects of their heritage because as one student stated, only African people were in his family. This showed evidence that the student had limited amounts of contextual information in his memory store. Based on the diversity of the Jamaican people it is quite likely that members of his family could be from cultural ancestries other than Africa. However, his response may have to do with limited prior knowledge, as the student might have needed more time to reconceptualize his own cultural identity. One student insisted, "I know more now." This could indicate that the students understand more but have not yet processed the information in a way that makes it applicable to their own lives or their Jamaican identity. For questions (7) and (8), the students were not familiar with the term "formal qualities." Although they were informed about "formal qualities" in earlier tasks, it was necessary to remind them what these qualities entail, or as the stage of primacy in recall suggests, a topic should be introduced in a comprehensible and as agreeable as possible in order to allow students to process information. After the reminder,he students did ask for another explanation and they were willing to talk about the shapes, lines, and colours from the African paintings and carvings. This 187 could also be early retrieval of information from STM. Again the notion of continuous exposure to content heightened the students understanding. Students' responses showed that they were connecting the information transmitted in the preceding tasks. This is a primary goal of education as Spiro et.al (1988) states, "students should be expected to attain an accurate and deeper understanding of content material, be able to reason with it, and be able to apply it flexibly in diverse, ill-structured, and sometimes novel context" (p. 184). In open discussion the third group of randomly selected students, talked about the artist that influenced them in doing their artwork. One 11 year old boy said: Interpretation 6.1 like Jamaican dances but I did not know that others were around. Edna Manley is telling me about Pocomania and I want Pocomania from Africa. I go to church and people jump and make noise maybe is like Pocomania. The man in the dance Pocomania was jumping too.

This response showed that the student was willing to try and connect new information by organizing it in a deep relevant way. The connection of the dance excerpts to the artworks and Africa indicates that the student was capable of recalling relevant information from his memory store. The key influence for this student can therefore be seen because he focused on Edna Manley's use of the theme Pocomania from the dance. I concluded that from evidence of their ability to recall knowledge these students showed signs of making relevant connections when expressing their interpretations of their artworks. Results indicate that approximately 83% of responses were at the ranks of interpretation while approximately 17% 1 88 were at ranks of recall. See Table 13 for total number of student responses to Task 5 by experimental group. 189 Table 13 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 5 by Experimental Group Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 1 3.333 1 3.333 2 0 0 5 16.666 3 2 6.666 2 6.666 Art References 1 1 3.333 2 6.666 2 0 0 1 3.333 3 0 0 0 0 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 9 30 3 0 0 5 16.666

Total 5 16.666 25 83.333 190 Task 6: Evaluation of learning experience. For Task 6 the students were asked to reflect on all the tasks that were implemented during the study. The students were asked to answer similar questions to the students in the traditional group, and were analyzed for levels of recall and interpretation from ranks of 1 to 3 (recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). Students were expected to identify both formal and expressive qualities present in these artworks, while their meaning of the diverse cultural influences were also assessed. Those who had relevant information about Jamaican diverse cultural influences and themes in art but were unable to interpret this information, fell at the middle or lesser range (2) or (1). For the highest level of interpretation (6), students had to provide evidence of higher thinking skills to indicate that they possess a strong memory store of diverse cultural influences and themes in Jamaican artworks. Close examination of these results indicated that the experimental context of art teaching had favorable results because it enabled some students to acquire levels of interpretations as they demonstrated their ability to relate contextual information to Jamaican art by the two artists. The results of this task show that while 32% of the responses remained at the level of recall, 68% achieved interpretation. These results can be seen in Table 14. Samples of students responses by rank follow. Recall 2. I think the artist uses multicultural influences 1 their works of art because people are described as culture.

2. It wasn't because of he or she art work or shape or line. A love Edna Manley because of her colours. 191 This student did not show any signs of relevant interpretation of what diverse cultural influences were present in the works of art, nor did he show any evidence of relevant connections with the artwork and contextual information. 4. Are black and Edna Manley are black too when you look at Pocomania you can see that Edna Manley draw it and it remind me of the Pocomania dance from Africa. Pocomania is religion and people dance Pocomania in church too. Edna Manley like religion. I like Edna Manley because the drawing look like the colours from Africa they look good, she draw worship and Pocomania.

For this student, although her response was somehow mixed up (garbled), she was able to show valid evidence of some background information being present. This could be seen as she spoke about the themes that were emphasized in the study, and also the culture from which the dance Pocomania came. Problems of being mixed up might have resulted from the student making irrelevant categories in the sensory memory store. 6. They use multicultural influence as they think about cultural and Jamaican people. The art they did was interesting because Edna Manley used Pocomania as an influence in doing an art. Mallica Reynolds uses colour line shape and different races of people. And Edna and Mallica uses lifestyles behaviors of different groups of people that talk about Jamaican heritage. They are mostly telling us about lifestyles or culture, carvings and festivities in dance and religion. I think the reason why they did this is because of the way the slaves were beaten on the sugar plantation they remind us of these. These artworks contain images and colour that express the meaning of Christian religion beliefs and concepts inherited from the African and English Kumina meetings. I think they used European and some of African religion. One of the main things is that cultural is the way of life for me because if you do not have cultural heritage the country is no country. 192 This last response shows evidence of the student's strong connections by recalling information from LTM that related to previous tasks into her final comments. The evidence from the last response also indicates that students are able to make relationships between what was said and what he or she sees in order to formulate their interpretations. This student strongly expresses her knowledge of the Jamaican heritage by identifying the 2 main cultural groups that were represented, the two themes that were focused on in the study and their relationship to people (slaves) on the sugar plantation. As she showed signs of relevant connection, she looked closely at the expressive qualities in art by linking the themes of religion and dance, and also by stating their origins. This can be considered evidence of a good interpretation as the student elaborates on both formal and informal instruction and also attempts to support the points that she mentioned in an organized way. This observation coincides with Eaton (1991), "justifying an interpretation is not merely a matter of being able to point to a body of facts to support a claim. The facts must be organized ...." (p. 91) 193 Table 14 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 6 by Experimental Group Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 1 2.439 2 4.878 2 0 0 1 2.439 3 2 4.878 3 7.319 Art References 1 2 4.878 4 9.756 2 3 7.317 2 4.878 3 1 2.439 1 2.439 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 0 0 3 7.317 2 0 0 3 7.317 3 4 9.756 9 21.951

Total 13 31.707 28 68.292 194 Summary of Experimental Group. As students proceeded to work on their tasks, they were lead to personalize their thoughts, especially during tasks that involved their responses and art-making, which to some extent could also be referred to as a problem-solving-frame,or as Parsons (1990) believes, is an act of "decision making." He believes that the notion of "decision making"is important because it requires the formulation of adequate support and evidence. Decision making was evident in Task 3, for example: when the students attempted to make matches with the key artwork and selected artworks from both Jamaican artists and the main cultures that influence Jamaican art. Several of the students responded by looking back at their notes and recalled information from formal instruction which is a sign that the students were able to connect formal contextual information with the Jamaican artists. Evidence of students making connections and evaluating was seen as the students proceeded from one task to the next, where recall of contextual information from one task to the other served as cues for each preceding one. Some students however exhibited traces of misunderstandings as they were challenged into supporting their interpretations throughout all the required tasks by giving relevant responses. For the final activity (Task 6) in which students were involved, evidence of evaluation and connection was quite evident as students displayed their interpretations by making use of their memory store by either recalling or making attempts to give meaning to formal instructions. 195 Traditional Group Task 1: Cueing Lecture. For the first task, students were presented with contextual information that introduced them to a background of Jamaican multiple cultural influences and the two artists whose works were studied. This information on the history of Jamaica was presented to the students as the teacher read the passage to them. This instruction was formally transmitted to students to assist them in building a memory store of diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. This task was therefore not scored qualitatively but the following observational notes were made. As the students became exposed to formal instruction, approximately 90% were able to utilize sensory store in order to create memory. Evidence of relevant application of formal instruction became obvious as students showed signs of either recall or interpretation as they attempted to explain the meaning of 'multicultural influence.' The students began to make connections between information received and already existing information in their memory store which was evident as they probed for relevance in their own experiences. Several students questioned the meaning of "diverse cultural influence" as they asked related questions. This was seen in responses such as, "Does this mean many cultures or are we talking about the different cultures from which Jamaican people came?" and "In my family my grandfather by my mother's side was a white man from England, his wife was an Indian. By my father's side nearly everybody was black and now look at me, I am black, I am an African." From the above examples it can be seen that one student tried to find a definition of "diverse cultural influence," while the other student attempted 196 to trace his or her family tree, which suggests one way in which multiple cultures can be interpreted. These responses therefore emphasized the importance of recall and its role in developing interpretation. From experiences one student showed evidence of recall by stating facts about his grandparents and himself while the other student made reference to the cultures in the Jamaican heritage that were mentioned during the formal instruction. The students tried to make connections among their families and the diverse cultural influences by asking relevant questions. In looking at the three box-memory system, there is evidence that the contextual information was categorized with focus on the diverse cultures and it was connected to information they already had in their memory. By asking questions, the students were able to retrieve information to LTM where they made connections to informal instructions or experiences. Task 2: Building meaning. In the second task the students were cued to the idea that the two main sources of influence on the two Jamaican artists were European and African. These are new ideas and as suggested by Dewey (1958), they might find doors that have already been created by previous tasks as entrance for information into the sensory store and STM. Contextual information, at this point, focused on the influence of social aspects such as dance and religion. It was my desire to see the theme of religion becoming much clearer to the students as they began to see some of the different types of religious influences, and their relations to artworks. The students were reminded of the background of both artists as well as Jamaican diverse cultural influences and were asked to complete two exercises for Task 2. In the first exercise the students were asked to construct eight sentences that related to both formal and informal instruction about the Jamaican artists. 197 their heritage and their artworks. The second exercise had students compare the key artworks of Manley and Reynolds. The assessment focused on the use of memory to recall words or sections from the sentences that each student wrote about the artworks, the artists, and their diverse cultural influences in the previous task. The assessment also reflected the student's ability to make relevant comparisons relating to the Jamaican diverse cultural influences, as well as their understanding of expressive qualities in Jamaican works of art and heritage. As the students proceeded to compare the key artworks of both Jamaican artists in Task 2, both recall and interpretation were applied as they tried to give reasons for comparisons and matches. Levels of recall and interpretation were ranked from 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). For the 21 students in the traditional group, 15 responses were at recall while the remaining 53 responses were at levels of interpretation. This clearly indicates that the students not only recalled information from their memory store, but attempted to understand the instruction on diverse cultural influences when they formulated their interpretations. Although the majority of students achieved some level of interpretation, it is important to note that through continued exposure to later instruction (tasks), as Feltovich, Spiro & Coulson (1993) explains, meaning might "incrementally be achieved some time later" (p. 184). The results for both exercises show that at least 78% of students achieved levels of interpretation, while 22% fell at levels of recall. See summary Table 15 of total number of student responses to Task 2. During the search for similarities and differences, the students' attempts at recognizing common factors in the paintings showed signs of 198 recall as they looked at the key artworks in a critical manner. Several examples from the students' responses focused on themes from cultures that influenced artworks created in Jamaica. Religion was seen to be a popular theme. For example, from recognition of similar content, one 10 year old girl wrote "the two paintings look similar because they are worshiping the Lord." Other examples looked at the colour of the images that were represented in the paintings; as one 11 year old boy stated, "the two paintings both have black people on it," while another stated that black people and white people could be seen in both paintings. Sample responses by rank were as follows; Recall 1. This is about Heaven and Earth.

2. This artist as a influence about Africans, they are one family of Jamaica.

3. This artwork is about Pocomania. Edna Manley the artist born in England and sailed back to Jamaica.

Interpretation

1. Africans are begging for mercy.

2. They are celebrating and rejoicing, people was begging.

3. Black nations going to Heaven and earth. This picture shows Christianity worship and the carving shows African family.

At rank 1, the highest level of recall, the student only repeated the title of the painting which only confirms the fact that they were exposed to the painting. In the next response at rank 2, the student went a little further by stating what was recognized in the painting; the family unit. This might be described as vividness in the stage of recall because of the life like impressions that are evoked in the students' minds as they attempt to personalize contextual 199 information. The third response was an elaboration of what the student recognized, in order to recall the section of the contextual information that relates to the artist. Frequency is seen through reference to 'black and 'African family,' and heaven and earth and Christianity. From ranks 4 to 6, interpretation was recognized. At response 4 there is little evidence of interpretation. The interpretation here is based on what was seen. At the next level 5, although the student attempted to give an interpretation, there could also be misinterpretations depending on the knowledge they already have or, as Barrett (1993) suggests, the interpretation might not be rounded with sufficient evidence. The next interpretation, however, is better argued and is at a higher level because the student tried to create meaning from what was interpreted in the artwork. Some students looking for differences between the paintings paid more attention to the expressive qualities, as a boy 11 years old stated, "one of the paintings is more colourful than the other." In terms of memory, the assessment of this task shows that the students focused mainly on the fact that both carvings represented the human figure. Some even went further and expressed their knowledge of racial influence by saying that they were black people and therefore they were Africans. One very interesting comment was made by an 11 year old boy who focused on the expressive qualities, "one of the carvings are different because one is made out of stone, and the next is made out of wood." This indicated that the student was able to utilize his visual - perceptual recognition, especially since the class was not informed about the type of material that was used to create these carvings. One girl of 11 years of age, referring to the cultural context in the artworks, stated that one of the carvings, Pocomania by Edna Manley, looked like it had 200 Chinese eyes while the other. Obedience Covers All by Mallica Reynolds "Kapo," looked like an African family. These points mentioned by the students showed clearly that they were trying to make connections with the key artworks and the diverse cultures by referring to what is considered to be typical features of the African and Chinese peoples; the slanting of the

Chinese eyes, and the colour black for Africa. W ith these responses one might conclude that the students were able to retrieve information from STM to LTM as they attempted to build a memory store. It would be up to the students to build on this memory store during the formal instructions that followed. 201 Table 15 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 2 by Traditional Group

Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 1 1.47 3 4.41 2 2 2.94 3 4.41 3 9 13.23 10 14.71 Art References 1 1 1.47 5 9.43 2 1 1.47 4 5.88 3 0 0 7 10.29 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 0 0 7 10.29 2 0 0 1 1.47 3 1 1.47 13 19.11

