1 Renée Cox (, 1960; lives & works in ) “Redcoat,” from Queen Nanny of the Maroons series, 2004 Color digital inket print on watercolor paper, AP 1, 76 x 44 in. (193 x 111.8 cm) Courtesy of the artist : Crossroads of the World, organized This exhibition is organized into six themes by in collaboration with the that consider the objects from various cultural, Queens of Art and The Studio Museum in geographic, historical and visual standpoints: , explores the complexity of the Caribbean Shades of History, Land of the Outlaw, Patriot region, from the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) to Acts, Counterpoints, Kingdoms of this World and the present. The culmination of nearly a decade Fluid Motions. of collaborative research and scholarship, this exhibition gathers objects that highlight more than At The , Shades of two hundred years of history, art and visual culture History explores how artists have perceived from the and its diaspora. the significance of race and its relevance to the social development, history and : Crossroads engages the rich history of Caribbean, beginning with the pivotal Haitian the Caribbean and its transatlantic cultures. The Revolution. Land of the Outlaw features works broad range of themes examined in this multi- of art that examine dual perceptions of the venue project draws attention to diverse views Caribbean—as both a utopic place of pleasure and of the contemporary Caribbean, and sheds new a land of lawlessness—and investigate historical light on the encounters and exchanges among and contemporary interpretations of the “outlaw.” the countries and territories comprising the New World. In particular, the exhibition emphasizes At El Museo del Barrio, Counterpoints communicates the relationship between the Caribbean and the fundamental message that the Caribbean the , and artists from both locales plantation systems and industries such as sugar, who participate in ongoing conversations about fruit, tobacco and coffee had tremendous national identity and belonging. aesthetic and social impact on the region as a whole. Patriot Acts studies the idea that artists The works on view at the three institutions and intellectuals were instrumental in creating the represent Caribbean perspectives and external young Caribbean nations’ visual and conceptual perceptions of the region through a wide identities, which often pitted traditional, academic range of subjects and artistic practices that aesthetics against the “authentic,” indigenous and include portraiture, spiritual and religious African pasts of the region. themes, depictions of labor and historical events, abstraction, and contemporary video At the of Art, Fluid Motions and installation work. This selection provides examines the geographical realities of a region a visual as a pivotal made up of islands and coastal areas. Kingdoms crossroads between , , and the of this World considers the close relationship Americas. Whether using techniques developed between historical events and the development within the region or Western art traditions, the of subsequent popular traditions, particularly in artists explore the movement of people, objects, terms of religious practice. Many of the strongest images and ideas through the many waterways traditions, drawn from African rituals, have that join and separate the expanded conceptual become significant elements of carnival and and geographical boundaries of the Caribbean. other performative practices.

1 The Studio Museum in Harlem

Shades of History Land of the Outlaw

The works in Shades of History offer a broad Land of the Outlaw brings together works of art perspective on the various ways artists have that address perceptions of the Caribbean as explored the significance and relevance of both a utopian place of pleasure and a site of race to the history and visual culture of the illicit or deviant activity. The notion of deviance Caribbean. Since the Haitian Revolution (1791– appears in various myths and stereotypical 1804), a pivotal event in the increased visibility characters—including pirates, treasure-hunters, and power of people of African descent in the slave traders and even zombies—that helped region, discussions of Caribbean selfhood and promote the idea of a dangerous Caribbean in identity have encompassed human rights, social the popular imagination during colonization, and status, national identity, and beauty. The artists that are now part of global popular culture. At in this section explore the history and legacy the same time, a parallel view of the Caribbean of cultural hybridity in the Caribbean and the as paradise was created through mass-produced experiences of African descendants throughout illustrations and texts. the Americas. In the modern period, this idealized landscape The works on view examine the legacies of became the subject of inspiration and critique and abolition, class- and race-based conflict, for many artists who depict social struggles significant figures in Caribbean history and the and confront nationalist ideals, casting political ideals of social and cultural movements such or well-known figures as simultaneously heroic as the , Négritude, and the and villainous subjects. For instance, duo Allora . One keystone of this & Calzadilla often examine the U.S. military section is a late-eighteenth century drawing presence in the region. Their video included in this by Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson, which depicts section documents a resident of Vieques driving revolutionary and abolitionist Jean-Baptiste a motorcycle with a trumpet attached to its Belley, a former slave from Saint-Domingue muffler. Ironically inferring the sound of triumph, and, originally, Senegal, who represented the this intervention is also an homage to a leader colonies at the French National Convention of the Puerto Rican Popular Army, who could be during the Revolution. The work is a canonical construed as a national “outlaw.” Many of the portrait of an important black figure, reflecting contemporary works in this section investigate Belley’s respected status as a mediator and the intertwined historical interpretations of the voice of the colonies to France. This and other “outlaw,” embracing and interrogating this figure works within Shades of History provide a visual through present-day concepts of trespassing, entry into the complex history of ideas of race at borders, and cultural fluidity. the “crossroads of the world.”

2 Edouard Duval-Carrié ( 1954; lives & works in Miami) Le General Toussaint Enfumé (General Toussaint Wreathed in Smoke), 2003 Multimedia on wood in artist frame, 50 x 50 in. (127 x 127 cm.) Collection of Mireille Chancey Gonzalez

3

Enrique Grau Araujo (, 1920–2004) La Mulata Cartagenera, 1940 Oil on canvas, 28 x 24 in. (71.1 x 61 cm) Museo Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá

4 El Museo del Barrio

Counterpoints Patriot Acts

Counterpoints reflects on the economic Patriot Acts studies the central role that creole developments of the Caribbean, focusing on the culture and notions of hybridity, supported by shift from plantation systems and commodities newly empowered local economic forces, play such as sugar, tobacco, and fruit to the oil and in the configuration of national and regional tourism industries. These have had tremendous discourses of identity. Artists and intellectuals aesthetic and social impact while proving to often pitted traditional, academic aesthetics be a source of wealth and conflict. As Cuban against the “authentic,” indigenous and African anthropologist Fernando Ortiz demonstrated, heritages of the Caribbean. With newly- two essentially different economic models independent countries developing throughout produced sharp contrasts in the development of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, national Caribbean societies. Sugar was a transnational identity and culture were areas of constant business which relied on the latifundia (plantation inquiry. In the wake of the crisis of Western or hacienda) system, new technologies and civilizations, non-mainstream or non-Western low-skilled laborers. The tobacco industry was traditions develop throughout the region. Among developed locally and employed highly-trained the subthemes explored here are the tensions technical workers who were key to the growing between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, the middle class. Today, a new counterpoint is roles of indigenismo, costumbrismo and the unfolding, in which the oil and tourism industries intuitives, the complex notion of the self, and the collide. One requires ideal, pristine beaches concept of a Caribbean style. and waters while the other threatens the same important resources. Both are heavily dependent on scarce natural resources which are threatened by climate change.

