Oz

Volume 20 Article 12

1-1-1998

Materializing through the Skylight

Wayne Michael Charney [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Charney, Wayne Michael (1998) "Materializing through the Skylight," Oz: Vol. 20. https://doi.org/10.4148/ 2378-5853.1323

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by New Prairie Press. It has been accepted for inclusion in Oz by an authorized administrator of New Prairie Press. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Materializing Through The Skylight: How the Crystal Palace Acquired its Architectural Significance

Wayne Michael Charney

The raising oftransept ribs as de­ scribed in The London Illustrated News, December 1850.

Whether or not any structure built for a building architectural legitimacy, and construction practices. The Crystal cambered in a manner somewhat equiv­ a world's fair can ever hope to aspire to how those precepts may change over Palace utilized standardized, pre­ alent to today's prestressing techniques. 1 any sort of enduring architectural time. So persistent and recurrent are fabricated, mass produced, inter­ significance that extends well beyond references to the Crystal Palace in changeable parts. The logistics of When it is neither the construction the short life span of the exposition for virtually all histories of modern construction were ingenious to the point process nor a structural detail of the which it was built is a question that has architecture that we are necessarily that even the wooden planks which at Crystal Palace which is assessed as its already been much debated and perhaps compelled to decipher the dichotomy first fenced in the construction site later single most prophetic or significant settled in the affirmative especially for that exists between its original inception found a practical purpose as floorboards architectural feature, then surely it is the some of the more visually exciting and as utilitarian building versus its eventual within the finished exhibition hall. The building's final formal aspect or its experimental contemporary exhibition interpretation as architecture. monumentality of the construction task stunning spatial effect to which we today pavilions. Until recently, however, we can be quantified: 3300 cast-iron turn to justify the Crystal Palace as a had generally agreed that exposition Currently, the Crystal Palace is columns fitted into a foundation of legitimate piece of architecture. It is just buildings, because of their very nature considerecl to be a remarkable and horizontal pipes which doubled as exactly because so much of its bold as temporary structures, could not influential piece of architecture. It has, drainpipes, 2224 principal girders, 205 aesthetic, its transparent walls, its filigree ordinarily be expected to advance with in fact, become somewhat standard miles of wooden sash bars to hold structure and its spectacular light­ great strides the state of the art and practice for historians to label it a sort 293,655 individual panes of glass in flooded effects of materiality dissolving science of architecture. Such exposition of prototype or great progenitor for all place. This 900,000 square-foot surface into atmosphere have all been revived buildings, rather, were intended to serve that later modern architecture that also area of glass curtain wall and roof countless times in the metal-and-glass only the moment and with rare employs metal-and-glass construction equalled one-third of England's total architecture of this century now coming exception did any one of them stand techniques in any conceptually glass production just eleven years earlier to a close that the Crystal Palace is able our as an unprecedented or substantive significant way,. Although we fully in 1840. The Crystal Palace covered to claim an architectural noteworthiness. architectural accomplishment. How­ realize that the development of 20th­ nearly 19 acres of land and enclosed 33 Indeed, in a culture that is today ever, one very singular exception to this century architecture is much too million cubic feet of space at a cost of increasingly mesmerized by the virtual generalization comes to mind-the complicated to be so simply stated and about one penny per cubic foot. The reality of things, Joseph Paxton, designer London Crystal Palace of 1851. It is this that the Crystal Palace stood on end does structural details of the Crystal Palace of the Crystal Palace, might be justifiably building, which housed the very first not render unto us the John Hancock foretold, too, many 20th-century hailed as the originator of an incipient world's fair, and the continually Center or the Sears Tower, it is construction techniques. Cross bracing example of architectural intangibility; changing attitudes toward it over the fundamentally true nonetheless that the of wrought-iron tie rods provided lateral however, both he and most of his last century and a half that will serve Crystal Palace was the first magnificently stiffness along with a rudimentary form contemporaries judged the Crystal as the nexus of our attempts to large-scaled example of all those of portal bracing wherein columns were Palace to be not a masterful display of understand what it is that gives a industrial processes and methods which joined to trusses along their full depths, infinite architectural possibilities but a 48 building substance, what it is that gives are today so much a part of architectural and the trusses themselves were masterpiece of eminently practical Turnock's Brewster Apartments. 1893. Photos courtesy ofCarl W Condit.