Total 15 22 53 78 202 Task 3: Building deeper meaning. This task was implemented in the hope of having students acquire a broader memory store, or as described by Perkins and Simmons (1988), the content frame level of knowledge where the student becomes more aware of the subject matter for memorization and recall. This was done by exposing students to other Jamaican artists whose work strongly reflected the influence of their Jamaican heritage. It was anticipated that the students would be able to identify the differences between the artists' individual interpretations of cultural influences in their artworks. Examples for use of cultural influences might be seen in a case where Jamaican artists tried to represent themes such as religion or traditional dances such as Pocomania or Jonkonnu. As students were expected to recall acquired information that was stored in STM from the introduction of this task, I searched for possible evidence of learners who might show signs of giving meaning to their interpretations. Several students showed signs of being unable to identify cultural themes in the artworks and therefore recalled irrelevant contextual information. An example is seen in the case of one 11 year old girl who showed that she was knowledgeable about the discovery of Jamaica by Christopher Columbus, but was unable to find an appropriate process to connect this knowledge to the message portrayed by the key artworks. All she did was recall a historical fact. However, as this same student continued to write other sentences describing the artworks, she did achieve a lower level of recall. This could be seen in her response which stated, "it looks like an African family and Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds influenced each other." The student did recall relevant information from instruction and could also be described as attempting to interpret the artwork as she tried to 203 make relationships between the artists. On the other hand the learner that attempted to show signs of giving meaning was able to respond favorably by giving relevant information on both the artists, while making significant connections of contextual information on cultural influences and the use of subject matter and cultural themes in the works of art. For matching sets of A1 and A2 to the paintings. Worship by Manley, 52% of the students selected Thirteen Israelites, by Carl Abrahams. Some of the reasons for this selection by three 11 year old boys were, for example, "Because it is the same colour and same thing in the picture," "The reason why A2 is the same is because they are all praying to God," and "A2 and worship look the same because A2 is worshiping and the other is worship also." In the stages of recall, these responses vary from recognition of content in (1) to frequency in (5) where the student both tries to evoke lifelike impressions by saying that the content of the artwork is worship as well as by recognition of the title of the artwork. The third response clearly indicates that the student attempted to go further than just recall of instruction but attention was focused on the formal qualities in the artworks. The name of the key artwork Worship by Edna Manley was mentioned while an attempt was made to interpret the expressive quality of the figures in the artwork A2 Thirteen Israelites as a religious activity, that of worship. From the next set B1 Dance of the Maroons by Barrington Watson, and B2 Revellers by Susan Alexander, 57% of the student choose Revellers as a match for and Kapo's Heaven and Earth. When giving reasons for their selections, several students made note of the crowded atmosphere that was created by the figures, the similarities in the use of colour, and the fact that the 204 African race was more dominant. This showed evidence that some students had attempted to utilize their memory store by referring to the influence of both the Jamaican heritage and Africa on the works of the artists. These students showed strong evidence of exploring the relationship of contextual information and art during their focus on the formal qualities of art in an attempt to identify the features of the figures to see whether they represented Africans, Chinese, Europeans, and Indians. Several of these features were mentioned during formal instruction as characteristic features of the different cultures. Interesting points were recorded as the colours of the skin, the type of hair, the shape of the faces and features such as the eyes were mentioned. Other students went further as they tried to identify the subject matter and themes present in the artworks. Nearly everyone decided that celebration was the key theme being represented, thereby showing signs of relevant contextual information. There were varied opinions concerning what subject matter was represented. Some students suggested that the was dance while other students said that the theme was religion. The title of B1 Dance of the Maroons, seemed to be the reason why students were able to say that dance was the subject represented. Differences in opinions regarding the theme were mainly identified among the students who designated B2 Revellers as their choice. Some students indicated that this painting was not a dance therefore it looked more like the key artwork Heaven and Earth by Kapo. Other responses focused on the figures, for example: "the figures were overlapping just as the ones in Heaven and Earth and this was more colourful than Bl," and "In B21 can hardly see a whole person Bl don’t have as much people as 32 and they are standing more straight. Bl people are dancers B2 people look like Christians." 205 In the next two sets of selections responses were recorded as the students compared likenesses among the key carvings by the two artists Manley and Reynolds with selected carvings from other Jamaican artists. For the first set Cl, Bob Marley by Christopher Gonzales and C2 Head by Gene Pearson were compared with Manley's Pocomania. Students here were better able to talk about the expressive qualities than they did for the set that was compared with Kapo's Obedience Covers All, D1 Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah, by Carl Abrahams and D2 Dance of the Candles by Carl Parboosingh. This may have occurred because of the consistency of the medium used. Some students shared that Cl and C2, Bob Marley and Head are carvings while D1 and D2, are paintings. Some students also expressed that it was not fair for them to compare carvings with paintings. I immediately thought of this as sign that some students were only willing to think of artworks based on media. Students at this point were led into an open discussion. Surprisingly several students, although initially very hesitant to believe that paintings and carvings could be compared, suddenly changed their minds. This sudden change of students' minds might have resulted from the formal instruction that was introduced at that point, which clarified their misunderstanding. Or the change may have resulted from the resolution of a conflict which suggests that learning was somehow achieved. Another view from Chapman (1978), relates to the amount of awareness or imagination that the student takes to the classroom. Due to their level of awareness and imagination the students began talking about the themes represented and the diverse cultural influences that could be identified which indicated that they were now ready to interpret or give meanings to the artworks. I thought this was very 206 significant because the students then became more alert and were willing to recognize and recall information from their memory store. Some of these strategies focused on the students' personal interpretation and by their organization of what they know in a more coherent manner. The popular choice for the selections Cl Bob Marley and C2 Head resulted in 81% of the students selecting Bob Marley over Head. Sample responses from two 11 year old boys were as follows: "The two of them are about worship." and "Because he is pointing to God." From D1 Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah by Carl Abrahams and D2 Dance of the Candles by Carl Parboosingh, all the students selected Hallelujah, Hallelujah, Hallelujah to be more like the key artwork Obedience Covers All. Togetherness seems to have been a popular reason, though some students looked at the racial groups that were represented. Sample responses from two other 11 year old girls were as follows: "They are all family the same colour and the kind of people," and "They are both showing black nation." For the degree of traditional group matching of coded selected artworks of Jamaican artists in relation to the key artworks see Table 16. 207 Table 16 Total Number of Student Matching Responses to Task 3 by Traditional Group

Degree of Matching

Key Artworks Coded Artworks Matching %

Manley Painting A1 10 48 A2 11 52 Reynolds Painting B1 9 43 B2 12 57 Manley Carving Cl 17 81 C2 4 19 Reynolds Carving D1 21 100 02 0 208 The second part of Task 3 was analyzed in a way similar to Task 2, and the results showed that the total ranking was lower for recall. Levels of recall and interpretation from ranks of 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation) were identified. The results indicated that the students were now showing more evidence of meaning of diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. The results also indicated that the students are well as being able to recall information from one learning situation to the other. Ranked sample responses for matching sets of Jamaican artworks can be seen in the following: Recall 1. Kapo shared love for Jesus and God.

2. Religion such as Pocomania, Revivalism and Rastafarianism.

3. In the case of Jamaica, because of our African, Chinese, English, Indian and Spanish.

Interpretation

4. There are many different races because we were born in Jamaica.

5. The Jamaican artist thinks about Family, the dance looks like an African dance.

6. The two paintings look alike because they are worshiping the Lord. They are Angels of the Lord. Because they are about love they refer to each one of us to the Lord. They are showing us to obey the Lord.

For the third section of Task 3 the students were encouraged to further express meaning of diverse cultural influences while looking at the formal and expressive qualities of Jamaican art. This was done by asking students to interpret their favorite works of art, and to write short passages for their 209 choices. They were also able to look at social themes, especially religion and dance, as portrayed in artworks. Student responses were analyzed for levels of recall of the historical context they were introduced to in earlier tasks. Their ability to recall relevant instruction provided me with clues about their progress towards their interpretation of diverse cultural influences, themes, and subject matter in Jamaican art. I, along with four peer debriefers who were familiar with the Jamaican heritage, scored these sample writings for levels of recall and interpretation were ranked from 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). I expected that the level of students' meaning-making would be expressed in their interpretations, and so they did with 80.65% responding at the interpretation rank of (6). Sample responses at ranks follow: Interpretation 4 .1 like heaven and earth because it is about the people going to heaven and is a very interesting drawing. In the picture you can see peoples from different races. I understand that the painting is very beautiful and the artwork is very beautiful. The cultural influences are African, Chinese, Indians,and English. We are all brothers and sisters in Gods presence.

This showed signs of knowledge because of the strong evidence of recall although the process used was not very effective. Not much reasoning went on to show high level of interpretation. 5 .1 like Pocomania best because it is made from stone and it hold one hand up and the other down also the head is turn down. It is a part of dance and he looks like he is taking a bath and the carving nice and some part of the carving is yellow and the other is brown. I think it is sitting and thinking how to do is school work and be polite in the classroom. And the way it is carve you can see that it has some hold in it. Also it has a line in the head 210 it has nose, eyes and mouth as people also it has fingers like us. and it looks like he is going to drop is on a table. More evidence of reasoning was evident in this response. The process used by this student focused on factors such as the type of materials in the construction of the artwork, and how the artwork relates to dance. More information however was needed to indicate what diverse cultural influences were present. This might therefore be considered as an indication of lack of prior knowledge of the diverse cultural influences. 6. Pocomania is a Jamaican dance and I love it. Pocomania has different colours and I like it. Jamaica came from different races like Chinese, Africans, English and Indians. In Jamaica we take Pocomania as a dance. Pocomania is a nice artwork by Edna Manley. The artwork of Pocomania look like a man bathing. The Pocomania have five fingers on both arm. Pocomania statue as everything like a person. They carve the Pocomania like a person dancing. The colours of the Pocomania is very beautiful, such as the blue and brown. My country is very good dancers in Pocomania. The Pocomania is a very artful dance.

This student elaborates on his interpretation. Here we have awareness of cultural influences which shows effective use of recall. The student was able to associate the dance as coming from Africa, and make favorable comparisons between the artwork and the dance. He was also able to talk about the different cultures that are a part of the Jamaican heritage. Several researchers (Efland, Koroscik, & Parsons, 1991; Hurwitz & Day, 1991; and W ilson, 1992) have supported the idea that students can organize their ideas by creating text that will provide arguments in support of their ideas and preferences. As Smagorinsky and Coppock (1993) suggest, an activity such as this "can simultaneously both shape and be shaped by a person's thinking as it mediates between thought and activity" (p. 5). This process in learning allows the students to personalize their interpretations of Jamaican diverse 211 cultural heritage as well as making connections with works of art. For summary of total student responses for Task 3 see Table 17. 212 Table 17 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 3 by Traditional Group

Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 3.23 1 3.23 3 0 0 1 3.23 Art References 1 1 3.23 1 3.23 2 0 0 1 3.23 3 1 3.23 4 12.90 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 1 3.23 0 0 2 1 3.23 2 6.45 3 1 3.23 15 48.38

Total 6 19.35 25 80.65 213 Task 4: Making Art. As the students continued on the steps toward meaning, their drawings in task 4 served as an assessment of their levels of recall as the students attempted to recall information from their essays written in Task 3 to individual drawings. It also created an opening for expression of contextual meaning as the student tried to include facts about their culture into individual drawings. A similar study was done by Smagorinsky, (1993) where students in a language arts class illustrated short stories. He was interested in the "potential of composing non-verbal text in helping students to construct meaning and express understanding" (p. 3). As also seen in Smagorinsky (1993), the students in this study initiated their interpretations by (1) empathizing with sections of the characters in the key artworks from which they wrote their stories, (2) creating symbols in order to represent action, and (3) creating images that could be linked to contextual information. Selected examples of very strong drawings could be seen in samples 1,4,5, 7, 9,13,17, and 20 (see Plates XLVII - LIV). This group of students could also be categorized as displaying good use of connections with contextual information on diverse cultural influences because of their strong interpretation of information from their essays into their drawings that had recalled contextual information. These drawings were very interesting to look at as some students tried really hard to be very original in their art productions, although they were still able to relate them to the key artwork of their choice. In order to categorize the levels of students memory from recall to interpretation, students who attempted to copy directly from the key artworks were ranked at levels of recall. Students who tried to draw original yet recognizable cultural forms, were ranked at interpretation. Students who tried to oversimplify also showed signs of 214 misconception which several writers (Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, & Anderson, (1988); Perkins & Simmons (1988) describe as reductive bias. Therefore,students who copied from the key artworks by either Manley or Reynolds can be described as showing evidence of reductive bias. In order to make more accurate assessment of this art making task however. Task 5 (Interpretation of Art Making) was instituted. Results for Task 4 indicated that approximately 62% of the students were at ranks of interpretation while 32% were at ranks of recall. For a total number of student responses see Table 18. 215 Table 18 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 4 by Traditional Group Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 5 7.692 4 6.154 2 6 9.230 5 7.692 3 1 1.538 8 12.308 Art References 1 5 7.692 4 6.154 2 2 3.076 7 10.769 3 2 3.076 4 6.154 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 1 1.538 2 3.076 2 2 3.076 2 3.076 3 1 1.538 4 1.536

Total 25 38.456 40 61.537 216

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Plate LIV: Traditional Student No. 20. 224 Task 5: Interpretation of Art Making. Continuing from Task 4 where students produced artworks that were influenced by their thoughts, the students were encouraged to give meaning to their individual works of art orally in Task 5. An attempt was also made to see how much students understood about formal qualities in works of art. During this oral expression, students might exhibit traces of misunderstanding as they seek facts to support the meanings behind their drawings. From the responses that some students gave, it was quite evident that some were successful in relating their objects to the artworks and the Jamaican heritage, even though they tried to personalize their artworks. As mentioned in task 4, the assessment focused on levels of recall and interpretation were ranked from 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation). Examples of oral response by rank follow: Interpretation 4. My drawing is talking about the African man in Jamaica. I am a boy so I like the African man. I love to worship that is why I am drawing worship. I use different colours for my drawing from the other worship because I should show colours for other people in Jamaica. This is my story.