5 Queens Museum of Art

Fluid Motions Kingdoms of this World

Fluid Motions examines the complexities of the Kingdoms of this World considers the variety geographical and geopolitical realities of a region of people, languages, art forms, and religions made up of islands and coastal areas, connected that co-exist in the Caribbean. Spiritual practices, and separated by bodies of water, where human popular music and dance genres, newly created and natural forces collide, and commercial dialects, and Carnival emerge from the diffusion routes often mask foreign imperial ambitions. and reconciliation of different cultures converging This theme addresses the significance of water in the region. Africans brought their religious in the history of the Caribbean, and how new practices to the Americas. These were integrated developments in transportation have reshaped with existing indigenous celebrations as well as commercial routes, migratory movements and the sanctioned Catholic rituals mandated by the communications within the region and beyond. colonizers. Using their bodies as sites for religious The works explore the , Gulf of expression, dance becomes more than a dance, and the Atlantic as well as the crucial and together with music, they become corporeal role played by rivers such as the Orinoco, the modes of veneration. Metaphorically leaving Magdalena and the Mississippi. As a point of behind flesh and body, the aesthetic form of the encounter between world powers, the Caribbean Carnival develops performance, masquerading, has constantly experienced endless movement and costume to hide and transform the self. of people, goods and ideas. Natural disasters, Artists have interpreted the ways in which military interventions, and political convulsions cultures utilize transformation and camouflage act as catalysts for this movement and as a metaphor for survival and resistance. influenced the emergence of multiculturalism in the region even before it was fostered by the global economy. Economic waterways, island infrastructures, the Canal, the role of travelling artists, the significance of water motifs, and the power of hurricanes and volcanoes are among the themes highlighted.

Rubén Moreira (, 1922–1984) Untitled (Study for Mural for Pan American Building), 1966 Mixed media on cardboard or paper mounted on cardboard, 16 ½ x 52 in. (42 x 132 cm) Private Collection

6 Leo Matiz (Colombia, 1917–1988) Pavo real del mar (Peacock from the Sea), 1939 Digital print from original negative, 30 x 40 inches Leo Matiz Foundation

7 Caribbean: Crossroads of the World

A Brief Introduction The word “Caribbean” is derived from the Caribs, an ethnic group that inhabited the Lesser El Museo del Barrio, the Queens Museum of Art and parts of the northern coast of and The Studio Museum in Harlem are proud to at the time of European contact.1 However, share in Caribbean: Crossroads of the World, an there were a variety of early inhabitants of the unprecedented collaboration between our three Caribbean, including native indigenous groups institutions. A sweeping examination of over that dominated the territory prior to the arrival two hundred years of Caribbean visual culture, of successive waves of Europeans. Among these Caribbean: Crossroads of the World encompasses later-arriving groups were the Spanish lower an exhibition, an important resource publication, nobility (hidalgos) from Castilla-La Mancha; and educational and public programs. converted Jews (conversos); Portuguese, British, Dutch and French colonialists; and North This project examines the history and visual Africans and sub-Saharan Africans brought culture about and of the Caribbean islands, basin to the New World as slaves. After slavery was and diaspora, from the watershed moment of initially abolished in Haiti in 1794,2 thousands of the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) in the late East and South Asians, especially Chinese and eighteenth century to the present. The Caribbean Indian workers, were brought to the islands. More has had extensive global impact, most importantly recently, Europeans from Moravia, Denmark and here in New York, which, demographically, is now Sweden, as well as Arabs from the Middle East, considered the largest Caribbean city in the world. have made their way to the Caribbean. Though it is sometimes linked with Central or , the Caribbean remains a distinct entity From the sixteenth century on, , France, by virtue of the variation of languages, traditions England, Portugal and The controlled and cultures that developed there. The period the vast majority of the Antilles. Spaniards covered by the exhibition begins with the Haitian populated new territories and, through mixing Revolution, which marks the launching point for with local populations, became what were called modern Caribbean history. The first black republic, criollos. The French and English territories were Haiti was also the second independent country largely controlled by absentee landowners who in the Americas, following the United States. Its preferred to live in their native lands. During establishment represents possibility, bound with this time, vast quantities of valuable resources idealism, political legacy, tragedy and destruction. were removed from the islands to Europe and As the conceptual starting point of the exhibition, the United States, creating the longstanding it represents the idea of a new beginning and the economic dependency of the Caribbean on its dawn of an important era. Some of the earliest colonial powers. Maritime wars influenced the works in the exhibition focus on Haiti’s leaders and movement of people and constantly shifted the their legacies, and the crucial battles that were balance of European power. Ports challenged waged there. Linked to this is the African presence the rise of a monolithic identity in the Caribbean, throughout the Caribbean, and the subsequent before and as local cultures developed. Local culture that arose as a result of the extensive mixing residents copied European artistic styles and of African, Asian, European and indigenous peoples. methods, cultural practices, religious beliefs Works of art that reflect these combinations are and social norms as European landowners evident throughout the exhibition. developed plantation systems. Much of the artistic work created during the eighteenth century was either dedicated to religious subject matter or recorded the landscape for political

8 Darío Suro (, 1917–1997) Paisaje de lluvia (Rainy landscape) Oil on canvas, 24 x 20 in. (66 x 88.5 cm) Collection of Museo Bellapart

9 Ebony G. Patterson (Jamaica, 1981; lives and works United States) Untitled Species I, 2010–2011 Mixed media on paper, 62 x 50 in. (158.75 x 127 cm) Collection of David Beitzel, New York

10 or economic reasons. In particular, portraits African or indigenous figures. Such images of powerful religious and military leaders are subsequently influenced outside interpretations most visible. Prints and showing of the region and its inhabitants. Conversely, the customs and dress of residents, the island artists from the islands traveled to Europe and landscape, military activities and architecture, brought back techniques they acquired there. or the growth of urban centers and industry, all Many late-nineteenth-century artists from the proliferated during this period. As visual records Caribbean trained as academic painters and used of the time period, these works represent some the traditional methods of the academy to address of the earliest available information about subjects of local importance. Several national life in the Caribbean in the seventeenth and academies and schools of art were founded in eighteenth centuries. Nineteenth-century prints the Caribbean during this time, contributing to and photographs illustrate agriculture as the the development of a strong visual culture that main source of employment for descendants focused on island life. Toward the end of the of enslaved Africans. (The abolition of slavery nineteenth century, artists began to consider the was adopted slowly and unevenly throughout importance of creating national aesthetics, with the Caribbean.) Photographs, prints and text imagery that reflected local cultures. European from the period also document a series of artistic models, such as academic portraiture important engineering projects, such as the and history , gradually evolved and Panama Canal, that employed local residents. By gave way to new artistic modes of resistance. In the twentieth century, the tourism industry had the early years of the twentieth century, artists grown exponentially, furthering the transference seeking modern inspiration formed groups and of imagery and art objects from the Caribbean published manifestos declaring their adherence to other parts of the world. This sparked further to the newest stylistic tendencies from Europe, interest in the region, some of it based on while simultaneously pledging allegiance to misconceptions, inaccuracies or stereotypes. local subject matter. became a magnet for Caribbean artists who traveled throughout Europe The geography of the Caribbean has deeply to study art and its history. Returning home, they impacted the flow of commerce, people and sought new ways to incorporate the avant-garde cultural models across the Caribbean Sea and ideas they had absorbed into works of art that along its coastlines. Beginning in the nineteenth would be relevant to their homelands. Politically, century, increased mobility enabled travelers, the twentieth century was marked by national expeditions, scientists, treasure seekers and and international struggles for autonomy, all of tourists to record visual and written impressions which is reflected in art of the period from around of the region. Artists created works on location— the world. The Mexican Revolution of 1910 was paintings later purchased by collectors or especially influential—an agrarian revolution that acquired by governments, spreading imagery heightened the visibility of the struggling peasant of the Caribbean throughout Europe and the classes and acted as a catalyst for economic Americas. As artists from Europe traveled to and social struggles throughout the region. the region, they illustrated their excursions Many artists admired and closely studied folk art through visual journals, and exalted travel in the and traditional cultural practices, as notions of humanist tradition of exploring for the sake of authenticity, indigenism, Négritude and Creolité knowledge. Imagery by traveling artists from garnered much attention and debate. Art created this period features local political figures, scenes during this time attempted to define or adapt from regional history, military architecture built aesthetics and visual languages that convey the specifically for the Caribbean and portraits of particularities of the region.