construction techniques and straightfor­ century historian James Fergusson, who of Stones of Venice, were "eternally apparently outlandish High Victorian ward utilitarian building. in 1862 published his classic History of separated from all good and great things Gothic architect, wrote in 1862 that a the Modern Styles of Architecture, best by a gulph which not all the tubular "new style of architecture, as remarkable To the Victorian, truly valid rep resents the standard Victorian bridges nor engineering of ten thousand as any of its predecessors, may be architecture-that is, the high art of interpretation of the question, "Though nineteenth centuries cast into one great considered to have been inaugurated" in building-had to satisfy three major an admirable piece of Civil bronze-foreheaded century could ever the Crystal Palace. Incidentally, Harris requirements: it had to be of a traditional Engineering," he wrote, "[the Crystal overpass one inch of."4 It remains a titled his article "What is Arch­ building type, it had to have been Palace] had no claim to be considered marvelous sentence to utter even to this itecture?"7 Sir George Gilbert Scott constructed of traditional materials, and as an architectural design. " 2 In day, but certainly it no longer stands as wrote in 1858 that the "triumph of it had to convey in its final form a sense Fergusson's mind, the Crystal Palace the universal and irrevocable law which modern metallic construction [was of monumentality or permanence. The lacked some of the crucial elements of Ruskin once thought it to be. In fact, as opening] out a perfectly new field for Crystal Palace failed to meet all three of true architecture, specifically ornament Nikolaus Pevsner has noted, within that architectural development" in a most those criteria: it was an exposition and a sense of durability. It was seriously small group of very few buildings of the self-evident way. 8 Yet in the final building, not a temple or a palace or a deficient in decoration and solidity, and 1850s which did employ the Crystal analysis both of these Gothic tomb; it employed glass and metal Fergusson doubted whether any glass Palace aesthetic and yet were labeled revivalists would probably have shied almost entirely in its construction, not building could ever impart the quality architecture with a capital A, there exists away from the use of Crystal Palace brick or stone; and its skeletal nature of permanence which, he argued, was one to which Ruskin himself had helped techniques except as an expediency in made it look impermanent and fragile, the most indispensable characteristic of (at least indirectly) to give form-the very rare or unusual commissions. its glass skin denied its bulk and any architecture in the strictest sense. University Museum at Oxford.5 Its concomitant substance, and its very wonderful metal-and-glass exhibi-tion Horace Greeley, the prodigious purpose required that it stand Actually, it was the great art critic John courtyard captures some of the feeling American newspaper editor and one of temporarily for only a few months, not Ruskin who had been the first to that its greater progenitor must have the official observers for the United for centuries. How then can we challenge those who had cloaked the conveyed. Ruskin, therefore, could not States at the 18 51 Fair, summed up the explain this paradox? Is the Crystal Crystal Palace with the mantle of have been so blind to the readily whole matter in this manner: Palace to be regarded as architecture architectural respectability. As he so discernible architectonic possibilities or as mere building? succinctly phrased it, the Crystal Palace inherent within the Crystal Palace The Crystal Palace, which covers and was "neither a palace nor of crystal."3 after all.6 protects all, is better than any one thing it Our present attitude regarding that He protested against the delusion that contains, it is really a fairy wonder, and is which is architecture differs markedly Paxton had created a new style of A few of his contemporaries were even a work ofinestimable value as a suggestion from, or is at least significantly broader architecture when he had merely more willing to concede to Paxton's for future architecture ... Depend upon it, than, what Victorians would have magnified a conservatory. Glass and achievement a modicum of architectural stone and timber will have to stand back · defined as architecture. The 19th- iron, wrote Ruskin in his 1851 edition legitimacy. Thomas Harris, an for iron and glass hereafter, to an extent 49 not yet conceivable. The triumph of Francisco, Willis Polk, who was not architects in lateryears." 13 Indeed, while dram. It was not, he claimed, "a fossilized Paxton is perfect, and heralds a licensed to practice architecture yet this first heroic generation of modern museum piece ... but a precept as revolution.9 holds claim to the design of what many architects was generally reluctant to inspiring as the Parthenon, an exemplar 16 historians regard to be the first true glass acknowledge any historicism in their vital as the Pont du Gard." In short, Thus, Greeley did not speak of the curtain wall in a large urban structure, work at all, the Crystal Palace was the Shand placed it amongst the great works Crystal Palace as a tangibly pedantic acknowledged the debt he owed to one exception to their rule. No one less of architecture, a work of architecture piece of architecture itself existing Paxton's building when he used the than Le Corbusier himself invoked the as much as Stonehenge or Ely Cathedral within pinpointed temporal limits; but words "The Crystal Palace" to caption majesty and hard won respect of the were works of architecture, complete he invested it, instead, within an almost an early perspective of his Hallidie Crystal Palace in order to inveigh against with a fabled existence that transcended mythic power that could conjure up Building, which was itself roundly all of those academics and reactionaries the corporeality of the materials out of apparitions of some future course of belittled as "frontless" by critics of that who had accused him of dementia and which any of them had actually been development for modern architecture. time. They ridiculed its lack of the International Style of monotony. Le built. The opening of the Crystal Palace Nevertheless, the Crystal Palace propriety and called its fragility Corbusier wrote: on 1 May 18 51 marked the beginning apparently delighted Greeley and his dangerous. 