The student showed signs of making connections to LTM in order to retrieve contextual information that related to diverse cultural influences in order to assist him in constructing a relevant interpretation of his drawing. This is evidence of what Service (1987) suggests as the maintaining of "true to life- representations." Or, in this case, contextual information that was utilized when necessary. Several of these interpretations could be easily identified in his drawing. His level of personalizing his drawing was very effective as he was able to connect his written passage with his drawing and also gave a relevant oral explanation of what he saw in the artwork. 225 In another example one student seemed to be in another world of his own where he did not make any connection with the influences, themes, and subject matter, nor did he even attempt to express his interpretation on any aspect of the Jamaican heritage. After reading this response it was obvious that the student did not make any connection with the passage or the artworks, hence sharing strong evidence of misunderstanding. Although he might possess a memory store, the lack of use could result in inert contextual information or misunderstanding of the task. Results of misunderstanding could also result from lack of a memory store because chunks of information were lost at STM, resulting in garbled knowledge where students oral responses are mixed up. They are mixed in the sense that the statement is a historical fact but yet does not relate to the contextual information that was presented during formal instruction. An example could be where a student mentions some fact about Jamaica which was not directly related to either the multiple cultural influences in Jamaica or the themes and subject of the artwork. This response could then be ranked at the highest level of recall (1). Recall 1. This is Jamaica land of wood and water and we have many beaches and different types of people.

The overall results of Task 5 in Table 19 indicate that the students' responses ranked at approximately 89% at the levels of interpretation. This therefore is a clear indication that the students had acquired a strong memory store and some level of connection with information relating to the Jamaican diverse cultural influences on the artworks that Jamaican artists created. 226 Table 19 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 5 by Traditional Group

Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 2 5.777 5 13.888 2 0 0 6 16.666 3 0 0 6 16.666 Art References 1 1 2.777 7 19.444 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 5.777 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 0 0 1 2.777 2 1 2.777 1 2.777 3 0 0 4 11.111

Total 4 11.111 32 88.889 227 Task 6: Evaluation of Learning Experience. During this final task the students were given the opportunity to challenge their ability to attach a final meaning to the Jamaican works of art. From the cueing process of the preceding tasks, patterns of misunderstandings also occurred because some students were unable to connect previous information to contextual information that they acquired during formal instruction. Since learning is cumulative in nature, it was my hope that information from one task to the other would help students to store new information in LTM that would assist them in giving meaning to the artworks. For planning future instructions in this pilot study, careful note was therefore taken to identify the nature of misconceptions acquired by students. Students were asked to reflect on all the tasks that were implemented during the study before answering three selected questions. As with Task 3, four peer debriefers who were familiar with Jamaican heritage assisted me with the scoring of sample writings in order to arrive at levels of recall and interpretation. Levels of recall and interpretation were ranked from 1 to 3 ( recall) to 4 through 6 (interpretation).

All of the students answered "yes" to the question of whether or not both artists showed diverse cultural influences in their works of art. The results in Table 20 indicate that recall, the lowest level of meaning scored 52% while interpretation scored 48%. The lower percentage at interpretation might be because the students were unable to store enough contextual information at LTM. Therefore, there was little for them to interpret. The fact that the students were still in possession of their booklets containing the formal instruction may also have contributed to the higher percentage of students' responses falling at levels of recall. There is also the possibility that recall was higher because there are times when we do recognize things that 228 we cannot recall, which might have been the case among some students. The students might recognize aspects of the Jamaican heritage which were lost at STM, resulting in their inability to engage in any form of retrieval. Based on the overall results for this task, one might conclude that the higher percentage at recall might have also resulted from teacher guided discussion and contextual information. Samples of students' responses are shown below indicating both the rank in which they were scored and the reasons for that rank: Recall 1. Edna Manley Mallica explore multicultural influences in their works of art can you tell how. Can you tell if the artwork were African or European explain to me, how you think artists Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds Kapo showed multicultural influences in their works of art artwork were African and European.

This response showed signs of garbled knowledge and was only a repetition of the question, which could have been because the student just did not know what to do. The student did however identify the two main cultures that were present in the Jamaican heritage which could be a sign that the student did retain some contextual information in memory store but he could not organize this knowledge in order to explain these cultures or to give meaning to the works of the artist. The memory therefore can be considered inert. Interpretation 4. The art is about worship his a group of people worshiping to God. I think these white men are taking the Black African for a slave but the white Africans they should use them for slave too not only the black Africans so they both should treat as a slave. I think the reason why Edna did the art about worship because it's about African and Edna are also an European. It is all about Africa her sister and brother together. 229 This response indicated that the student attempted to give meaning to the artworks. The student showed evidence that he knew part of the Jamaican heritage originated in slavery. Evidence of relevant connection could also be seen where he talks about Edna Manley being European although in her artwork she refers to Africa and the coming together of her sister and brother. Perhaps he is thinking about the national motto, "Out Of Many One People." Interpretation 5. they carve it like a black man. I think Edna Manley show multicultural influences on the Pocomania art because it has a Chinese eye and African skin. It looks like a African because Edna Manley made it like a black man. The colour of the Pocomania is black, that is why I think it's a African nation statue. I think its a very good dance. Pocomania dance looks like a man bading. It has a lot of shape and beauty. I think that Edna Manley took long time to carve it. She is very creative and good she took a long time to carve it. . . think she is a good woman.

Here the student showed signs of recalling information from LTM. First there was recall where the student focused on the formal qualities in art by attempting to interpret, the colour of the figure and relate it to Africa, the shape by explaining the action that is portrayed, and also he looked at a cultural influence by noting similarities between the name of the carving and the name of the dance Pocomania. Interpretation 6. Their are African because the people are black and black people are from Africa. And the art work I reaching out to Africa. The paint have the Africa culture, religion. The name of the carving name is Pocomania. It is saying a lot to our multicultural influences. Edna Manley was born in Jamaica February 1900 but later she went to England. She married her cousin in 1921. The colour belong to Africa. The religion is to Africa. Pocomania is a dance in Jamaica. The Christianity came from Africa with the other heritage is Chinese, English, Indian, and Spanish. The colour of Pocomania is blue, brown and black. But still it is a 230 Jamaican dance done by several people. I still say Pocomania belong to Africa. I say that Pocomania background was black Africa.

In this response there is strong evidence that the student retained contextual information on the background of the artist and was aware of the Jamaican multiple cultural influences. He mentioned the different cultures that were represented and the theme in the artworks in his comments on the type of religion and dance. This can be considered as misinformation since the student links Christianity to Africa although there was an attempt to connect the dance and the religion, and by looking at expressive qualities in the colours as he linked the carving to Africa in order to give meaning to the Jamaican works of art. 231 Table 20 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 6 by Traditional Group

Degree of Meaning

Ranking Recall % Interpretation %

Cultural References 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 8 16 6 12 Art References 1 2 4 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 3 2 4 3 6 Art and Cultural Relationships 1 4 8 0 0 2 1 2 3 6 3 7 14 9 18

Total 26 52 24 48 232 Summary of Traditional Group. Both relevant and irrelevant contextual information v\rere retrieved from LTM. Students were expected to identify both formal and expressive qualities present in these artworks. There were students who had relevant contextual information of Jamaican diverse cultural influences and themes in art but several were only able to refer to this contextual information at levels of recall. Responses that showed signs of meaning were those that elaborated on their interpretations, although there were also some students who showed signs of interpretation but little reference to either art or culture, who were given ranks of 4 or 5. At the level of 2 and 3 at recall, students elaborated by retrieving information on both art and cultural relations. Overall the students not only attempted to interpret both informal and formal context of diverse cultural influences to which they had been exposed, but also they made relevant connections of this contextual information to the key artwork.

Summary of Results Phase One Evidence from the results of both the traditional and experimental groups indicate that the students were able to effectively recall information from both formal and informal instructions. The continuity of tasks assisted students to build their memory store as well as modify ideas in the later tasks. As Dewey (1958) explains, what is "learned in the way of knowledge and skill in one situation becomes an instrument of understanding and dealing effectively with the situations which follows" (p. 44). Therefore as Kolb (1984) suggests; .. . one's job as an educator is not only to implant new ideas but to dispose of or modify old ones. In many cases, resistance to new ideas stems from their conflict with old beliefs that are inconsistent with 233 them. If the education process begins by bringing out learner's beliefs and theories, examining and testing them, and then integrating the new, more refined ideas into the person's belief systems, the learning process will be facilitated, (p. 28)

Additional analysis also indicated that several of the elementary students were on their way to achieving meaning as was seen in some of their interpretations about the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art by the two selected Jamaican artists. As asked in research question# 2, "Can students relate contextual information to interpretation and meaning when studying Jamaican works of art?" not only were the students able to identify these cultural influences by recall, but they attempted to express meaning at various ranks of interpretations. Following in phase two will be an explanation of how the students made connections as they progressed from one task to the other.

Phase Two Experimental Group Similar to the traditional group, students responses for Tasks 1 to 6 in the experimental group were investigated for connections from one task to the other. I was particularly interested in seeing if the students' levels of recall and interpretation were consistent as they progressed from Task 1 to Task 6. Examining levels of recall and levels of interpretation, I was able to determine students' success in building on cultural contextual information from one task to the other as they attempt to relate contextual information to Jamaican works of art. In the responses that were gathered, several of the students showed that they were capable of recalling relevant information in order to make 234 connections from Task 1 to Task 3. The strength of this evidence could be seen in as early as Task 2. This positive trend in students' levels of meaning continued through sections of each task that required the students' written responses. In Task 3, with results showing 67% of students' responses at the level of interpretation, the students could be considered as having a fairly good idea of Jamaican diverse cultural influences on art. This, as Chanda (1995) suggests, also relates to the students ability to synthesize information. The suggestion is that, if students are able to synthesize information in order to come up with ideas or conclusion, then they are indeed elaborating on their interpretations. Results were gathered from phase one and showed strong evidence that the students related critical interpretations about both artists, about the information that was presented about Jamaican diverse cultural themes and subject matter, and about the information about the four main regions that influence the Jamaican heritage. To have students try to locate these regions on a globe might have been the source of motivation during this task. This was a fairly new experience for them and they continued to show more interest as they were presented with the dance excerpts, another new experience for them. From comments that were documented through the use of the video recorder, several students could be heard trying to make connections with the figures in the dances, the key artworks, and the selected artworks from the four regions. Examples of these responses are as follows: "Look that man jumps like the Pocomania in Manley's work. The group is togetherness like the togetherness in Obedience covers all" and "wow look at them they hold other together definitely the mother and child like Worship they are praying." With these responses showing evidence of recognitions, it 235 can be seen that the students looked at the movement of the body, the colours that were most common, and the use of themes and subject matter. Added cueing that students received in Task 3 could have been a contributing factor for the 79% of responses showing high levels of interpretation in Task 4 and the 83% in Task 5. It should be understood however, that the interpretations for Task 4 were of the students" drawings and not of the Jamaican artists. The students were successful in making connections between the Jamaican heritage and their drawings. Stronger evidence of students' meaning was seen as the students elaborated on interpretations that were relevant to both their drawings and the Jamaican heritage. Although the results for Task 6 indicate that 69% of students responded positively at a fairly high level of interpretation there was evidence of a decline in the students' recall and interpretation of the diverse cultural influence on the Jamaican art of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." Similar to Task 6 of the traditional group, this decline could be due to the fact that the students sought an easy way out to respond by simply looking at sections in their booklets that were used in the formal instruction. For total number of student responses to task 3,4, 5 & 6 by experimental group see Table 21. 236 Table 21 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 3,4,5 & 6 by Experimental Comparative Context Group

Degree of Meaning

Recall - % Interpretation - %

Task 3 32.835 67.162

Task 4 20.833 79.166

Task 5 16.666 83.333

Task 6 31.707 68.292 237 Traditional Group Based on the students responses in Tasks 1 - 6 of the traditional group, I tried to identify where students made connections from one task to the other. I was interested in seeing if the students' levels of recall were consistent as they progressed from Task 1 to Task 6. To be able to differentiate between the levels of recall, I examined how well the students were able to build on information from one task to the other as they progressed in their abilities to relate contextual information to Jamaican art. This could be considered a process of cognitive growth similar to Kolb's (1984) belief that growth from "concrete to abstract and from active to reflective is based on this continual transaction between assimilation and accommodation" (p. 23). A parallel to Kolb's belief was seen in this study where students progressed from one task to the other in successive stages. Each of these stages incorporated what went on before into a new stage of the study. My findings concur with Feltovich's statement that, "following exposure, heightened understanding and knowledge applicability will be incrementally achieved sometime later" (Feltovich et al., 1993, p. 184). From Task 1 to Task 3, sections of the background information, the history of Jamaica and the information relating to the two artists, Manley and Reynolds, could be identified in the students written and oral responses. I decided that this was strong evidence of recall because these students were able to build on the information gathered from one task to the other. For example, by giving their personal interpretations of the historical information in their responses, they showed signs of gathering meaning. On the contrary, students who were unable to connect information from one task to another were mainly those who copied sections from the contextual 238 information they were given. This information was transferred into the tasks that required written responses, showing cases of oversimplification which Efland (1994) suggests could lead to "reductive bias." For sections of Task 3, in particular passages that were written about their favorite artworks, when students were asked to explain their reasons for their responses, it was evident that these students were interpreting the information from the formal instruction because from the results given in phase one, 81% of students responded at levels of interpretation. Responses for Task 4 however, indicated that the students started losing track of what they were being taught as their levels of interpretation fell to 62%. This, I believe, was because the students were now focusing on their own expressions in their drawings. Instead of recalling information directly from the formal instruction, more emphasis was placed on the students showing how they interpreted their written passages and created related drawings. As the students continued to Task 5, their levels of meaning improved to 89% (where they gave oral interpretations of their own drawings), and there is evidence that they pulled from previous tasks. Only 11% of the students were unable to connect their drawings to their passages that were written in Task 3. For these students there was evidence of not being able to utilize information from their memory store. These students therefore were unable to make relevant explanations of their drawings in Task 5. From the results of 48% for interpretation in for Task 6 one can see that these students levels of recall and interpretation were lowered similar to the reduction in Task 4. Although it is difficult to determine why the results on Tasks 4 and 6 were lower, one could say that while the students were attempting to explain their own interpretation of their written passages in 239 Task 6, the student might have simply flipped back to the information from the formal instruction and copied sections (oversimplification), instead of focusing on LTM. To prevent oversimplification during this study, students could have been requested to do the final task (Task 6), on additional leaflets instead of their booklets. This would also encourage the student to focus more on their memory store or LTM and try to access information for either recall or interpretation. The students could have also found it difficult to interpret works of art or connect contextual information to works of art which would require more information to be stored in memory. They found it easier to describe the artworks instead. If one were to debate about the point at which students were able to gain more meaning it could be said that this occurred between Tasks 3, and 5 as seen in the results of 'phase 1'. The total number of student responses for Tasks 3,4,5, and 6 can be seen in Table 22. 240 Table 22 Total Number of Student Responses to Task 3,4,5 & 6 by Traditional Group

Degree of Meaning

Recall - % Interpretation - %

Task 3 19.35 80.65

Task 4 38.456 61.537

Tasks 11.111 88.889

Task 6 52 58 241 Summary of Results Phase Two The above results of the students progress from one task to the other addressed all three research questions but had a strong focus on question (1): To what extent can students recall or interpret diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art by Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo?" Since learning is a continuous process, for students to recall information an examination of the progression from one task to another has important implications for students' learning outcomes. It should be remembered that looking at the results from both groups of students, it would appear that Tasks 3 and 6 are about equal. Tasks 4 and 5 made no significant impact on their ability to recall or interpret diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art. The results following in phase three will focus on my personal interest in seeing if student ability to connect contextual information about their heritage to Jamaican works of art is different with the experimental or traditional teaching method. This interest was borne out of the fact that several students in the Jamaican elementary schools do not have access to electricity, least of all a television or a video tape recorder. Therefore I saw it quite necessary to share with fellow art teachers that there is an alternate method that relies on traditional materials.