11 The twentieth century also gave birth to black are explored in this exhibition, from social nationalist movements both in the United issues and aging architecture, to the legacies of States and the Caribbean. Ideas of repatriation imperialism and slavery, from historic industries developed among parallel cultural movements to contemporary tourism and the predominance that proposed an alternative aesthetic (such of the Caribbean Sea. Caribbean: Crossroads of as Négritude and Rastafari, for example)3 that the World challenges partial and conventional explored blackness and a connection to an understandings of this region’s complicated African homeland. The Back to Africa movement, history, and hopes to inspire appreciation for the founded in Jamaica by and his critical role of visual culture in its representation. Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in 1914, was significant for its connection —Curatorial Department, El Museo del Barrio to the development of Rastafarianism on the island. The first UNIA convention was held 1 The are the smaller islands at the eastern in New York in 1920, and inspired thousands border of the Caribbean Sea. They are made up of the in the north and the in to make a trip back to an imagined African the south, and include various countries such as Grenada, homeland. Though Liberia was the desired Dominica, and Trinidad and Tobago, among others. The destination, the ships ultimately landed in the is comprised of the larger islands of , Caribbean and on the coasts of Central America, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. infusing the region with thousands seeking a 2 Slavery was originally abolished in all French territories in more “authentic” life. Both in the United States 1794, though it was reinstated by Napoleon in 1802. It was and the Caribbean, these ideas about returning finally abolished permanently in Haiti in 1804 by the new Haitian constitution. to an African homeland sparked works of musical, literary and visual art that considered 3 Négritude is a literary and ideological movement started in France in the 1930s by French Caribbean and African the Africa as both origin and destination. Haiti intellectuals. Rastafari is a social, political and religious became an international symbol of freedom movement and ideology that developed in Jamaica, also in and independence—especially significant to the 1930s, and supported African repatriation. Harlem Renaissance artists—after the United States ended its occupation in the 1930s. The flourished throughout the Caribbean and its diasporas during this period, as a broad dialogue developed among the members of these movements.

Contemporary Caribbean and diasporic artists continue to develop work that observes, questions, problematizes and critiques various aspects of Caribbean life, culture, economy and society. These artists address crucial questions about the relationship of the Caribbean to its own history, to the cultures of other regional or national groups, and to geopolitical landscapes, both historic and contemporary. Among the most common themes is the critique of the plantation system as a precursor to the latifundias, or large estates—but an expansive range of subjects

12 Los Carpinteros (Marco Castillo [Cuba, 1971] and Dagoberto Rodríguez [Cuba, 1969]) Faro Tumbado (Fallen Lighthouse), 2004 Watercolor, 52 x 79 in. (133 x 200 cm) Courtesy of the Farber Collection

13 Rigaud Benoît (Haiti, 1911–1986) Mermaid, c. 1965 Oil on board, 24 x 19 in. (61 x 48 cm) El Museo del Barrio, Gift of Drs. Lloyd and Roslyn Siegal

14 Crossroads, Crossings, and the Cross By Elvis Fuentes Excerpted from an essay published in Caribbean: Art at the within the Americas, particularly with regard Crossroads of the World (New York: El Museo del Barrio, in to the Caribbean, has gained momentum in association with Yale University Press, 2012), eds. Deborah Cullen and Elvis Fuentes. contemporary U.S. scholarship. The exhibition Nueva York, 1613–1945, organized by the New- York Historical Society in collaboration with El Museo del Barrio and City Lore in 2010, is an The Caribbean in the Era of example of this development. This exhibition Atlantic History explored ’s long-standing relationship with the former Spanish Empire in In Derek Walcott’s 1974 essay “The Caribbean: America, as well as with independent republics Culture or Mimicry?,” the St. Lucian poet in Latin America and the Caribbean. Trade courageously asserts: was central to this relationship, with sugar and tobacco leading products, but also politics, We live in the shadow of an America that religion, and cultural exchanges flourished is economically benign yet politically throughout the nineteenth and twentieth malevolent. That malevolence, because of centuries. Although there are exceptions,3 its size, threatens an eclipse of identity, but scholars from the United States have tended the shadow is as inescapable as that of any to focus on Europe rather than the Americas. previous empire. But we were American For example, Carlton J. H. Hayes argues that even while we were British, if only in the the United States was part of a “community of geographical sense, and now that the heritage and outlook and interests” that was shadow of the British Empire has passed shared between “Europe and its . . . American through and over us in the Caribbean, we frontier,” thereby ignoring U.S. relationships ask ourselves if, in the spiritual or cultural with the greater Americas.4 In Atlantic History: sense, we must become American.1 Concepts and Contours (2005), Bernard Bailyn introduces another variant in which This critical way of looking at and analyzing the the triangulation of Europe–America–Africa is Caribbean in relation to the United States is the to serve as a model for a new understanding type of approach this project seeks to recover. of the history of the Atlantic, and in which he Not that a U.S.-centric viewpoint should be warns against the dangers of both an artificial applied, but rather that an America-centric one pan-American myopia and a “starry-eyed should be: one in which we understand that our universalism.”5 Although there is validity to his experiences as people of the New World have argument, we cannot ignore the complexities more in common than we sometimes want that the various geocultural entities introduce. to admit. We share the status of living in this In the Caribbean, those sociopolitical factors are “other” part of the world, yet we cannot ignore key both to American as well as Atlantic history. that there are substantial differences between A tremendous diversity of cultural, linguistic our respective experiences. and economic heritages coexist, dialogue, and clash in the Caribbean. The intensity of these The imperative to argue against a monolithic encounters and the fact that they occur in a concept of America is similar to Paul Gilroy’s limbo territory is similar to the experience of the notion of the “Black Atlantic,” which he notes nomadic brotherhood of the boat coming into is not specifically African, American, Caribbean, contact with the homogenizing and stabilizing or British, but all of them simultaneously.2 forces of the port. These factors complicate the Recently the idea of a North-South axis understanding of the region even more.

15 In her lectures on the formation of Cuba, the center where two worlds unite, a sort of port Graziella Pogolotti asserts that it is not an where deities and humans converge. Historian island but a port.6 This could also be said of Robert Farris Thompson has written at length on every island in the Antilles and the coastal the altar-as-crossroads. He asserts, “as altar, sign, lands of Central and South America, as well as and object, the crossroads came with a thousand those islands along the shores of the Gulf of voices to the Americas.”9 Mexico whose economic and political lives are oriented toward the sea. To continue Pogolotti’s Creole languages resulted from Caribbean argument, it is through these ports that goods, migration and politics, often playing a central people, ideas, and information come and go, role in discourse surrounding identity formation. often crossing paths and picking up traces of Allison Blakely notes how negative views of blacks each other along the way. Tracing routes and were amplified in the literature produced in the movements could help us imagine the vastness new languages of the colonies, such as Sranan and complexity of this web, as well as the in Suriname and Papiamentu in Curaçao. Sranan dynamism that typifies the port as a locus of was considered the tongue of the lower classes rapid exchange.7 Accordingly, the trope of the and, like Bozal in Cuba, was “a contact language crossroads is significant, and Édouard Glissant’s between slaves and masters and between slaves rhizomatic thinking provides a plausible way to of variant origins.”10 Blakely further observes appreciate its dynamics.8 that Sranan racial identity, as well as the need for self-esteem and national unity, was a subject Likewise, understanding the Caribbean not just of interest for African Surinamer writers like as a group of islands but also as waterways that Carl P. Rier. Even so, Rier and others wrote in allow for communication and expansion beyond Dutch, “because their intended audience was immediate shores is crucial to effectively the educated elite.”11 It was not until the middle address the myriad themes relevant to the of the twentieth century that creole languages region. The sea and the rivers that lead into came to be regarded as valid, a change brought it are constitutive of the bodies of water that about through “the rise of nationalist sentiment make up the so-called American Mediterranean, and the quality of creole poetry.”12 explaining this volume’s consideration of areas not necessarily seen as Caribbean, such as the As these few examples show, the sense of Magdalena, Orinoco, and Mississippi Rivers, the transterritoriality, the crossings of roads and Gulf of Mexico, and the interoceanic routes in boundaries, and the constant movements of the Central American Isthmus. people and traditions have led to a blending of beliefs, realities, and aspirations that typify many Caribbean aspects. Yet the Caribbean The Caribbean as Crossroads has also survived numerous inflictions, such and Crossing as the near-total extermination of its native people, the Inquisition, slavery, wars between The logo of the now-closed military base European powers: none being of the region’s Roosevelt Roads in Ceiba reads, “Puerto Rico: making. Nevertheless, the idea of the crossroads Crossroads of the World.” The Caribbean has is still multivalent and, as the title of this always been described in such terms. Crossroads project indicates, remains a primary reference could also describe the myriad cultural in the conceptualization and development of expressions of the region’s religions. In Vodun, Caribbean: Crossroads. for instance, the poto-mitan, or middle point, is