Phase Three Significance Between Traditional and Experimental Groups As indicated earlier, one aim as an art educator is to be able to design more creative methods of teaching art. Based on the results of Phase 1 and 2 ,1 wanted to see if there were any significant differences between both methods 242 of teaching, and therefore should not be examined as a part of the overall data analysis of the study. Statistical analyses of results for the traditional and experimental groups were examined for levels of recall from rank 1 to 3 (recall) and 4 to 6 (interpretation) These results were taken from students' individual responses. The data of levels of recall was entered for each student group in Tasks 3, 4, 5, and 6 for both recall and interpretation of cultural reference, art reference, and art and cultural relationships. Tasks 1 and 2 were not included because they were not considered as true assessment tasks but more cueing tasks where the focus was on formally building a strong memory store among the students. For this statistical analyses, Kruskal Wallis Non Parametric test was used because the data set was not normally distributed. The test was administered because the students were not expected to have scores in all the ranks for levels of meaning (see Figure 4), which resulted in the sample size being too small. Therefore to avoid any bias in scores, the Kruskall Wallis Non Parametric test was done. The scores for the variables Task 3, Task 4, Task 5 and Task 6 Recall, were subjected to a 2 group non parametric that were performed by Proc NPAR one way in the SAS system. As noted in Table 23, The Kruskal Wallace Test statistic for Task 3 Recall, H = 7. 53, p < . 006, indicates that the two groups were significantly different. The mean score (R) for the Experimental group (R = 26.77), is higher than the Traditional group (R = 17.00). This is an indication that the teaching approach for the experimental group produced more students who responded at high levels of recall. Results of Tasks 4 and 6, on the other hand, showed that the teaching method in the traditional group produced more responses from students that were at high levels of 243 recall. Findings therefore indicate that the test statistic for Task 4, H = 1.41 g< .235, also indicates that the two groups were significantly different. In this case the mean score (R) for the Traditional group (R = 24.21), was higher than the Experimental (R = 19.89). In Task 6 Recall the test statistic of H = 4.96 p < .039, showed significance. The mean score (R) for the Traditional group (R = 26.12), was also higher than the Experimental group (R = 18.09). The test statistic for Task 5 Recall, H = .42 p < .520, is not significant. Mean score (R) for the Traditional group was (R = 21.14), while Experimental group was (R = 22.82). The overall results show that the teaching method that produced responses at high levels of recall, was that employed in the traditional group. These results are also consistent with that of phase two where the results for Task 3 recall is higher for traditional group, lower in both Tasks 4 and 6 and very close for Task 5. 244 Table 23

Group Memory Store

Dependent Level of Group N Mean Score H U Variable Variable for Rank Statistic R

Task 3 Recall Traditional 21 17.00 7.53 .006 * Experimental 22 26.77

Task 4 Recall Traditional 21 24.21 1.41 .235 * Experimental 22 19.89

Task 5 Recall Traditional 21 21.14 .42 .520 Experimental 22 22.82

Task 6 Recall Traditional 21 26.12 4.96 .039 * Experimental 22 18.09

* indicates that the statistic is significant at 5% 245 For significance in teaching methods, the K. W. Tests were performed for Task 3, Task 4, Task 5, and Task 6 Interpretation and they are summarized in Table 24. It revealed that the test statistic was only significantly different for Task 3 Recall, H = 6.82, p < .009 between the groups. The mean score (R) for the Experimental group (R = 26.68), is higher than the Traditional group (R = 17.12). In Task 4 Interpretation, the test statistic, H = .71 p < . 490, indicates that there was no significance between the groups, suggesting that they were equally creative methods of teaching. The Experimental group mean score (R) (R = 20. 43), was slightly less than the mean score (R) was (R = 23.64), of the Traditional. For Tasks 5 and 6, interpretations were very close and also not significant. The mean score (R) for Task 5 Traditional (R = 22.19), and mean score (R) Experimental was (R = 21.82), while the test statistic, H = .01 p< .921. In Task 6 Interpretation the test statistic, H = .21 p < .647, also indicates that the mean score (R) Traditional group was higher (R = 22.88), than the Experimental mean score (R) was (R = 21.16). With the results from Tasks 4,5, and 6, one might conclude that both teaching methods were influential in assisting students to achieve levels of meaning while studying Jamaican art. By comparing these results with Task 4,5, and 6 of phase two, one will see that the experimental group can also be considered a creative method of teaching that will enhance students to recall and interpret contextual information when studying Jamaican works of art. With the proof of significance in Task 3, one can also conclude that the experimental group had more positive effects on students learning (see Table 24). 246 Table 24

Group Memory Store

Dependent Level of Group N Mean Score H U Variable Variable for Rank Statistic R

Task 3 Interp. Traditional 21 17.12 6.82 .009 * Experimental 22 26.68

Task 4 Interp. Traditional 21 23.64 .71 .490 Experimental 22 20.43

Task 5 Interp. Traditional 21 22.19 .01 .921 Experimental 22 21.82

Task 6 Interp. Traditional 21 22.88 .21 .647 Experimental 22 21.16

indicates that the statistic is significant at 5% 247 Table 25 presents the Non Parametric tests for Cultural Reference, Art Reference, and Cultural and Art Relationship. Of the two levels, recall and interpretation, the students whose responses focused more on the relationship between art and culture were considered to be at the highest rank of either recall or interpretation. The Kruskal Wallis Test for Cultural Recall, H = .85, p < .366, indicates that the groups had no particular difference. Student learning therefore could be considered to be at the same levels for art recall and cultural recall since both teaching methods presented no significant difference. The mean score (R) of the Traditional was (R = 23.76), and the mean score (R) for the Experimental (R = 20.32). Within the Cultural Recall, test statistic H = .58, p < .444, which also indicates no significance. The mean scores (R) Traditional was (R = 23.43), and for the Experimental it was (R = 20.64). The test statistic for Cultural and Art Relationship, H = 11.81, p< .006, indicated that there was significant difference between the two groups. This significance was seen in favor of the traditional group which indicates that this teaching method had more influence on the students responding at levels of recall for art and cultural relationships. The mean score (R) Traditional (R = 28.12), was higher than the mean score (R) for Experimental (R = 16.21.) 248 Table 25 Mean (R) of Student Memory Store by Recall in Traditional and Experimental group Memory Store

Dependent Level of Group N Mean Score H U Variable Variable for Rank Statistic R

Art Recall Traditional 21 23.76 .85 .366 Experimental 22 20.32

Cultural Recall Traditional 21 23.43 .58 .444 Experimental 22 20.64

Art & Cultural Traditional 21 28.12 11.81 .006 Relationship Experimental 22 16.21 Recall

* indicates that the statistic is significant at 5% 249 The same test procedures were also performed for the variables Cultural Interpretation, Art Interpretation and Interpretation of Cultural and Art Relations, and are summarized in Table 26. The test statistic, H = 3.48, g < .073, indicated that the groups were only significantly different for the variable Art Interpretation in the Traditional group. The mean score (R) for the Traditional (R = 25.55), was higher than the mean score (R) Experimental (R =18.61). The test scores for Cultural Interpretation, H = .05 p < .825 indicate that there was no significance among the teaching methods, indicating that both methods were capable of enhancing students interpretation of cultural reference. Mean scores (R) for the Traditional (R = 21.55) were a little less than the mean scores (R) for the Experimental (R = 22.43). For the Interpretation of Cultural and Art Relationships, test scores H = 1.14, p< . 29, there was little difference in significance among mean scores (R) for both the Traditional (R = 19.93), and the Experimental (R = 23.98), which was slightly higher. Although both groups did not show significant differences, results the experimental group on art and cultural relationships show that students have higher percentage of interpretive responses. One could therefore conclude that although there was no significance among teaching methods, the experimental method of teaching is no worse than the traditional, and can also be considered to be a workable teaching method. 250 Table 26 Mean (R) of Memory Store base by Traditional and Experimental Group Memory Store

Dependent Level of Group N Mean Score H P Variable Variable for Rank Statistic R

Art Traditional 22 25.55 3.48 .073 Relationship Experimental 22 18.61 Interpretation

Cultural Traditional 21 21.55 .05 .825 Relationship Experimental 22 22.43 Interpretation

Art & Cultural Traditional 21 19.93 1.14 .29 ^ Relationship Experimental 22 23.98 Interpretation

* indicates that the statistic is significant at 5% 251 General Summary of Results on Teaching Methods The results indicate that in order for meaningful learning to take place, students were expected to "make connections between new knowledge and prior knowledge" (Prawat, 1989, p .40). This was evident as students expressed their memory of their Jamaican culture and the influence that it has on the key artworks that were studied in both groups. Any memory that the students were able to recall into the study tasks, as Prawat (1989) states, can assist in building a strong memory store, even while the students are involved in formal instructions in some of the tasks, such as the ones that cued them into the study. These results in phase 3 have confirmed the previous results in phases 1 and 2. This indicates that the results are reliable. The results also suggest that Jamaican elementary students are able to relate contextual information to Jamaican works of art. This ability occurred through the process of recall and interpretation with attempts at giving meaning to works of art. I therefore decided that the effectiveness of creative methods of teaching art with many approaches may vary across content and produce students who begin to show meaning of works of art. This could eventually lead to the student understanding works of art. It has been widely stated in educational research that contextual information is very effective in stimulating memory in order to recall and interpret and to give meaning. It seems reasonable to suggest that contextual information will assist students in developing future understanding of Jamaican works of art. Since the amount of memory students have will determine their ranks of recall and interpretation, they should be provided with an initial working 252 memory. In this study, the focus was on the students' relationship to contextual information and Jamaican works of art. They were provided with adequate information that effectively prepared them to appreciate the diversity of the Jamaican heritage and the themes expressed in works of visual art produced by Jamaican artists. This information enabled students to become more aware of aesthetic issues, such as the relevance of the themes portrayed in the works of art, seen in this study as they attempted to understand Jamaican works of art. Such acquired recall and interpretations of the Jamaican works of art, is an important step for elementary students and will assist them in developing their ability to recall and interpret works of art from other cultures, as well as their own. Differences between the learning processes memory to recall, and interpretation to meaning were easily identified. This evidence was gathered from the responses, as the students were unable to recall from memory or connect information to the new learning experience. These students expressed garbled knowledge when they quoted sections from the contextual information that had no relevance to what they were asked to do. It is also possible that students could have entered with preconceived ideas that might have prevented them from acquiring a working memory for adequate recall or interpretation. Some of the problems expressed above could have been due to the fact that local students are seldom exposed to the influence of the multiple cultures that are present in Jamaica. It was evident that several students could be identified as being mixed up; for example, they were able to talk strongly about African influences, but could not discuss to the same extent other cultures that had contributed to the Jamaican heritage. This 253 strongly supports my idea that students need to be educated to understand other cultures as well as the more dominant culture that exists in the country. Students who are exposed to more rdevant information on their Jamaican heritage in didr daily learning activities will definitely benefit from the experience. Some students were able to to connect relevant content of previously acquired information of the Jamaican heritage to learning situations in both methods of teadiing. These were the learners who responded at higher evels of interpretation. As seen in the results of phase three, the experimental group also produced high levds of recall and interpretation, whidt is evidence of the students' progression on fiie road to die understanding the diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art by Manley and Kapo. This therefore supports the notion that creative art instruction can enhance students learning. More emphasis on future development of the Jamaican dementary art education will be discussed in chapter V. 254

Plate LIV: Students During Experiment. CHAPTERV RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION Overview

From the data analysis in Chapter 5 ,1 will draw condusions in order to make suggestions for improving the teaching of art in Jamaican elementary schools and also for the benefit of future research. In order to do this I will break the chapter into two sections with the first looking at: (1) cognition, (2) aesthetics, (3) cultural history and benefits, and (4) models of teaching and teacher training. The second section will provide a general condusion of the study which is provided in the fc^owing quote A child's present conceptions represent not a false, but a partial and incomplete understanding. In both cases one needs to know how the child is thinking: but in the first case one may set out to get rid of some concepts, in the other one accepts them and tries to enlarge them. (Parsons, 1990.p.41)

Cognition In this pilot study where students were prepared for deeper understanding, students progress from ranks of recall to interpretation, supports the fact that recall is an important factor that prepares students for higher levels of thinking. Because recall was the focus for introductory learning the students were exposed to content on the Jamaican heritage and art. Even though the fcxus of the study was to some extent on the processes recall and interpretation, from the analysis of tasks it was cpiite dear that the

255 256 were well on thdr way to understanding flie diverse cultural influences. It is therefore my desire to later focus deeply on how students acquire advanced knowledge in order to express their understanding of diverse cultural influences on Jamaican art In order to assess advance knowledge acquisition for diverse cultural understanding I will address four levds of learning which are (1) the focus on the students informal instruction or experiences which might encourage and direct them to formal instruction. As was seen in this study, at this level the learner uses memorization to acquire information in order to give the right answer when required, (2) transfer of concepts into new situations which is considered to be evidence of advanced learning, and flows into (3) observations and reflection, (4) formal instructions and later (5) interpretation and generalization of concepts acquired. This process can be considered to be continuous since no matter what the child's age is she or he will be constantly involved in informal instructicm or experiences. Effort might be made to connect fltese instructions to other observations as the student reflects on the knowledge acquired in order to express higher order thinking and understanding through interpretations and generalizations. Jamaican students can apply informal knowledge to help them with their generalizations since learning from experience is the process whereby human development occurs. This devdopmental perspective forms the basis for applications of experiential learning to education, work, and adult development" (Kolb, 1984, p. xi). This model could be described as a continuous model where the search for additional knowledge could lead to advance knowledge acquisition (see figure 5). 257

Informal Instruction or Experiences

Interpretations Transfer of Concepts and Generalizations

Formal Instructions Observations and Reflections

Figure 5. Continuous Learning Model

As Bruner (1961a) indicates, if students are exposed to a particular learning experience from an early age, they will be more ready for later learning. As educators in the arts, we need to acquaint our students with where they have come from, find out where they wish to go, and design methods of teaching that will help them get there. 258 It is evident that traditionally in the Jamaican elementary school systems, a studio-based instruction has been preferred. I feel the time has come to broaden the approach because I strongly agree with Hamblen (1990), that more emphasis should be placed on the benefits of process with the many possibilities of cognitive and attitude transfer. Local art teachers too often design their art programs for easy assessment. As Parsons (1990) suggests, an effective art program ideally should focus on more sophisticated kinds of learning, ones that do not necessarily focus on the skills of the student, but more on their understanding since there are several levels of understanding. Stuhr, Krug and Scott (1994) talk about different ways of understanding : The environmental influence is how we see and understand the world around us. Multiple viewpoints are prevalent in societies. They are relational to one's environment and their combined complexity affects how one sees different landscapes or problems or whether one looks at the same landscape or problems, from different vantage points. A person's social and cultural position and situation is a factor in how one understands what they see (p. 11).