16 Gwendolyn Knight (, 1913–2005, ) Untitled (Barbados), 1945 Oil on canvas, 24 x 20 in. (60 x 50 cm) Courtesy DC Moore Gallery, New York

17 Yeni y Nan (Jennifer Hackshaw [Venezuela, 1948] and María Luisa González [Venezuela, 1956]) Simbolismo de la cristalización, Araya, 1984/2010 C-prints from ektachrome slides, 16 x 22 ½ in. (41 x 57 cm) Courtesy of the artists and Henrique Faría Fine Art

At the Core of the Canon Many U.S. artists had a relationship with the Caribbean, including John Singleton Copley (b. Both U.S. and Caribbean art histories are built , 1738–1815) and Winslow Homer around the narrative of the Atlantic crossing. In (b. Massachusetts, 1836–1910).­ It is probable that the case of the United States, this narrative moves Homer’s The Gulf Stream partly inspired Ernest subsequently further west. The Caribbean is Hemingway to devise another canonical U.S. equally connected to the sea, if not more so: after work, his novel The Old Man and the Sea (1951).13 all, it is the sea that gives its name to the region. Certainly the African-American artist William The United States is dependent on the Caribbean, Edouard Scott (b. Indiana, 1884–1964) was which provides a platform for commercial and looking at Homer’s watercolors of fishing scenes military activities, occurring in relation to both the when he painted Night Turtle Fishing in Haiti Caribbean and the world at large. during his visit to Haiti in 1931. Scott had traveled

18 on a Julius Rosenwald Fine Arts Fellowship, 2 Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double intending to represent the “unspoiled natives” Consciousness (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993). of an independent black nation. He had been encouraged by his friend and tea cher Henry 3 Katherine Manthorne has written extensively on encounters between artists from the United States and Latin America. Ossawa Tanner (b. Pennsylvania, 1859–1937) to Her essay, “Sweet Destiny: Anglo-American Traveler Artists in paint the achievements of . the Caribbean, 1714-1898,”in Caribbean: Art at the Crossroads That he saw Haiti as a source of inspiration, as of the World (New York: El Museo del Barrio in association did artists and intellectuals from the Harlem with Yale University Press, 2012), eds. Deborah Cullen and Renaissance, reinforces the assertion of a Elvis Fuentes, furthers her commitment to the topic. Caribbean–United States link, here experienced 4 Carlton J. H. Hayes, “The American Frontier—Frontier of through race. Frederic Edwin Church (b. What?”, American Historical Review 50, no. 2 (January 1946), http://www.historians.org/info/aha_history/cjhhayes.htm. Connecticut, 1826–1900) produced some of the most majestic landscapes of Jamaica as well as 5 Bernard Bailyn, Atlantic History: Concepts and Contours (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), 14. of the Magdalena River in Colombia. Other major U.S. artists had relationships with the Caribbean. 6 The Ludwig Foundation of Cuba, where I worked from 1999 Artists of the Harlem Renaissance (Charles to 2002, organized a series of lectures on Cuban culture by Graziella Pogolotti in 2001. Pogolotti often opened the Alston, Aaron Douglas, and ) lecture with these remarks. chose to depict stories and figures from Haiti; 7 See Jennifer Smit, “Curaçao: Hub in the Caribbean,” in (1911–1988) spent his final years Caribbean: Art at the Crossroads of the World. in ; and many Caribbean-born artists, 8 Édouard Glissant, Poetics of Relation, trans. Betsy Wing (Ann such as Guillermo Calzadilla, , Felix Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997). Gonzalez-Torres and Ana Mendieta have become part of the U.S. mainstream. As many works by 9 Robert Farris Thompson, Face of the Gods: Art and Altars of Africa and the African Americas (New York: Museum for these and other artists show, there are numerous / Munich: Prestel, 1993), 28. issues worthy of study with regard to relationships 10 Allison Blakely, Blacks in the Dutch World: The Evolution of between the Caribbean and the United States, Racial Imagery in a Modern Society (Bloomington: Indiana including related questions that surround University Press, 1993). notions of race, immigration, and identity. 11 Ibid., 179. Caribbean: Crossroads seeks to address some 12 Ibid., 179–80. of these issues, but perhaps more compellingly asks: Why is it that so little scholarship has been 13 Ernest Hemingway also included Homer among lists of produced on the Caribbean? Why do scholars his favorite artists and had some of Homer’s works in his collection. struggle to address such works as being part of shared visual culture? Is scholarship shaping an image of the Caribbean that is coded in terms of colonialism, racism, or exoticism? Or rather as a common experience of Atlantic culture, the sea, and that space of exchange that is the port?

1 In this essay I use the adjective “American” as Walcott has defined it as encompassing all that is not European in his “The Caribbean: Culture or Mimicry?”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 16, no.1 (February 1974), and in opposition to the idea of the United States as monopolizing the definition of the word “American.” Likewise, America refers to the New World as a whole.

19 Dudley Irons (Jamaica, active late 20th century) Black Star Liner, 1995 Assemblage polychromed wood (matchsticks), fabric, metal, glass, plastic, 30 x 37 x 9 in. (76 x 94 x 23 cm) Wayne and Myrene Cox Collection Photo: Wayne Cox

20 Toton Quandt (Aruba, active late 20th century) Untitled, 1974 Oil on canvas, 50 x 40 in. (140 x 90 cm) Sticusa Collection, UNOCA, Aruba

21 Artist List by Venue

El Museo del Barrio

Ciro Abath Ernest Breleur Tim Davies (Aruba 1954) (Martinique 1945) (Great Britain 1960) Rodolfo Abularach Richard Bridgens Annalee Davis (Guatemala 1933) (Great Britain 1785–Trinidad 1846) (Barbados 1963) Angel Acosta León Hope Brooks Philippe Regis Denis de Keredern de (Cuba 1930–1964) (Jamaica 1944) Trobriand (France 1816–New York 1897) Olga Albizu John T. Brown Olga de Amaral (Puerto Rico 1924–New York 2005) (United States c.1801–1856) (Colombia 1932) Mahmoud Pharouk Alladin Agostino Brunias Nanna Debois Buhl (Trinidad 1919–1980) (Italy c.1730–Dominica 1796) (Denmark 1975) John James Audubon Juan D. Calvete Jack Delano (Saint Domingue 1785–1851 New York) (Spain/Cuba, active ) (Ukraine 1914–Puerto Rico 1997) Myrna Báez Yoan Capote Roberto Diago y Querol (Puerto Rico 1931) (Cuba 1977) (Cuba 1920–Spain 1955) Alessandro Balteo Yazbeck Ronnie Carrington Jeanette Ehlers (Venezuela 1972) (In collaboration (Barbados 1948) (Denmark 1973) with Media Farzin) Frederick Catherwood Christiaan Engels Edmond Barincou (Great Britain 1799–1854) (Netherlands 1907–Curaçao 1980) (France, active mid–20th century) Aimé Césaire Lucila Engels Álvaro Barrios (Martinique 1913–2008) (Curaçao 1920–1993) (Colombia 1945) Esteban Chartrand Carlos Enríquez Abel Barroso (Cuba 1840–1884) (Cuba 1900–1957) (Cuba 1971) Philippe (Felipe) Chartrand John Erwin Jean–Michel Basquiat (Cuba 1825–1889) (active c.1809–1821) (New York 1960–1988) Chokwe artist Minnie Evans Tamara Baussan (Democratic Republic of the Congo, (North Carolina 1892–1987) (Russia 1909–Haiti 1999) 19th–20th century) Feea, Daughter of Zion Issac Mendes Belisario William Clark (Jamaica 1941) (Jamaica 1795–1849) (Scotland 1808–1883) Eugenio Fernández Granell La Vaughn Belle LeRoy Clarke (Spain 1912–2001) (Trinidad 1974; St. Croix) (Trinidad 1938) Ramón Frade Patricia Belli Jaime Colson (Puerto Rico 1875–1954) (Nicaragua 1964) (Dominican Republic 1901–1975) Wilfredo García Domenech Rainey Bennett Felipe Jesús Consalvos (Spain 1935–Dominican Republic 1988) (Indiana 1907–Illinois 1998) (Cuba 1891–Philadelphia c.1960) Antonio Gattorno Charles Bentley Joseph Coussin (Cuba 1904–Massachusetts 1980) (Great Britain 1806–1854) (France 1773–1836) Paul Gauguin Margarita Bertheau Odio José Cuchí y Arnau (Paris 1848–French Polynesia 1903) (Costa Rica 1903–1975) (Puerto Rico 1860–Spain 1925) Gego (Gertrud Goldschmidt) Hervé Beuze Arlette Da Costa Gomez (Germany 1912–Venezuela 1994) (Martinique 1970) (Curaçao 1957–1995) Milton George Robert Blackburn Leonard Daley (Jamaica 1939–2008) (New Jersey 1920–New York 2003) (Jamaica 1930–2006) Édouard Glissant Elba Damast (Martinique 1928–2011) (Great Britain 1757–1827) (Venezuela 1944–New York 2005) C. Anton Goering Frank Bowling Winfred Dania (Germany 1836–1905) ( 1936–London/New York) (Aruba 1950–Bonaire 2012)

22 Víctor Patricio Landaluze Roberto Ossaye (Spain 1827–Cuba 1889) (Guatemala 1927–1954) Roberto González Goyri Hugo Larsen Alejandro Otero (Guatemala 1924–2007) (Denmark 1875–1950) (Colombia 1921–1990) Jacques–Enguerrand Gourgue Jacob Lawrence Amelia Peláez del Casal (Haiti 1930–1996) (New Jersey 1917– 2003) (Cuba 1896–1968) Émile Goury Gaspard Le Marchant Tupper Rolando Peña (France 1813–1847) (Great Britain 1826–1906) (Venezuela 1942) Enrique Grau Araujo Noé León Enoc Pérez (Panama 1920–Colombia 2004) (Colombia 1907) (Puerto Rico 1967; New York) Asilia Guillén Hew Locke Marta Pérez (Nicaragua 1887–1964) (Great Britain 1959) (Puerto Rico 1934–2004) Rob ter Haar Elvis Lopez David Pérez Karmadavis (Netherlands 1960; Aruba/) (Aruba 1956) (Dominican Republic 1976; Guatemala) Jan Henderikse Nereo López Claudio Perna (Netherlands 1937; Belgium/New York) (Colombia 1920; New York) (Italy 1938–Venezuela/Cuba 1997) Maria Henle Leslie Lounsbury John Pfahl (St. Croix 1955–2007) (Barbados; active 20th century) (New York 1939) May Henriquez Leopoldo Maler (Curaçao 1915–1998) (Argentina 1937; Dominican Republic) (St. Thomas 1830–Paris 1903) Claude Héricourt Luichy (Luis) Martínez Richiez Héctor Poleo (France active 1745–1785) (Dominican Repbulic 1928) (Venezuela 1918–1989) Lorenzo Homar Ruperto Jay Matamoros Fidelio Ponce de León (Puerto Rico 1913–2004) (Cuba 1912–2008) (Cuba 1895–1949) Clementine Hunter Leo Matiz Cecilia Porras de Child (Louisiana 1886/7–1988) (Colombia 1917–1998) (Colombia 1920–1972) Hector Hyppolite Fritz George Melbye Miguel Pou y Becerra (Haiti 1894–1948) (Denmark 1826–1869) (Puerto Rico 1880–1968) Héctor Méndez Caratini Mavis Pusey (Jamaica 1920–Maryland 2010) (Puerto Rico 1949) (Jamaica 1928; Virginia) Xavier Icaza Ana Mendieta Toton Quandt (Mexico 1892–1969) (Cuba 1948–New York 1985) (Aruba; active 20th century) Frank Jones Armando Menocal Raúl Quintanilla (Texas c.1900–1969) (Cuba 1863–1942) (Nicaragua 1954) Antonio Joseph Armando Morales Sequeira Teodorico Quirós Alvarado (Dominican Republic 1921; Haiti) (Nicaragua 1927–Miami 2011) (Costa Rica 1897–1977) Patricia Kaersenhout Yoryi Morel/Jorge Octavio Morel Tavares Paul Ramírez Jonas (Netherlands 1966) (Dominican Republic 1906–1979) (California/ 1965) Consuelo Kanaga Auguste Morisot Teodoro Ramos Blanco (Oregon 1894–New York 1978) (France 1857–1951) (Cuba 1902–1972) Domingo Ramos Kapo/Mallica Reynolds Hipolito Ocalia (Cuba 1894–1956) (Jamaica 1911–1989) (Curaçao 1916–1984) Armando Reverón Yubi Kirindongo Francisco Manuel Oller y Cestero (Venezuela 1889–1954) (Curaçao 1946) (Puerto Rico 1833–1917) Arnaldo Roche Rabell Gwendolyn Knight Luisina Ordoñez (Puerto Rico 1955) (Barbados 1913–Washington 2005) (Puerto Rico 1909–1975) Wifredo Lam Mariano Rodríguez (Cuba 1902–Paris 1982) (Cuba 1912–1990)