It is important for future art educators to develop curricula that will address development, that will address problems related to students trying to gain understanding of the arts and culture. Knowledge of culture and art will cue students to significant learning in the arts, not just by making connections, but also allowing them to see the arts in multiple ways.

Aesthetics Thinking about art in multiple ways, with multiple perspectives is a method of allowing students to develop. It could be equally effective for 259 teaching, for developing curricula, for introducing new teaching strategies, and for reaching new solutions to salient issues in art education. Thinking about art in multiple ways, ... is to approach the study of art as a process by which students gain understanding of multiple points of view, such as the many ways a work of art has been interpreted over time. Instead of leading students to view the visual arts as a body of knowledge and skills to be acquired, we should ensure that students deepen their understanding of art thinking....development in this way means stressing the multiplicity of art ideas that exist, even for a single work of art, and emphasizing thoughtful reflection on why some interpretations of art are more compelling than others. (Parsons, qtd. in Koroscik, 1992, p. 17)

Students searching for meanings in works of art will realize that art is open to a variety of interpretations. Depending upon the background or experiences that students might have had while dealing with aspects of their Jamaican heritage, the students might arrive at different interpretations of particular works of art. This will be as a result of the students interpreting the clues present in the works of art in different ways. Differences in opinion should therefore be encouraged. With this diversity the teacher will still be able to gauge levels of understandings by identifying students who might be expressing naive understanding as distinct from those who are beginning to show signs of expertise. The kind of knowledge that students gain from the historical, critical, and aesthetic contexts plays a vital role in their creative process. Study of artworks as learning experiences might allow students the opportunity to develop critical thinking skills, assist them in isolating problems or misunderstandings, and allow them to identify strategies to overcome these problems or misunderstandings. Certainly with the Jamaican students in this study, the knowledge that they acquired while studying the key artworks 260 allowed them to make decisions about the degree of success that these artworks had in revealing aspects of their heritage. No account of human knowledge could be considered complete without an examination of culturally accumulated knowledge, its nature and organization, and the process whereby individual learners contribute to and partake of that knowledge. Individual learning styles are shaped by the structure of social knowledge and through individual creative acts. (Kolb, 1984, p. 84)

I believe this study assisted the students to look deeply at works of art by Jamaican artists and also recognize the role that the Jamaican heritage plays in the works of art created by Jamaican artists. The key artworks and dance excerpts used in this study became the catalyst for the learning process as the students proceeded to make connections by means of recognizing cultural context between the key artworks, dances and the diverse cultural influences, and themes that were present. Generally speaking, children are more readily appreciative of an art learning experience when it is integrated into other disciplines. As was seen in this experiment, the students were enthusiastic about the idea of looking at works of art for meaning without trying to prove how well they could draw.

Cultural Historv and Benefits The focus of this study was to promote quality visual arts education, and address diverse approaches and concerns not often studied such as interdisciplinary and non-studio instructions. Frequent exposure to the history of the Jamaican people might awaken the students' awareness of their heritage which is likely to be inert. Although attempts might be made to remind them of their heritage at home, in church, or even during the festival celebrations, it is through formal instructions that this memory that is inert 261 could be truly awakened. This inert knowledge is explained by Perkins (1986) as present knowledge, which in this case would be Jamaican heritage, that could only be utilized if the students are prompted, as I suggest, through contextual formal instruction. In order for formal instruction to be most beneficial to students, innovative designs for instruction should be applied. These instructions however should not aim at overwhelming the students with information that results in misunderstandings. On the other hand, although clear and precise information is necessary for students to be able to make use of relevant strategies in order to gain understanding, efforts should be made not to oversimplify. Teaching methods must be carefully designed to ensure that they are relevant to the schools' curricula in order to avoid experiences of student misunderstanding or oversimplification. If elementary students are exposed early in their school careers to artworks and the meaning behind these works of art, then their development both as artists-citizens and art connoisseur-citizens undertaken at high school level can only be enhanced. Many high school students sit for external examinations in art that are either based in the United Kingdom or the Caribbean. For these exams, the students are required to do an illustrated paper related to art in the Caribbean. This paper can focus either on the artists, their works, or other aspects such as the art movement and its effects on the Caribbean or Jamaican people. The students who have acquired a good knowledge-base during their elementary school years will already be well equipped to deal with illustrated examination questions. Additional information acquired in high school can be considered as advanced knowledge that is added to their prior knowledge, which further equips them 26 2 for both school examinations and later cultural activities. They could confidently take part in discussions, have a knowledgeable appreciation of the work of local artists, become patrons of the arts, or perhaps artists in heir own right. They would be educated, informed and, possibly, aesthetically aware citizens. With the reality of the economic crisis that the island of Jamaica faces, the implementation of creative ways of teaching is now more important than ever before. Traditionally in Jamaica, much emphasis has been placed on the availability of art materials and resources to adequately provide for meaningful art teaching. This focus however, could now be shifted from encouraging students to show their artistic skills with a variety of art materials to helping the students develop higher-order understandings of works of art. In other words, helping the student to better understand the historical, critical, and aesthetic qualities that are perceived in works of art. Although both approaches were very successful in arousing the students' interest and broadening their memory store, there were aspects in each approach that seemed to be more successful. By using the globe with the students in the experimental comparative group, for example, the students were introduced to another concept of art teaching; the concept of recognizing the influences on Jamaican artworks, by looking at the major regions (Africa, China, India and Europe) and examples of works of art typical of these regions. For the traditional group, the highlight of motivating the students interest and broadening their memory store was obvious when they became more involved in the formal instructions on the history of Jamaica, and the background of the two artists, Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo." 263 Unfortunately, the Jamaican student is seldom exposed to any form of Jamaican art history or art appreciation. Instructions similar to the ones used in this experiment would therefore be instrumental in making students more aware of their dual role as citizens who can make art themselves or as citizens who can appreciate and knowledgeably evaluate the work of others. Since all artists are indivisibly linked to their cultural heritage, Jamaican artists are no different and, perhaps even more closely linked. The students therefore should become more familiar with the history of the island, its tradition and the whole Jamaican Art Movement through their study of art. Since art is always a reflection of the society that produces it, they can study their heritage through exposure to art. I have no doubt that the results of this study, integration of the art activities as seen in the experimental group with the art and dances and in the traditional comparative group with art and a more historical focus, show that the learning of specific concepts such as diverse cultural influences and themes was successful in awakening student interest and participation. The teaching of the arts must be prepared to act as a catalyst and an agent of link with all subjects. By exposing students to their heritage through continuous exposure and involvement with their country's art, students will be able, not just to understand, but also to retain information about their heritage.

Models of Teaching and Teacher Training The role of the teacher will be of utmost importance. Curriculum developers should therefore provide adequate training in art education for teachers in order to adequately equip students for an art learning experience. White (1992), explains that "if there is no commitment, learning will be 264 shallow as students feel no value in reflecting on meaning of what they hear or read" (p. 159). In Jamaica, organizations such as the Joint Board of Teacher Education and the Ministry of Education and Culture have been putting much effort into programs with a view to educating Jamaican students about their heritage. These organizations however, cannot succeed without the total commitment of the teaching body. Teachers must first truly understand the objectives and then be both informed and innovative in their implementation of programs. This is especially so of art teachers on the island because of their sensitivity to their cultural heritage. The existing general objectives in art and craft education as determined by the Ministry of Education and culture for students of grades 1-6 are: 1. To develop in young children positive attitude towards self, others and country, to encourage respect for others, co-operation, love or loyalty to country.

2. To develop the sense to become more aware of environment, especially nature.

3. To encourage children to observe and recall their environment, and people, places, and events therein.

4. To develop muscular and hand-eye coordination.

5. To develop positive attitude toward continuing personal expressions.

6. To develop basic skills in handling materials and tools, consistent with ability levels.

7. To use Art/Craft activities as tools to teach and/or reinforce learning in other subject areas.

8. To develop creative thinking through improvisation and use of local materials. 265 9. To encourage appreciation of and respect for other people's work and ideas through group work involving projects, displays, models, and murals.

10. To help children to appreciate the role of Art and the work of artists in our culture.

11. To help children identify themselves with their work through display and discussion.

12. To develop such skills as collecting, arranging, analyzing, discussing, choosing, problem-solving and decision making; to develop the skills of perception and organization of materials and equipment for work and display.

13. To use more consciously, at older levels, design elements and principles for creative expression and production.

It is important that the teaching of art at the elementary level be focused more on the students' knowledge, with teaching methods designed to assist the student in acquiring new and relevant knowledge that will enhance their thinking skills. Using examples such as the ones used in this study, the students' total development could be enhanced allowing them to become more exposed to their heritage. This could be good for the healthy development of the student and the country. In addition to the examples of teaching methods that were used in this study, I am proposing that as teachers we could also look at an approach that Neubert and Binko (1992) have described as "Inductive Reasoning," which is more student oriented. The focus in this approach is to support a generalization after specific elements have been presented. This was quite clear in many of the tasks for this study, with a specific example in Task 3 of the experimental group. Students were given information on the Jamaican heritage and the cultural influences. Later they had to match the key 266 artworks with dances or artworks from the main sources of cultural heritage. They were then asked to give reasons for the selection that they had made. Another example is Task 3 for the traditional group. Here, the students were given formal instructions on the Jamaican heritage, then asked to write essays on their favourite work of art. The students were required to reason or draw inferences from the contextual information that was presented to them in order to generalize and give relevant responses to Task 3. In both examples, the students are as Neubert and Binko suggest, guided to "reason inductively," which is explained as looking carefully at facts to later create a generalization. The validity of the generalization, and how well students understand it, are then tested through an activity that requires students to apply the generalization to a new set of specifics. (Neubert & Binko, 1992, p. 16)

In contrast, Neubert and Binko have also referred to the opposite; "Deductive." The focus in this approach is to include supportive elements for generalization after the generalization has been presented. This approach is more teacher oriented, and is evidenced in the progression from tasks 1 to 2 in the experimental group. The students were given a general summary of the background of the two key artists in the study and their sources of influence for creating works of art. Later the students were given specific facts about what people have said about both artists and their works, then asked to match these statements with each work of art. The deductive process in these tasks was involved the background information on the artists as generalization, the facts being what people have said about the artists and their works of art. The students then, as Neubert and Binko explain, had to focus their attention on what was presented to them in order to grasp the 267 information. This presents no guarantee that they might be involved in reasoning. This information of facts was presented to them directly by the teachers, they had "no experience in generalization," (p. 15). Both approaches are compatible to each other and I believe they can prepare students for creative thinking depending on the amount of time the teacher has for preparation and the subject involved. I do however prefer the inductive approach for the arts in Jamaican schools since my interest at this time is to allow students to develop deep understanding and to be more aware of their cultural heritage and how it influences the artworks that Jamaican artists produce. For a visual explanation of a comparison between Neubert and Binko's "Inductive" and "Deductive" scheme of reasoning see Figure 6.

REASONING

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE

Specifics Generalization

Generalization Specifics

Figure 6: Inductive and Deductive Scheme of Reasoning 268 In seeking support for inductive reasoning Neubert and Binko look at one high school teacher who has utilized this method of teaching. She said: 1 believe that our role as teachers is to make students think. Inductive techniques are a way to achieve independent thinking so students are not just parroting back information, (p. 21)

This is important to me since my ultimate goal as an art educator is to help Jamaican students not to simply recall information from memory, but also to be able to interpret this information and move towards understanding. Other arguments that Neubert and Binko have gathered suggest that there are two categories for inductive reasoning: "(1) the advantage of engaging students in thinking processes associated with inductive reasoning, and (2) the advantages of the student-centeredness inherent in the inductive approach" (p. 20). In looking at the overall advantages, three goals have been mentioned: "(1) learning the content of the discipline, (2) practicing reasoning ability, and (3) developing confidence in reasoning ability" (Neubert & Binko, 1992, p. 20). In order to utilize the "Inductive Approach" with the Jamaican student population effectively, 1 will pursue further research in this area to gain more understanding as well as investigate disadvantages of the approach if any exists. Art teachers need to be aware of the student's need for understanding works of art. Such understanding will be a valuable contribution to the sensitivity and understanding that students need to bring to their own creations and to their evaluation of the work of others. Curricula intervention where teachers from other disciplines come together to make the learning process more creative and meaningful for the students, would be 269 an essential part of any program. With support from other subject areas such as social studies and history, a holistic approach to learning can be implemented. "Understanding of a communication such as a piece of text or a poem or a musical composition or a painting puts less weight on motives or predictions, and more on the construction of meaning" (White, 1992, 9. 159).