23 Artist List by Venue

El Museo del Barrio (continues) Queens Museum of ArT

Miguel Rodríguez Sepúlveda Carl Abrahams Mario Benjamin (Mexico 1971) (Jamaica 1911–2005) (Haiti 1964) Abelardo Rodríguez Urdaneta Pavel Acosta Rigaud Benoît (Dominican Republic 1870–1933) (Cuba 1975; New Jersey) (Haiti 1911–1986) Reinaldo Sanguino Alejandro Aguilera Gabriel Bien–Aimé (Venezuela 1973; New York) (Cuba 1964) (Haiti 1951) Pétion Savain José Alicea Jean François Boclé (Haiti 1906–1973) (Puerto Rico 1928–1998) (Martinique 1972; Paris/Brussels) Robert Hermann Schomburgk Francisco Amighetti Luis Alexandre Bottée (Germany 1804–1865) (Costa Rica 1907) (France 1852–1941) William Edouard Scott Bror Anders Wikstrom Frank Bowling (Indiana 1884–Illinois 1964) (Sweden 1854–New Orleans 1909) (Guyana 1936; London/New York) Jesús Rafael Soto Laura Anderson Barbata Everald Brown (Venezuela 1923–Paris 2005) (Mexico 1958; New York) (Jamaica 1917–2003) Darío Suro Janine Antoni Honorio Cabraca Acosta (Dominican Republic 1917–1997) (Bahamas 1964; New York) (Costa Rica 1962) Thomas Sutherland Alexander Apóstol José Campeche (Great Britain 1785–1838) after (Venezuela 1969; Spain) (Puerto Rico 1751–1809) James Hakewill Gustavo Araujo (Great Britain 1778–1843) Los Carpinteros (Panama 1965–2008) (Marco Castillo [Cuba 1971; Spain] and Gaston Tabois Dagoberto Rodríguez [Cuba 1969; Alejandro Aróstegui (Jamaica 1931) Spain]) (Nicaragua 1933) Hervé Télémaque Johan François Adriaan Cateau van Otto Arpke (Haiti 1937; France) Rosevelt (Netherlands 1823–Suriname (Germany 1886–1943) 1891) after G.C.B. Voorduin Marisa Tellería–Díez Imna Arroyo (1830–1910) (Nicaragua 1963; New York) (Puerto Rico 1951; Connecticut) Sandra Ceballos Pedro Terán Albert Artwell (Guantánamo 1961; ) (Venezuela 1943) (Jamaica 1942) Dieudonné Cédor John Trumbull Santos Arzú Quioto (Haiti 1925–2010) (Connecticut 1756–New York 1843) (Honduras 1963) Jean Chaffanjon José Antonio Velásquez Sybil Atteck (France 1854– 1913) (Honduras 1931–1983) (Trinidad 1911–1975) Carlisle Chang Manolo Vellojín Ada Balcácer (Trinidad 1921–2001) (Colombia 1943) (Dominican Republic 1930) LeRoy Clarke Nari Ward Lou Barlow (Trinidad 1938) (Jamaica 1963; New York) (United States 1908–2011) M. Cloche Barrington Watson Alvaro Barrios (France, active early 20th century) (Jamaica 1931) (Colombia 1945) Jaime Colson Golde White Domingo Batista (Dominican Republic 1901–1975) (Barbados 1890–1977) (Dominican Republic 1946) Donna Conlon Celeste Woss y Gil Romare Bearden ( 1966; Panama) and (Dominican Republic 1890–1985) (North Carolina 1911–New York 1988) Jonathan Harker ( 1975; Yeni y Nan Panama) José Bedia [Jennifer Hackshaw (Venezuela 1948) and (Cuba 1959; Miami) Charles Corsen María Luisa González (Venezuela 1956)] (Curaçao 1927–1994) Isaac Mendes Belisario Julio Zadik (Jamaica 1795–1849) Eldzier Cortor (Guatemala 1916–2002) (Virginia 1916; New York)

24 Francisco Coto Lola Fernández Eugene Hyde (Costa Rica 1924) (Costa Rica 1926) (Jamaica 1931–1980) Ernest Crichlow Gonzalo Fuenmayor Hector Hyppolite (New York 1914–2005) (Colombia 1977; Miami) (Haiti 1894–1948) Pierre Daguet Soeki Irodikromo (France 1903–1980) (New York 1960) (Suriname 1945) Walter Dehner Regina José Galindo Mitchell Jamieson (New York 1898–1975) (Guatemala 1974) (Maryland 1915–Virginia 1976) Pablo Delano Rocío García Fayad Jamís (Puerto Rico 1954; Connecticut) (Cuba 1955) (Mexico 1930–Cuba 1988) Juan De’Prey Wilfredo García Domenech Ariel “Pajarito” Jiménez (Puerto Rico 1904–New York 1962) (Spain 1935–Dominican Republic 1988) (Panama; active late 20th century) Roberto Diago y Querol Oscar García Rivera Manuel Jordán (Cuba 1920–Spain 1955) (Cuba 1916–1971) (Puerto Rico 1853–1919) Djuka artist Michel Gerard Nacius Joseph (Suriname, second half of 20th century) (France, active early 20th century) (Haiti 1939) Eduardo Gil Tam Joseph (Jamaica 1891–1947) (Venezuela 1974; New York) (Dominica 1947) Alberto Dutary Juan González Charles Juhasz–Alvarado (Panama 1931–1998) (Cuba 1942; New York 1994) (Philippines 1965; Puerto Rico) Edouard Duval Carrié Leonel González Elis Juliana (Haiti 1954; Miami) (Costa Rica 1962) (Curaçao 1927) Juan Manuel Echavarría Claudia Gordillo Rockwell Kent (Colombia 1947) (Nicaragua 1954) (New York 1882–1971) Gustave Eiffel Marlon Griffith Joseph Keppler Jr. (France 1832–1923) (Trinidad 1975) (United States 1838–1894) Ricardo Elías Marina Gutiérrez Yubi Kirindongo (Cuba 1969) (New York 1954) (Curaçao 1946) Elijah/Geneva Mais Jarrett Robert Gwathmey P.L. Krider (Jamaica 1952) (United States 1903–1988) (Philadelphia 1821–1895) Carlos Endara Andrade Jan Henderikse Kuna artist (Ecuador 1867–Panama 1954) (Netherlands 1937; Belgium/New York) (Panama, second half of 20th century) José María Espinosa Prieto Fabio Herrera Padu Lampe (Colombia 1796–1883) (Costa Rica 1954) (Aruba 1920) Gustavo Esquina Miss Lee Hodge Auguste Le Moyne (Panama 1979) (St. Maarten 1899–Curaçao 1998) (France 1800–c.1880) Minnie Evans Irwin Hoffmann Edgar León (North Carolina 1892–1987) (United States 1901–1989) (Costa Rica 1968) Walker Evans Lorenzo Homar Noé León (Missouri 1903–Connecticut 1975) (Puerto Rico 1913–2004) (Colombia 1907) Charles Eyck Winslow Homer Oscar Leone Moyano (Netherlands 1897–1983) (Massachusetts 1836–1910) (Colombia 1972) Ariadne Faries Albert Huie Gerd Leufert (Curaçao 1968) (Jamaica 1920–Maryland 2010) (Germany 1914–Venezuela 1998) Amos Ferguson Margo Humphrey Georges Liautaud (Bahamas 1920–2009) (California 1942; Maryland) (Haiti 1889–1991)

25 Artist List by Venue

Queens Museum of Art (continues)