Conclusion Parsons (1990) believes that today artists and audiences do not automatically understand each other. This determines for us the primary purpose of art education, which is to do what we can to promote that understanding. The pace of change has transformed the informal mechanisms of common learning and the transfer of unnoticed assumptions and expectations that we used to rely on, and so art education has to become more reflective and philosophical. All children come into the world with a variety of capacities that, through the course of their childhood, they have opportunities to develop. The home, for example, affords opportunities for children to listen to stories and, at times, to learn to read. Social settings give them the opportunities to learn how to relate to others. The abilities to use language and to participate as a member of a social group are cultivated by early forms of socialization. Much of what children become as human beings is profoundly influenced by what they learn during pre-school years. One of the most important sources of development, which provides the conditions through which the mental capacities of the young are brought to realization, is the school environment. Schools also give children the opportunity to experience, to understand, and to enjoy the important cultural resources inherited as members of a culture. 270 Most classroom environments do not provide opportunities for children to look at art from a diverse perspective. Drawing from some of the recent multicultural curriculum theorists such as Banks (1986, 1991), Banks, McGee, & Banks (1989), Sleeter and Grant (1987) and Wright (1987), in some developed countries such as the United States, where the population is very diverse, administrators have made some progress in instituting propositions for including multicultural content in classrooms. Among the most important resources in our culture are the arts. It is the expressive or aesthetic aspects of the world in which our children live that constitute the potential subject matter for arts programs in our schools' curricula. School programs can provide the opportunities for children to learn how to think intelligently through and about the arts. The presence of the arts in culture affirms the human need to explore the aesthetic possibilities of form and to obtain satisfactions through them. Part of the ambivalence in art education is the struggle between the extremes of process versus product orientations; that is, valuing the person versus evaluating the product he produces. Art educators therefore feel compelled to honor the maker of the product in relation to his work. It obviously requires great skill to make evaluative judgments about works of art, but it requires even greater insight, as well as a sense of concern for someone, to be able to understand the present and future potentials of human beings. It is assumed that reaction to works of art is both cultivated and relativistic, and honoring this assumption further suggests that learning about art is not only feasible but essential in the educational setting. Because visual and psychological perceptions are gradually improved as a result of accumulated knowledge, these capacities might be acquired through training. 271 It is therefore obvious that for any amount of improvement in the teaching of art in Jamaica, effort should be made to adequately train our art teachers. Teachers should be able to provide the Jamaican students with a working knowledge of art in order to develop deep understandings of art. Educators must begin to look upon art as a more important part of the curriculum, not only because it offers a means for learning about one's cultural heritage, a means of communication, and as a means of creative fulfillment, but also because art offers a tool to facilitate teaching and learning. (lAQllette, 1993, p. 114)

It is of utmost importance that teachers of art provide students with opportunities for successful learning. Therefore, art education should be considered an important component in any schools' curriculum, not as an adjunct. Art is such a unique subject that teachers of this subject should at all times vary their teaching methods and materials as much as possible to improve the teaching and learning of art. Future art lessons similar to the ones used in this study will help students give meaning to works of art as they attempt to understand and judge them. They will become aware of how Jamaican artists make use of subject matter and content while attempting to express their heritage. Students will also be alerted to Jamaican heritage through political, social, and cultural themes. Overall, this study will awaken curriculum coordinators and administrators in Jamaica to promote education in the visual arts with diverse approaches. These diverse approaches will assist in erasing commonly held beliefs about art, for example, that art is only for the underprivileged or less academically inclined student. An effective art education program therefore should be one that addresses the 272 need of students, one where the student acquires knowledge, skills and understanding in the arts. With the transition of the Jamaican educational system into one that is focused on the more dominant cultural heritage, careful effort should be made to implement programs that will be of benefit to the population to be served. Programs should be introduced systematically with relevance to the population in order to overcome problems of misunderstandings. Students should not be overwhelmed with information, but instead develop meaningful ideas that will help to utilize what already exists in their memory store. Although the traditional way of art teaching has met with some success over the years in Jamaica, White (1992) believes in new and more innovative ways that: Are effective in seeing whether the students have acquired specific knowledge shared by teacher, but are less useful in revealing whether they know other things that the teacher does not, or in exposing the quality of the understanding through probing their images and episodes and their linking of knowledge within a topic and, even more so, between topics.. .. Research on understanding has not only shown the need for more diverse and powerful forms of assessment, but also has provided some of those forms. Understanding is so complex, and so important a goal of education, that even the present expanded range of techniques should be seen only as a stimulant for teachers and researchers to develop more. The standard repertoire should be scores of methods for probing the quality of learning not a handful. (White, 1992, p .162)

Focusing on a child's artistic development, allows us to understand how important it is for the child to express his or her thoughts and understanding about art. The marks a child makes, are an external expression of his or her thoughts, even before she or he can write. Neglect of this expression equates to neglect of the child's total development. The child 273 whose development has been nurtured, grows into the creating, aesthetically and environmentally aware adult, accustomed to facing and resolving problems. It is therefore a challenge for teachers to try to equip themselves with knowledge of cognitive developmental stages so that they will be better able to design lessons that focus on all stages of cognitive development. Jamaica must progress to the point where educators agree to accept art as a valuable tool to facilitate both teaching and learning. Jamaican educators must also ensure the fulfillment of creativity. If students are given the opportunity to study and explore artworks from their own cultural experiences and heritage, not only will more interest in the subject of art be aroused, but also meaningful experiences related to personal development. New methods of effective art teaching must therefore be designed to expand the limited exposure Jamaican elementary students now have to art and their culture. With the current trends in art teaching, and with efforts by the Ministry of Education and Culture, art teaching experiences can certainly progress beyond the bounds of studio work. Curriculum developers must not just pay lip-service to the importance of art in the curriculum but work at ensuring the cooperation of teachers in the arts to facilitate meaningful art experiences for students. Thus the curriculum should be expanded to include not just art teachers but all elementary teachers because cooperation is essential to the success of any program. It can be done but it will involve a major change in the level of involvement of all teachers. They must feel strongly about their mission before they can accomplish it successfully. APPENDIX A Letter of Request to Conduct Study

274 275 23rd March, 1994 101 Curl Drive, #1343 Columbus, Ohio 43210

The Principal Hope Valley Experimental School Mona Road, Kingston, Jamaica

Dear Mrs. Ellis.

I am a doctoral candidate at The Ohio State University in Columbus Ohio and I am writing you, requesting your permission to conduct a study in your school.

Presently I am on study leave from the Shortwood Teacher Training College in Kingston, and will be resuming my position at the end of my course. However, in order to complete my course of study I am required to do a study with focus on the teaching of art in my country. The title of my dissertation is: Elementary Students Understanding of Multicultural Influences on Jamaican Art.

I am therefore asking your kind permission to allow me to conduct this study with a group of your elementary students. I will need approximately sixty students from either grade 5 or grade 6 for a period of 1 hour. This study I hope, will be completed during the course of one week during the early part of September.

I will be in Jamaica during the Easter break and will make an appointment with you to discuss the details of my study.

Yours sincerely

Hazel Bradshaw-Beaumont APPENDIX B Instructional Booklet Experimental: EXPRESSIONS

276 277

E liglO N :

Name Age Ethnicity ______Grade______Male____ Female Religion______278 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDENT: Over the next week and a half, I will lead you in a few arts activities. I am hoping that I might be better able to find out how much you understand about your heritage and how it influences Jamaican art and dance. I will not be grading you, but I need to leam how much you can understand in an activity such as this experiment. This will help me to assist other art teachers in designing art programs that might develop your interest in art, and also help you to better understand Jamaican art and heritage.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION Before we begin our activities, I would like for us to have a brief discussion. First, I will begin with a few questions: 1) What does the word "culture" mean? I need you to give me your understanding of this word: Now don't be shy: It does not matter if you are right or wrong: All I need to know is how much you know. 2) Based on our history, how many cultures can you remember us having? Think of our 'national motto, "Out Of Many, One People". 3) What about our artists and our dances? I need a few volunteers to tell me the names of a few Jamaican artists and examples of Jamaican dances. 4) Are you all comfortable so far? Does anyone have a question? Now, let us begin by starting with our first task. 279 TASK 1 E-1-A

On this page you will read some of the things that people have said about these artists and their works. For example:

1. This artist shows influence of Anglo-Saxon or English art traditions while studying formally in England because of the colour, lines, and shapes that he/she uses.

2. This artist uses African images in his/her works of art because he/she believes that there is too much imitation of European traditions in Jamaican artworks.

3. These artworks contain images and colours that express the meanings of Christian religious beliefs and concepts inherited from our African and English cultural heritages.

4. This is a reminder of witchcraft (obeah) and religious events among the English, Africans, Chinese, and Indians that takes place during pocomania and Kumina meetings.

5. A colourful kind of celebration with the King and Queen, Chinese and Indian indentured laborers, and African slaves after the abolition of slavery in 1834.

6. Looks like dancers participating in religious rituals as they celebrate their motto "Out of Many One People," reminding them of the many different races in the Jamaican population.

7. A strong feeling of peace between everyone as they join together for some kind of worship among different racial groups.

8. This represents the revivalist group (cult), which some artists often use as a theme for their artworks to remind us of Jamaica's African heritage. 280 TASK 2E-2-A In this task you will focus on the paintings while trying to match the sentences from your last task to them. The paintings are: WORSHIP (1986)b v EDNA MANLEY and HEAVEN AND EARTH (1976) BY MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO".

Read over the last page with the sentences that tells us what some people have said about the paintings. Now look carefully at the paintings on the next page. From the numbers that are listed 1 to 8, please draw a line across to the painting if you think it matches.

TURN TO THE NEXT PAGE 281 TASK 2 E - 2 - A - a

MATCHES MANLEY WORSHIP (1986)

V orihlp 1986 A crylic on C«nvai 20*16

Collection Or. MurUI Low

THINGS PEOPLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 HAVE SAID (Please look back at the sentences in TASK 1 E -1 - A) 282 TASK 2E-2-A-b

MATCHES REYNOLDS HEAVEN AND EARTH (1976)

THINGS PEOPLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 HAVE SAID (Please look back at the sentences in TASK 1 E -1 - A) 283

CARVING MANLI'.Y: POCCt-lANIA 284 TASK 2 E - 2 - B - a

Now look at the carvings once more and decide whether each word or phrase matches or not. You will focus on one carving;, at a time. Here is an example; if you think the phrase celebration- costumes matches the carving, check the first box; or if you think it does not, check the second box. Next, decide how sure you are with the answer you have given. If you are guessing circle (1), fairly sure circle (2), and very sure, circle (3). 1 2 3 Just guessing whether it Fairly sure it matches Very sure it matches or not. or does not match. matches or does not match. MANLEY "POCOMANIA" (1986) h o w s u r e ?

CELEBRATION- COSTUMES [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

TEXTURED [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

STRENGTH [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

RELIGIOUS [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

UNITY [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

MOVING BODIES [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

COLOURFUL [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

FESTIVE [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

SHAPELY [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 OBEAH [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 285

CARVINCI . Rr.YNni.DR: ORF.Dd'NCF, COVERS AI.I. 286 TASK 2 E-2-A-b

Now look at the carvings once more and decide whether each word or phrase matches or not. You will focus on one carving, at a time. Here is an example; if you think the phrase celebration- costumes matches the carving, check the first box; or if you think it does not, check the second box. Next, decide how sure you are with the answer you have given. If you are guessing circle (1), fairly sure circle (2), and very sure, circle (3). 1 ------2 3 Just guessing whether it Fairly sure it matches Very sure it matches or not. or does not match. matches or does not match. REYN O ED S "OBEDIENCE COVERS ALL"(1976) h o w s u r e ?

CELEBRATION- COSTUMES [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

TEXTURED [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

STRENGTH [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

RELIGIOUS [ ] [ 1 1 2 3

UNITY [ ] [ 1 1 2 3

MOVING BODIES! 1 [ ] 1 2 3

COLOURFUL [ ] 1 2 3

FESTIVE [ 1 [ ] 1 2 3

SHAPELY [ ] [ ] 1 2 3

OBEAH [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 287 TASK 3 E-3-A-a As we continue to look at both the artworks and dances, we will focus more on multicultural influences themes and content from culture that are used in creating art.

MULTICULTURAL THEMES FROM CULTURE USED IN ART

FOLK DANCES Dance in the Jamaican culture has been recognized not only on the island but around the world, especially with the very popular reggae. There are other dances that have kept aspects of our culture alive. The spiritual beliefs and celebratory practices are contributing factors to the rich role that dance plays. These dances mainly originated from the slaves. Some were used for communication during slavery, while others were used to celebrate their freedom at the end of slavery. Some of these dances were called POCOMANIA, JOHN CANOE, BRUCKINGS, and KUMINA. The folk dances that can be identified in Jamaica today usually relate to religion or to the feasts and festivities that are connected to religion. Although most of these dances display African traditions, Chinese, English, Indian and Spanish influences are often reflected. In an effort to retain some of the these dance forms, several new dance groups, such as the National Dance Theater Company, have created dances that are similar to the heritage dances (POCOMANIA, JOHN CANOE, BRUCKINGS, and KUMINA). The costumes in these dances are very rich and colorful. Artists, such as sculptors, painters, and potters in Jamaica have also imitated several of these dance moves in their artworks. As we continue to look at both the artworks and dances, we will focus more on themes from cultures that are used in creating art.

RELIGION - There are two main types of religion that can be identified in Jamaican society. The first one is usually considered to be rooted in Christianity brought by the English or Europeans, such as the Anglicans, Baptists, Catholics; and the is second type more rooted in African-oriented faiths such as Pocomania, Revivalism, and Rastafarianism. 288 MULTICULTURAL INFLUENCES - Remember now that the lifestyles and behaviours of the different groups of people are often described as culture. Both artists Manley and Reynolds often talk about being influenced by the different groups of people that make up the Jamaican cultural heritage. In the case of Jamaicans, because of our African, Chinese, English, Indian, and Spanish heritage we talk about our culture being multicultural. The activities that took place among these groups of people, such as their celebration dances, often influence the works that artists try to create in their paintings, carvings, dances, and festivities. During the period of slavery, the slaves were often restricted from engaging in any kind of worship or communication with each other. They then tried to find ways to do so and therefore created dances that would bring them together. Because of the nature of the events during slavery, the Jamaican dances often depict subject matter that relates to

These events have been considered valuable to the Jamaican heritage and have been recaptured in arts activities to remind the Jamaican people of where they come from. The two artists, Manley and Reynolds, constantly create works of art that tell stories relating to activities experienced by the slaves. Events are sometimes identified as themes from culture such as revivalism and pocomania, and represent African images or 289 Christian religious beliefs. These artists sometimes used themes as titles for their artworks. Because folk dances are often used to tell some of these same stories from the Jamaican heritage, they also sometimes have similar titles as the artworks that Jamaican artists create. These dances often later influenced the works of artists, while the artists themselves influenced each other, One such case is that of Mallica Reynolds who states that he was influenced by Edna Manley. Influences can also be observed in cases where one artist is taught by another or when artists work together. Any questions? Let us continue to talk about the information that was presented to you about both artists and the Jamaican multicultural influences on our art. Can you think of any other Jamaican artists whose works remind you of your own culture?

Please write a few names of artists if you can remember any. 290 TASK 3 E - 3 - A - b

As you continue to think about he Jamaican multicultural influences, I wül show you examples of artworks from some of the cultures that are represented in the Jamaican culture. First let us try to locate some of the origins of these cultures on this globe. The regions we will try to locate will be (1) AFRICA, (2) CHINA, (3) EUROPE (ENGLAND), and (3) INDIA. Let us now look at examples of artworks from these regions. A1 PORTRAIT ANONYMOUS from INDIA

A2 PLAYING ORIENTAL CHESS ANONYMOUS from AFRICA

B 1 APPLIQUED CLOTH ANONYMOUS from AFRICA

B 2 HE ASSUMPTION OF THE SIR PETER PAUL RUBENS VIRGIN from EUROPE

C l ARTISTIDEMAILOL HENRY MOORE from EUROPE

C 2 BUDDAH ANONYMOUS (CURING DISEASE) from CHINA

D 1 SIVAASNATARAJA ANONYMOUS from INDIA (LORD OF DANCE)

D 2 SPIRIT OF AFRICA ANONYMOUS from AFRICA Now look very carefully at the works of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds again while you think about the following questions: 291 Is there anything in the painting or sculpture that looks familiar or reminds you of these cultures?

Are there any sign? Is it the colour or the shapes they use?

What do you think the story is about? Is this a story about religion or dance?

What do you think artists have taken from this culture? 292 TASK 3 E - 3 - B - 3 Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the painting "W ^ R ^ H J P " (1986) by EDNA MANLEY. (circle only one) A1 or A2 Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write.

Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the painting HEAVEN AND EARTH''(1976)bv MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". (circle only one) B 1 or B 2 Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write. 293 TASK 3 E - 3 - B - b Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the carving POCOM ANIA (1936) by EDNA MANLEY. (circle only one) C l or C2 Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write.

Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the carving OBEDIENCE COVERS AlP (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". (circle only one) D 1 or D 2 Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write. 294 TASK 3 E - 3 - C

As you continue to think about the Jamaican multicultural influences, 1 will show you 4 examples of Jamaican FOLK DANCES.

FOLK DANCE A MANY RIVERS TO CROSS

FOLK DANCE B POCOMANIA

FOLK DANCE C JAH CHILDREN

FOLK DANCE D JAIL BIRD 295 TASK 3 E-3-C-a

Please look carefully again at dance A (MANY RIVERS TO CROSS) and dance B (POCOMANIA). Which of the two FOLK DANCES do you think is most like the painting W O R S H I P ^^ (1986) by EDNA MANLEY. Find the parts of the dance you think is most lie the painting. Think about the meaning of the dance, the shape, colour, and the people. Make notes as you are looking at the dance. Now circle the one you think looks like the painting. (circle only one) A or B

Please look carefully again at dance A (MANY RIVERS TO CROSS) and dance B (POCOMANIA). Which of the two FOLK DANCES do you think is most like the painting TÏEAVEN AND EARTH" (1976) by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". Find the parts of the dance you think is most like the painting. Think about the meaning of the dance, the shape, colour, and the people. Make notes as you are looking at the dance. Now circle the one you think looks like the painting. (circle only one) A or B 296 TASK 3 E - 3- C - a

Please look carefully again at dance A (JAH CHILDREN) and dance B (JAIL BIRD). Which of the two FOLK DANCES do you think is most like the carving P0C01VÏANIA (1936) by EDNA MANLEY. Find the parts of the dance you think is most like the carving. Think about the meaning of the dance, the looking at the dance. Now circle the one you think looks like the sculpture. (circle only one) C or D

Please look carefully again at dance A (JAH CHILDREN) and dance B (JAIL BIRD). Which of the two FOLK DANCES do you think is most like the carving OBEDIENCE COVERS ALL (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS'TCAPO". Find the parts of the dance you think is most like the carving. Think about the meaning of the dance, the shape, colour, and the people. Make notes as you are looking at the dance. Now circle the one you think looks like the sculpture. (circle only one) C or D 297 TASK 3 E - 3- C - b I will now show you the dances once more. Think carefully about your choices from the last task and the reasons why each dance looks like or does not look like the paintings or the sculptures. You may write notes as you look at each dance.

DANCE A

DANCE B

DANCE C

DANCE D

Turn to the next page 298 Now write your reason for whatever choice you made for the paintings and carvings. PAINTING " W O RSH IP (1986) by EDNA MANLEY. REASON

PAINTING HEAVEN AND EARTH'' (1976)bv m a llic a REYNOLDS "KAPO" REASON ______

Continue on the next page 299 SCULPTURE POCOM ANIA (1936) by EDNA MANLEY. REASON ______

SCULPTURE OBEDIENCE COVERS ALL' (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". REASON ______300 TASK 4 E-4-A-a

On the blank sheet of paper provided, please illustrate or draw a picture that you think will represent the Jamaican multicultural themes in a work of art that you would like to create. Think of the dances as you try to get your ideas for your picture. This could either be a drawing in one colour of a carving you would like to do, or a coloured drawing that represents a painting. Be sure to include whatever multicultural influence you wish, whether European or African, or a combination of European, African, Chinese, and Indian. 301

DRAWING PAPER \ 302 TASK 5 E-5-A

INTERVIEWING SESSIONS

You will now be given the opportunity to share your responses for all the tasks and what you think about the experiment so far with your classmates and myself. I will divide you into 3 groups. Group 1 I will randomly select 4 of you. Then I will have a brief talk with each of you for 5 minutes. Group 2 I would like 6 volunteers to get together in pairs. As soon as you have selected your partner, I would like 1 person to interview the other. Please take 5 minutes to do so as you will be audio-taped. You will be expected to ask your partners the following questions, but please feel free to ask questions of your own about multicultural influences and themes, and their use of formal qualities in their own works of art.

QUESTIONS 1. How well did you understand what the teacher was trying to teach us?

2. Was there anything that you did not understand?

3. Which task did you like best?

4. Which task did you like least?

5. What are some of the multicultural influences and themes that you learned in Jamaican art? 6. What are some of the multicultural influences and themes you displayed in your own artwork? 303

7. Did you understand what the teacher meant when she talked about formal qualities in art?

8. What formal qualities did you use most?

Group 3 For this group of 10,1 would like you to have an open discussion. Please feel free to talk to each other for 10 minutes. You will also be audio-taped but please feel free to make brief notes below if you like. 304 TASK 6 E-6-A

Please reflect on all the activities that you did throughout this experiment; the historical background, the things people have said about the key artworks, the words and phrases that were used to describe the artworks, the dances, religion, multicultural influence, and themes in the works of art. In your booklets please answer the following 3 questions. Circle YES or NO as vou answer the first question.

1. Do you think both artists (Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds " Kapo") showed multicultural influences in their works of art? YES or NO

2. Explain to me how you think the artists used multicultural influences in their works of art. Can you tell if the artworks were African or European?

3. Describe how one of the artists showed multicultural influences in one of his/her artwork. Was it because of the colour that he/she used or was it because of the shape and lines that he /she used? Please explain your answers as best as you can. You will have 15 minutes to do so.

Continue on the next page 305 APPENDIX C Instructional Booklet Traditional: PORTRAIT

306 307

IPO E T E M T i

Name Age______Ethnicity ______Grade Male Female. Religion______308 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDENT;

Over the next week and a half, I will lead you in a few arts activities. I am hoping that I might be better able to find out how much you understand about your heritage and how it influences Jamaican art and dance. 1 will not be grading you, but 1 need to leam how much you can understand in an activity such as this experiment. This will help me to assist other art teachers in designing art programs that might develop your interest in art, and also help you to better understand Jamaican art and heritage.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION Before we begin our activities, 1 would like for us to have a brief discussion. First, 1 wül begin with a few questions: 1) What does the word "culture" mean? 1 need you to give me your understanding of this word: Now don't be shy: It does not matter if you are right or wrong: All 1 need to know is how much you know. 2) Based on our history, how many cultures can you remember us having? Think of our 'national motto, "Out Of Many, One People". 3) What about our artists and our dances? 1 need a few volunteers to tell me the names of a few Jamaican artists and examples of Jamaican dances. 4) Are you all comfortable so far? Does anyone have a question? Now, let us begin by starting with our first task. 309 TASK 1 P-l-A

The teacher will now read a brief passage on the history of Jamaica.

Jamaica was said to be "discovered" by Christopher Columbus, a Spanish sailor. When he arrived on the Island he saw a peaceful group of Arawak Indians and a warlike or fierce group of people called the Caribs. During Columbus's time and the Spanish reign, the people of Jamaica strongly believed in the Roman Catholic religion. The British or English people who later came to the Island and took over from the Spanish, started a new religion called the "Church of England," which was later called "Anglican". At the time the English people arrived, there were groups of people living on the Island such as the Africans who were taken here as slaves, and the Chinese and East Indians who were used as indentured laborers by these English settlers. Later, there were traders such as the Germans. Today we see people in Jamaica with all different types of physical characteristics that can be identified with different cultures such as African, Chinese, English, and Indian. The people of Jamaica therefore are considered to be a very mixed group of people. Because of the multiple cultures that are present on the island, the Jamaican society can be described as a multicultural one. This is why we have our 'motto', "Out of Many, One People". The beliefs and social behaviours of all the different groups of people that make up the Jamaican society are often described as their culture. Throughout our activities we are going to look closely at two very famous Jamaican artists and some Jamaican dances. You will 310 focus on four artworks by Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds, whom we call "Kapo". Does any one of these names sound familiar to you? Tell me what you know about either one of these artist. I would like you to look at four artworks that these artist did: "WORSHIP" (1986) and "POCOMANIA" (1986) by EDNA MANLEY; and, "HEAVEN AND EARTH" (1976) and "OBEDIENCE COVERS ALL" (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". Let us look more closely at both artists whose artworks are being studied and some of our folk dances that tell us stories about our heritage.

EDNA MANLEY Here is a picture of Edna Manley. Do you recognize her in this picture? Edna Manley, of mixed parentage, was the daughter of a woman who was bom in Jamaica also of mixed parentage, while her father was an English clergyman. Edna herself was born in Jamaica in February 1900 but was later taken to England where she spent most of her years as a child growing up and attending school. It is said that her interest in art showed up as she studied animals. In 1921 she married her cousin Norman and together they sailed back to Jamaica. She indicated that she was very happy to do this as she considered herself returning home. At this time she was a trained artist (trained in England) but had problems being accepted in Jamaica as an artist. On her return to Jamaica, Edna Manley saw the art to be imitating that of European traditions. It had no sense of creativity and it did not express much of the Jamaican heritage. Edna Manley brought life to Jamaican art, and hence was recognized as the "mother of art" in Jamaica. She later founded the "Jamaica School of Art" in 1950. Her first artworks were drawings, although today people tend to remember her more for her wood carvings. Several of the very popular Jamaican artists have stated that if it had not been for Mrs. Manley, they would not have reached where they are now as artists. Even Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" stated that 311 Edna Manley has been a strong source of influence on him as an artist. Edna Manley's work will always be remembered among the Jamaican people, and we can now see the school of art renamed after her as "The Edna Manley School For The Visual Arts". Edna Manley died in February 1987 in her sleep.

MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO" Let us also look at a portrait of Mallica Reynolds. Do you recognize him also? Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" was born in St. Catherine, Jamaica, in 1911. Kapo was a bishop in the Revivalist Church and was said to be of pure African heritage. He did numerous amounts of carvings and painting for more than 40 years before his death in 1989. Kapo is remembered for his documentation of information about Jamaican heritage and is recognized as the most famous of the intuitive or self- taught artists. Several of Kapo's works relate to religion and the spirits. He once said that he might have been the only artist who had ever been arrested for his work as he was said to be practicing obeah or what we sometimes describe as "voodoo" or "witchcraft". In an interview in 1986 Kapo stated "It was a blessing from God, at the age of twelve, I dreamt of the master. It was through revival that this gift came, the gift of painting and also the gift of carving". His earliest carvings date back to the period of 1948 -1949. The collection of 17 paintings and 48 sculptures have been acquired by the Government of Jamaica and are housed at the National Gallery. Kapo lost both legs in 1980. He moved around in a wheel chair. This however did not prevent him from doing his work. While he was unable to do much carving, it gave him more time and inspiration to do his paintings. As the bishop of the revival church, Kapo shared his love for Jesus and God. He remarked that Jesus was the first revival shepherd because he was the first to lead. As preacher and leader of a flock, he consoled his followers that "death to him is only a change from this world to the spiritual, life is like a butterfly coming from a cocoon." As we continue to look at both the artworks and dances, we will focus more on themes from cultures that are used in creating art. 312 MULTICULTURAL THEMES FROM CULTURE USED IN ART FOLK DANCES Dance in the Jamaican culture has been recognized not only on the island but around the world, especially with the very popular reggae. There are other dances that have kept aspects of our culture alive. The spiritual beliefs and celebratory practices are contributing factors to the rich role that dance plays. Tliese dances mainly originated from the slaves. Some were used for communication during slavery, while others were used to celebrate their freedom at the end of slavery. Some of these dances were called POCOMANIA, JOHN CANOE, BRUCKINGS, and KUMINA. The folk dances that can be identified in Jamaica today usually relate to religion or to the feasts and festivities that are connected to religion. Although most of these dances display African traditions, Chinese, English, Indian and Spanish influences are often reflected. In an effort to retain some of the these dance forms, several new dance groups, such as the National Dance Theater Company, have created dances that are similar to the heritage dances (POCOMANIA, JOHN CANOE, BRUCKINGS, and KUMINA). The costumes in these dances are very rich and colourful. Artists, such as sculptors, painters, and potters in Jamaica have also imitated several of these dance moves in their artworks.