Jonas Lie Perham Nahl Armando Reverón (Norway 1880–New York 1940) (United States 1869–1935) (Venezuela 1889–1954) Arturo Lindsay Maximiliano Nepomuceno Vernal Reuben (Panama 1946; ) (Curaçao d. 1975) (Jamaica, active 20th century) Guido Llinás Glexis Novoa Rafael Ríos Rey (Cuba 1923–France 2005) (Cuba 1964) (Puerto Rico 1911–1980) Nereo López Charles Obas Salvador Rizo (Colombia 1920; New York) (Haiti 1927–1968) (Colombia 1768–Colombia 1816) Rolando López Dirube Alejandro Obregón Mariano Rodríguez (Havana Cuba 1928–Puerto Rico 1997) (Colombia 1920–1992) (Cuba 1912–1990) Arturo López Rodezno Ryan Oduber Melquíades Rosario Sastre (Honduras 1906–1975) (Aruba 1960) (Puerto Rico 1953) Brent Malone Enrique Olario Sheena Rose (Bahamas 1941–2004) (Curacao 1891–1977) (Barbados 1985) Rafael Ottón Solís Quirós José Ruiz (Great Britain 1900–Jamaica 1987) (Costa Rica 1983) (Puerto Rico 1936) Tirzo Martha Joseph Pennell Lázaro Saavedra (Curaçao 1965) (Pennsylvania 1860–New York 1926) (Cuba 1964) Ed Martin Enoc Pérez Kevin Sampson (United States, active early 20th (Puerto Rico 1967; New York) (New Jersey 1954) century) David Pérez Karmadavis G.C.F. (Gerrit) Schouten Julio Tomás Martínez (Dominican Republic 1976; Guatemala) (Suriname 1779–1839) (Puerto Rico 1878–1954) Suzanne Perlman William Edouard Scott Luis Martínez Pedro (Hungary 1923; Curaçao/London) (Indiana 1884–Illinois 1964) (Cuba 1910–1990) Marcel Pinas Emilcar “Simil” Similien Leo Matiz (Suriname 1971) (Haiti 1944) (Colombia 1917–1998) Jorge Pineda Soublette et fils Raymond Médélice (Dominican Republic 1961) (Curaçao, early 20th century) (France 1956; Martinique) Fidelio Ponce de León Cornelis Springer Fritz George Melbye (Cuba 1895–1949) (Netherlands 1817–1891) (Denmark 1826–1896) René Portocarrero J. A. Stewart Héctor Méndez Caratini (Cuba 1912–1985) (Great Britain 1931–Barbados 2011) (Puerto Rico 1949) David Pottinger Reba Stewart Ana Mendieta (Jamaica 1911–2004) (Michigan 1930–1971) (Cuba 1948–New York 1985) Lucien Price Ti–Bute Peter Minshall (Haiti 1915–1963) (Haiti, active 20th century) (Guyana 1941; Trinidad) Mavis Pusey Ricardo Toribio Philip Alphonso Moore (Jamaica 1928; Virginia) (Dominican Republic 1965) (Guyana 1921) Sonnylal Rambisoon Rafael Trelles Armando Morales Sequeira (Trinidad 1926–1995) (Puerto Rico 1957) (Nicaragua 1927–Miami 2011) Belkis Ramírez Rafael Tufiño Rubén Moreira (Dominican Republic 1957) (New York 1922–Puerto Rico 2008) (Puerto Rico 1922–1984) K. Khalfani Ra Adán Vallecillo Auguste Morisot (Jamaica 1958) (Honduras 1977) (France 1857–1951) Omari Ra/Robert Cookhorne/Afrikan Humberto Vélez (Jamaica 1960) (Panama 1965)

26 William (Guillermo) Wiedemann Agustín Cárdenas Núria Güell (Germany 1905–Miami 1969) (Cuba 1927–2001) (Spain 1981) Golde White Jean Chaffanjon Lorenzo Homar (Barbados 1890–1977) (France 1854–Indonesia 1913) (Puerto Rico 1913–2004) Julio Zadik Albert Chong Hector Hyppolite (Guatemala 1916–2002) (Jamaica 1958; Denver) (Haiti 1894–1948) Jules Louis Philippe Coignet Dudley Irons (France 1798–1860) (Jamaica, active late 20th century) Jaime Colson Marisa Jahn (Dominican Republic 1901–1975) (Ecuador 1977; New York) The Studio Museum Renée Cox Elis Juliana IN Harlem (Jamaica 1960; New York) (Curaçao 1927)

Elia Alba Pierre–Jean David d’Angers Kapo/Mallica Reynolds (New York 1962) (France 1788–1856) (Jamaica 1911–1989) Thierry Alet Annalee Davis Joseph Bartholomew Kidd ( 1965; New York) (Barbados 1963) (Great Britain 1808–1889) Jennifer Allora Louis Auguste De Sainson Víctor Patricio Landaluze (Pennsylvania 1974; Puerto Rico) and (Paris 1800/1801–1887) (Spain 1827–Cuba 1889) Guillermo Calzadilla Pablo Delano Hugo Larsen (Cuba 1971; Puerto Rico) (Puerto Rico 1954; Connecticut) (Denmark 1875–1950) John James Audubon Edouard Duval Carrié Jacob Lawrence (Saint Domingue 1785–New York 1851) (Haiti 1954; Miami) (New Jersey 1917–Washington 2003) Belkis Ayón Sandra Eleta Gabriel Lévêque (Cuba 1967–1999) (Panama 1942) (Haiti 1923) David Bade Carlos Enríquez Arturo Lindsay (Curaçao 1970) (Cuba 1900–1957) (Panama 1946; Atlanta) Castera Bazile Gustavo Esquina Christopher López (Haiti 1923–1966) (Panama 1979) (New York 1984) Romare Bearden Alexis Esquivel Carlos Jesús Martínez Dominguez/ (North Carolina 1911–New York 1988) (Cuba 1968; Spain) FEEGZ (North Carolina 1976; New York) José Bedia Richard Evans (Cuba 1959; Miami) (British 1784–1871) Armando Menocal (Cuba 1863–1942) Wilson Bigaud Eugenio Fernández Granell (Haiti 1931) (Spain 1912–2001) Eugenio Merino (Spain 1975) William Blake Carlos Garaicoa (Great Britain 1757–1827) (Cuba 1967; Spain) Armando Morales Sequeira (Nicaragua 1927–2011) David Boxer Wilfredo García Domenech (Jamaica 1946) (Spain 1935–Dominican Republic 1988) Rachelle Mozman (New York 1972) Agostino Brunias James Gillray (Italy c.1730–Dominica 1796) (Britain 1756–1815) Hubert Neal (United States 1977) Henry Buquet Anne–Louis Girodet–Trioson (France, active late 18th century) (France 1767–1824) Philomé Obin (Haiti 1891–1986) Dennis O. Callwood Jacques–Enguerrand Gourgue (St. Thomas 1942) (Haiti 1930–1996) Sénèque Obin (Haiti 1893–1977) Antonio Canova Stanley Greaves (Italy 1757–1822) (Guyana 1934)

27 Artist List by Venue

The Studio Museum IN Harlem (Continues)

Ebony G. Patterson Denis Vergin (Jamaica 1981; Kentucky) (Haiti 1928) Geandy Pavón Derek Walcott (Cuba 1974; New Jersey) (St. Lucia 1930; St. Lucia/New York) René Peña William Ward (Cuba 1957) (Great Britain 1762–1826) after Mather Brown (U.S. 1761–1831) Victor Marie Picot (France 1740–1805) after Hank Willis Thomas Charles Jean Robineau (New Jersey 1976; New York) (active by 1780 died c.1787) Julio Augusto Zachrisson René Portocarrero (Panama 1930) (Cuba 1912–1985) Francisco Zúñiga Julio Pou (Costa Rica 1912–1998) (Dominican Republic 1862–1943) Max Pou (Dominican Republic 1926–2007) We regret any misinformation in the Artist List and appreciate updated Emilia Prieto information. (Costa Rica 1902–1986) Jesús Natalio Puras Penzo (Apeco) (Dominican Republic 1933–2010) Raquel Quijano Feliciano (Puerto Rico 1972) Jhafis Quintero (Panama 1973; Costa Rica) José Diaz (Costa Rica 1966) and María Montero Zeledón (Burdeos 1970; Costa Rica) George Robertson (Great Britain 1748–1788) G.C.F. (Gerrit) Schouten (Suriname 1779–1839) William Edouard Scott (Indiana 1884–Illinois 1964) Albert Alexander Smith (New York 1896–1940) John Raphael Smith (Great Britain 1752–1812) after George Morland (Great Britain 1763–1804) John Gabriel Stedman (Great Britain/Netherlands 1744–1797) Thomas Stothard (Great Britain 1755–1834) Hervé Télémaque (Haiti 1937; France) Rafael Tufiño (New York 1922–Puerto Rico 2008)

28 Charles Eyck (Curaçao, 1897–1983) Verrpontje (Ferry), 1952 Oil on wood, 26 x 26 in. (67 x 67 cm) Private Collection, Curaçao

29 Lenders to the exhibition

Institutions

The , New Orleans, LA Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture Art & The Art Institute of Artifacts Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, lenox and Tilden Foundation Art Museum of the Americas, Organization of American States, Washington DC Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington DC Barbados Museum and Historical Society The Studio Museum in Harlem, NY The Brant Foundation, Greenwich, CT Tropenmuseum Amsterdam, The Netherlands Museum University of Puerto Rico-Río Piedras, Campus Library System Centrale Bank van Curacao en Sint Maarten UNOCA, Aruba Centro Cultural Eduardo León Jimenes, Santiago, dominican Republic The Wolfsonian-Florida International University, Miami Beach, Florida The Curaçao Museum Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, CT El Museo del Barrio, NY The Robert Blackburn Printmaking Workshop, a program of The Elizabeth Foundation for the Arts, NY And special thanks to Colección Casa Museo Endara, Panamá; Fundación Francisco Coto, Costa Rica; Archivo The Ella Fontanals-Cisneros Collection Miami, FL Nacional de Costa Rica; , Washington Fundación Ortiz-Gurdián, Nicaragua DC; and The Historic New Orleans Collection Hatch-Billops Collection, Inc., NY, for Huie Studio Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington DC Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña Leo Matiz Foundation, Mexico DF The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY Mikvé Israel-Emanuel, Curaçao Milwaukee Art Museum Musée d’Aiquitaine, Ville de Bordeaux, France Museo de Arte-Banco de la República, Bogotá D.C., Colombia Museo de Arte Costarricense Museo Bellapart, , Dominican Republic Museo Historico Arubano Museo Nacional de Colombia The Museum of , New York , Washington DC The National Gallery of Jamaica The New-York Historical Society Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros, New York Ramapo College of New Jersey Vera D. Rubin, courtesy Research Institute for the Study of Man (RISM), a program of The Reed Foundation, NY

30 Private Collections

Desiré Accord Beatriz M. Peña and Jesus J. Peña Marie-Pia & Gerald Alexis Ben Rodriguez-Cubeñas Araujo Family Shelley and Donald Rubin Bacardi Collection Janina Rubinowitz Estate of Nanette Bearden and DC Moore Gallery Jan Tuxen David Beitzel, New York Joseph A. Unanue and Carmen Ana Casal de Unanue John T. Belk III and Margarita Serapion David Wallack and Mango’s Tropical Café, South Beach Estrellita and Daniel Brodsky Wallace Campbell, Kingston, Jamaica Galleries Ramon and Nercys Cernuda ADN Galería, Mireille Chancy Gonzalez The Americas Collection, Coral Gables, FL Carmen G. Correa Galería Arteconsult, Panamá Chocolate Cortés Luhring Augustine, New York Wayne and Myrene Cox Josée Bienvenu Gallery, New York Luis R. de Corral & Lorraine V. de Corral Galerie Louis Carré & Cie, Paris The de Murias Family Cavin-Morris Gallery, New York Pablo Delano and Victor Torcha, Jr. Galleria Continua, San Gimignano/Beijing/Le Moulin Jennifer I. Downey DC Moore Gallery, New York Maud Duquella Dean Project, New York The Farber Collection Henrique Faria Fine Art, New York Dr. Carlyle Farrell Fleisher/Ollman Gallery, Philadelphia Deena and Seymour Freeman Alexander Gray Associates, New York Joyce Gale Nohra Haime Gallery, New York Mila and Anthony Gauvin David Hall Fine Art, Wellesley, MA Verele Ghering-Engels Martha Henry Fine Art, New York Thomas Girolamo & Giovanni Soro Charles Isaacs Photographs Inc., NY Ellinor Hansen Walter Otero Gallery, Puerto Rico Clayton C. Kirking and Edward J. Sullivan Pan American Art Projects, Miami Orjan and Amanda Lindroth, Nassau, Bahamas Luise Ross Gallery, New York Dr. Arturo Lindsay Jack Shainman Gallery, New York Mackie-Damast Family Spanierman Modern, New York Raymond Médélice Transart & Co. La Naval, Murcia Hubert Neal, Jr. Keith and Judy Newhouse And special thanks to all of the artists who lent their own work and the private collectors who wish to remain Benjamin Ortiz anonymous Emilio and Silvia Ortiz Frieda & Ari Pais Ricardo Pau-Llosa

31 Project Director: Elvis Fuentes, Associate Curator-Special Projects, El Museo del Barrio Curatorial Team: Edward J. Sullivan, Helen Gould Sheppard Professor, Professor of , Institute of Fine Arts, New York University; Lowery Stokes Sims, Curator, Museum of Arts and Design, NY; Gérald Alexis, scholar of the Institut Canadien de Quebec, and former Minister of Culture in Haiti; Yolanda Wood Pujols, Director of the Center for Caribbean Studies, Casa de las Americas, Havana, and Professor of Art History at the School of Arts and Letters, University of Havana Institutional Curators: Deborah Cullen, Director of Curatorial Programs, and Rocío Aranda-Alvarado, Curator, El Museo del Barrio; Hitomi Iwasaki, Director of Exhibitions, Queens Museum of Art; and Naima J. Keith, Assistant Curator, The Studio Museum in Harlem

Presenting Sponsor

Leadership Support provided by

Major support provided by The Reed Foundation Rockefeller Brothers Fund

Additional support is provided by the National Endowment of the Arts; Agnes Gund; Bacardi USA; Mondriaan Fund, Amsterdam; Christie’s, Inc.; Maduro & Curiel’s Bank N.V.; Tony Bechara; Ramón and Nercys Cernuda; The Shelley and Donald Rubin Foundation; Dr. Blas A. Reyes; Jacqueline L. Curiel; Susan R. Delvalle; and Elena de Murias.

The exhibition publication is supported by The Dedalus Foundation and Patricia & Howard Farber Foundation. The exhibition and related programs are supported, in part, by public funds from the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs; the New York State Council on the Arts, a State Agency; Speaker Christine Quinn and the New York City Council; Institut Français; the Netherlands Cultural Services; and the Consulate General of the Netherlands in New York.

NYC & Company and Thirteen, a WNET.ORG station, are the lead media partners for this exhibition. Additional media sponsorship is provided by Cablevision, MTA NYC Transit, WABC-TV, and WXTV Univision 41. Special thanks to ARC Magazine, Art Experience: New York City, Bomb, Christie’s, Inc., Flavorpill, and Urban Latino for their additional media support.

design: elviradesigns.com printing: cosmoscommunications.com Padu Lampe (Aruba, 1920) Landscape, 1936 Oil on canvas, 33 ½ x 22 in. (86 x 56 cm) El Museo del Barrio Queens Museum of Art The Studio Museum in Harlem 1230 Flushing Meadows Corona Park 144 West 125th Street New York, NY 10029 Queens, NY 11368 New York, NY 10027 June 12, 2012-January 6, 2013 June 17, 2012-January 6, 2013 June 14-October 21, 2012 For more information, For more information, For more information, visit www.elmuseo.org visit wwww.queensmuseum.org visit www.studiomuseum.org

Cover: Arnaldo Roche Rabell (Puerto Rico, 1955) We Have to Dream in Blue (Tenemos que soñar en azul), 1986 Oil on canvas, 84 x 60 in. (213.4 x 152.4 cm) Collection of John T. Belk III and Margarita Serapion Photo: Courtesy of Walter Otero Gallery