MULTICULTURAL INFLUENCES - Remember now that the lifestyles and behaviours of the different groups of people are often described as culture. Both artists Manley and Reynolds often talk about being influenced by the different groups of people that make up the Jamaican cultural heritage. In the case of Jamaicans, because of our African, Chinese, English, Indian, and Spanish heritage we talk about our culture being multicultural. The activities that took place among these groups of people, such as their celebration dances, often influences the works that 313 artists try to create in their paintings, carvings, dances, and festivities. During the period of slavery, the slaves were often restricted from engaging in any kind of worship or communication with each other. They then tried to find ways to do so and therefore created dances that would bring them together. Because of the nature of the events during slavery, the Jamaican dances often depict subject matter that relates to

the way the slaves were beaten by their slave masters their daily activities on the sugar plantations that involved the plantation owners, estate workers, down to the slave laborers the various ways that the slaves tried to console themselves through religious practices the role played by the more fortunate indentured laborers (Indians and Chinese) in the houses of the plantation owners the celebration and rejoicing after the emancipation of slavery in 1894 that gave the slaves their freedom. These events have been considered valuable to the Jamaican heritage and have been recaptured in arts activities to remind the Jamaican people of where they come from. The two artists, Manley and Reynolds, constantly create works of art that tell stories relating to activities experienced by the slaves. Events are sometimes identified as themes from culture such as revivalism and pocomania, and represent African images or Christian religious beliefs. These artists sometimes used themes as titles for their artworks. Because folk dances are often used to tell some of these same stories from the Jamaican heritage, they also sometimes have similar titles as the artworks that Jamaican artists create. These dances often later influenced the works of artists, while the artists themselves influenced each other, One such case is that of Mallica Reynolds who states that he was influenced by Edna Manley. Influences can also be observed in cases where one artist is taught by another, or when artists work together. Any questions? Let us continue to talk about the information that was presented to you about both artists and the Jamaican multicultural influences on our art. 314 Can you think of any other Jamaican artists whose works remind you of your own culture?

Please write a few names of artists if you can remember any. 315 TASK 1 P - 1- B

Please listen carefully as we continue our discussion about the Jamaican cultural heritage.

Here are a few other examples of Edna's work as we browse through a book that was written about her life as an artist. Look carefully and see if you can find any similarities with the key artworks that you will be focusing on throughout your learning experience. Also be sure to try and write any similarities that you can find Are there any similarities?

Here are other examples of Mallica's work. Can identify any similarities with the key artworks that you will be focusing on throughout your learning experience? What are they?

Do you think any of these artworks were taken from dances or religion? If so, what are they? What are your reasons for your decisions? 316 TASK 2 P-2-A In your last task, you were introduced to a brief history of Jamaica with an emphasis on the cultural heritage. We also spoke about two very popular Jamaican artists whose artworks often include multicultural influences or what we might say represents the different cultures that make up the Jamaican heritage. As you look at the artworks of Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" once more, 1 would like you to think about what you might be able to understand from these artworks. For example: the subject matter such as religious events, or the subject matter in dances for celebration; the content or meaning of the artwork; the composition such as the types of figures, whether male or female, or even a family or a crowd of people. Now below please write fi points that you think would describe the artworks done by Manley and Reynolds, and their multicultural influences. Remember to think carefully about the history of Jamaica, the composition, content, and subject matter in these artworks. Feel free to read over the introduction if you think this will help you to better understand what might better describe these artworks or their multicultural influences.

Please write your responses below and number each one 1 to 8.

Continue on the next page 317 318

PAINTING REYNOLDS: HEAVEN AND EARTH

P A IN T IN G MANLEY • wBk^shlp 319 TASK 2 P - 2 - B -a I will now separate these artworks into two groups. First let us look at the paintings. They are WORSHIP (1986)b v EDNA MANLEY and HEAVEN AND EARTH (1976) BY MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO"

As some of you know, Edna Manley's ancestors were mainly English and Mallica Reynolds "Kapo" had African heritage. Now I would like you to tell me about some of the similarities and differences that you can find in these two artworks, and give your reasons for your answers. Look carefully at the artworks and the sentences that you wrote in your last task (TASK 1 A T -1- B - a), as you talk about both artists and the Jamaican multicultural influences. Feel free to ask as many questions as you like. Now write your answers here. THE PAINTINGS ARE SIMILAR BECAUSE;

Turn to the next page. 320 THE PAINTINGS ARE DIFFERENT BECAUSE; 321

CARVINC RF.YNni.DS: ()($i',l)I.ENCE COVERS AM.

CARVfHf: MAfil.F,'/; PficOKArH/ü 322 TASK 2 P-2-B-b

You will now look at the carvings. They are POCOM ANIA (1986) BY EDNA MANLEY and OBEDIENCE COVERS ALL (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO".

Please remember to look carefully at the artworks as well as the sentences that you wrote.

Now write your answers here. THE CARVINGS ARE SIMILAR BECAUSE

Please continue on the next page. 323 THE CARVINGS ARE DIFFERENT BECAUSE 324 TASK 3 P- 3 - A

As you continue to think about the Jamaican multicultural influences, I will show you 6 more artworks that were done by other Jamaican artists. These artists are also show signs of having Jamaican multicultural influences.

ARTWORK A1 MASQUERADE OSMOND WATSON

ARTWORK A2 THIRTEEN ISRAELITES (1975) BY CARL ABRAHAMS

ARTWORK B 1 BOB MARLEY (1982-1983) BY CHRISTOPHER GONZALES

ARTWORK B 2 HEAD (1983) BY GENE PEARSON

ARTWORK C l DANCE OF THE MAROONS (1989-1990) BY BARRINGHTON WATSON

ARTWORK C 2 REVELLERS (1993) BY SUSAN ALEXANDER

ARTWORK D 1 HALLELUJAH, HALLELUJAH, HALLELUJAH (1965) BY CARL ABRAHAMS

ARTWORK D 2 DANCE OF THE CANDLES (1966) BY KARL PARBOOSINGH 325 CLASS DISCUSSION

What subject matter or content do you think is represented in each of these artworks? First let us look at Al. Then we will continue to look at the others until we get to D2. How does the works of art look like an African artwork? How do they look like European works of art? Think for example of the lines, colours, and shapes that you might see. 326 TASK 3 E - 3 " B - ai Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the painting W O RSH IP (1986) by EDNA MANLEY. (circle only one) A l or A2

Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write.

Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the painting HEAVEN AND EARTH^(1976)by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". (circle only one) B 1 or B 2

Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write.______327 TASK 3 P-3-B-b Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the carving POCOM ANIA (1936) by EDNA MANLEY. (circle only one) C l or C2

Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write.______

Which of the two artworks do you think is most like the carving OBEDIENCE COVERS A l l " (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS "KAPO". (circle only one) D 1 or D 2

Please explain your answer. You will have about 2 minutes to write.______328 TASK 3 P - 3 - C

I would now like you to look at all four artworks once more. Please think about their MULTICULTURAL INFLUENCES, and THEMES

WORSHIP (1986) by EDNA MANLEY. OR HEAVEN AND EARTH (1976) bv MALLICA REYNOLDS 'KAPO ' for the paintings; OR from the carvings choose either^ POCOMANIA (1986) by EDNA MANLEY OR OBEDIENCE COVERS ALL (1965) by MALLICA REYNOLDS ^KAPO ^

Select your favorite artwork and write the name of the artwork and the artist. In the space provided below, please write a story that will tell me as much as you can about the work of art, the artist, and reason you chose this artist and the artwork to be your favorite. Try your best to interpret the work by telling me what you think it means, what subject matter is represented, such as dance or religion, and what formal qualities you can identify. Remember to think about the different cultural influences such as African, Chinese, English, and Indian, and what themes as you write. Write as much as you can.

Please remember this is not a test. So feel free to write anything you wish and remember to choose only one artwork.

NAME OF ARTWORK______NAME OF ARTIST______

Continue to write your essay on the next page. 329

Continue on the next page. 330 331 TASK 4 P-4-A

On the blank sheet of paper provided, please illustrate (draw) a picture that you think will represent your story about the multicultural influences and your favorite piece of artwork. This could either be a drawing in one colour or a carving you would like to do, or a coloured drawing that represents a painting. Be sure to include whatever multicultural influence you wish, whether European or African, or a combination of European, African, Chinese, and Indian. 332

DRAWING PAPER 333 TASK 5 P-5-A

I will now return your illustrations (drawings) to you as you will both video and audio taped, I would like each one of you to share your illustrations with the class. Please stand at the front of the room so that we will all be able to see you as you tell us about your illustration. I would like you especially to share with us how you tried to include multicultural influences and themes in your works of art. During this discussion I would like everyone to participate. Please raise your hands and ask questions about each other's work. Try to identify aspects of the Jamaican heritage that you think are represented and explain your reasons. 334 TASK 6 P - 6 - A

Please reflect on all the activities that you did throughout this experiment; the historical background: the things people have said about the key artworks, the words and phrases that were used to describe the artworks, multicultural influences, such as the dances, religion.

In your booklets please answer the following 3 questions. Circle YES or NO as vou answer the first question.

1. Do you think both artists (Edna Manley and Mallica Reynolds " Kapo") showed multicultural influences in their works of art? YES or NO

2. Explain to me how you think the artists used multicultural influences in their works of art. Can you tell if the artworks were African or European?

3. Describe how one of the artists showed multicultural influences in one of his/her artwork. Was it because of the colour that he/she used or was it because of the shape and lines that he /she used?

Please explain your answers as best as you can. You will have 15 minutes to do so.

Continue on the next page 335 APPENDIX D Panel of Peer Debriefers

336 337

Panel of Peer Debriefers

Verona Barnes : Lecturer Shortwood Teacher Training College 77 Shortwood Road Kingston 8, Jamaica

Marcia Dunn : Art Teacher Wolmers' High School for Girls Marescaux Road Kingston 5, Jamaica

David Dunn : Artist; Art Instructor Edna Manley School for The Visual Arts Arthur Wint Drive Kingston, Jamaica

Penny Miller : Doctoral Student The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

Marlene Robbins : Masters Student The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

Marjo Rasanen : Visiting Scholar (Finland) The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio APPENDIX E Sample Evaluation Summary Sheet: Experimental Group

338 339

SUMMARY SHEET : EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

STUDENT ff DIMENSIONS OF MEMORY

CULTURAL ART REFERENCES ART AND JLTURAL REFERENCES RELATIONSHIPS

RECALL AFRICAN TEXTURE REPEATING CULTURAL CHINESE COLOUR THEMES AND INFLUENCES INDIANS LINE AMONG ARTISTS AND EUROPEANS VALUE ARTFORMS, ETC RELIGION SHAPE DANCE ETC PAINTING CARVING, ETC

RANK 1 2

TASK #

TASK It

TASK #

TASK If

TASK It

INTERPRET INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES ART REFERENCES CULTURAL AND ART RELATIONSHIPS

RANK 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TASK It

TASK » APPENDIX F Sample Evaluation Summary Sheet: Traditional Group

340 341

SUMMARY SHEET : TRADITIONAL GROUP

STUDENT # DIMENSIONS OF MEMORY

CULTURAL ART REFERENCES ART AND CULTURAL REFERENCES RELATIONSHIPS

RECALL AFRICAN TEXTURE REPEATING CULTURAL CHINESE COLOUR THEMES AND INFLUENCES INDIANS LINE AMONG ARTISTS AND EUROPEANS VALUE ARTFORMS. ETC RELIGION SHAPE DANCE ETC PAINTING CARVING, ETC

RANK 1 2

TASK # /

TASK # >

TASK 3

TASK 4-

TASK » 5

TASK » 6

INTERPRET INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES ART REFERENCES CULTURAL AND ART RELATIONSHIPS

RANK 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TASK # f

TASK # ^

TASK tt 3

TASK # W

TASK # ^

TASK # (p APPENDIX G Scores : Total Group Responses : Ecperimental Group

342 343

SUMMARY SHEET : TOTAL GROUP RESPONSES : EXPERIMENTAL

DIMENSIONS OF MEMORY

CULTURAL ART REFERENCES ART AND CULTURAL REFERENCES RELATIONSHIPS

RECALL AFRICAN TEXTURE REPEATING CULTURAL CHINESE COLOUR THEMES AND INFLUENCES INDIANS LINE AMONG ARTISTS AND ■ EUROPEANS VALUE ARTFORMS, ETC RELIGION SHAPE DANCE, ETC PAINTING CARVING, ETC

RANK 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TASK # 1 ____ c £ l______[ ___ .JJ: ■y TASK ft y ______A_ __L ___ _A__ __J___ TASK _____ o Z / . C c i? û

TASK ___ /__ __G__ 1 TASK / o 1 ^2- / 1 1 O O ^2 TASK 1/ _____ J___ o 7- _ o _ _

INTERPRET INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES ART REFERENCES CULTURAL AND ART RELATIONSHIPS

RANK 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

$ c A / T . /

9 & A- / T / _ A TASK t* 3 O Y- 5 O S' 1 TASK II L f ------<5r— ___Ij - J y h l - _ _ s _ _ _ _ 3 _ ____

TASK It S ______j ___ ; ; ï : __J_. _ . î _ . _:ê___ O 1 -> TASK If (^. ___ 2^__ 3 _ _ 2 i _ _ _ _ 5 APPENDIX H Scores : Total Group Responses : Traditional Group

344 345

SUMMARY SHEET : TOTAL GROUP RESPONSES : TRADITIONAL DIMENSIONS OF MEMORY

CULTURAL ART REFERENCES ART AND CULTURAL REFERENCES RELATIONSHIPS

RECALL AFRICAN TEXTURE REPEATING CULTURAL CHINESE COLOUR THEMES AND INFLUENCES INDIANS LINE AMONG ARTISTS AND EUROPEANS VALUE ARTFORMS, ETC RELIGION SHAPE D A N C E, ETC PAINTING CARVING, ETC

RANK 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TASK If /

TASK » % _ / 2- 9 \ 1 o O o I

TASK # 3 _ 1 o 1 o 1 / / _ g _ _ cn r - TASK ____ è .. __<ê— _ _ S h L _

TASK ______3 : _ ■O - J 0 _ _ l-Q.. „ _ < 2 _ __(OJ TASK ____ [_„ _ _ 3 = J —— L2_

INTERPRET INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL REFERENCES ART REFERENCES CULTURAL AND ART RELATIONSHIPS

RANK 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

TASK # I

TASK

TASK O j / „ _ a _ 5-

TASK _____ ^ 1 5 s 4- 7 2

TASK 5 _ 7 4) / / _ y -

TASK u lo / / 6; t> / 3 6) 3 REFERENCES

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