11 of a new architectural style in Shand's contemporaries in a manner which was When, two years ago, I saw the Crystal opinion. His views were reinforced by a typical of even the best derivative works At about this same time, Sir Edwin Palace for the Last time, I could not tear spate of books with publication dates of architecture of that day. Lutyens, an English architect practicing my eyes from the spectacle ofits triumphant that clustered neatly around the year of in an eccentric historicizing mode, could harmony. The lesson was so tremendous the Crystal Palace's immolation. In his And so for many years the Crystal Palace poke fun at that now worn and musty that it made me feel how puny our own 1936 book Pioneers of the Modern remained a guilty pleasure, not quite anachronism of the still surviving attempts still are. But,. I felt, too, how Movement, Pevsner claimed that he had architecture and yet something a bit reincarnation of the Crystal Palace at eminently justifiable and practicable our detected in the monumental Crystal more special than the usual greenhouse Sydenham. To the query of what should proposals are, ifonly they get a chance.14 Palace a new assertion of faith in iron or railroad shed. When was it exactly be done with the glass hall (its form construction as architecture; Sigfried that the Crystal Palace achieved its swollen by three transepts and barrel Le Corbusier claimed that the reac­ Giedion extolled the hall's more visually legitimacy as architecture, when did the vaults over all) Lutyens wryly responded, tionary spirit was crushing a new dazzling aspects in his classic book Space, fairy tale vision acquire credible "Put it under glass." 12 By the early 1900s modern style, and he felt the outrage Time and Architecture of 1941; substance? The apotheosis of the Crystal the Crystal Palace had become a sort of all the more strongly because the Christopher Hobhouse published his Palace from artifact of 19th-century oddity or curiosity in a world now Crystal Palace no longer survived as a book enti tied 18 5 1 and the Crystal building craft to paragon of high boiling over once more with all manner witness in his defense. The Crystal Palace in the year after the great fire; and building art paralleled to a remarkably of historical revivals. Palace had been destroyed by fire on Paxton's granddaughter, Violet close degree the changing definition of the evening of30 November 1936, and Markham, wrote was then the definitive architecture itself in the modern era. All The redefinition of architecture has been Le Corbusier's words, as recorded in biography on her ancestor Paxton and the while, the Crystal Palace served as a an intrinsic part of the development of a Architectural Review, stood as a the Bachelor Duke just one year before sort of touchstone of modernity. When modern 20th-century style, and this eulogy. He concluded his tribute with the fire . Incidentally, Markham opined the Chicago School began to heal the redefinition reached its most crucial these visionary meditations: that both her grandfather and his work 17 great schism, or "gulph" as Ruskin had phase with the formulation and had fallen into a state of oblivion. called it, between architecture and dissemination of the tenets of modern ... we have more need than ever of the engineering, Crystal Palace techniques design in the 1920s and 1930s. assurance that we can forge ahead-more Obviously, that was not the case, for the emerged as predominant elements of Assessments of the architectural import need than ever of not being afraid to see attention paid to the now vanished that mediating architectural vocabulary. of the Crystal Palace during those same too dearly or too big. Crystal Palace in the decade of its The Chicago School is replete with years perfectly reflected the corpus of destruction probably helped to solidify examples of glass-covered atria and concurrent reformulations of modern That "uniformity, "ofwhich so much has its architectural character as much as the courtyards. Even a mediocre Chicago architectural canon. That is to say, the been heard among the various arguments grudging but growing acceptance of the School architect such as Enoch Hill architectural legitimacy of the Crystal used to assail the New Architecture, International Style was serving to Turnock, an obscure product ofWilliam Palace was coincident with and, in fact, offered a convincing example of its legitimize it. The 1930s was a decade of LeBaron Jenney's office, could mutually dependent upon the plastic possibilities in the Crystal Palace, intense experimentation on and produce a masterpiece which paid justification and acceptance of the so­ where all was grandeur and simpficity. 15 investigation into the matter of glass homage to Paxton's great structure. called International Style. In his 1940 in architecture. The era was dubbed 18 Turnock's 1893 design for the Lincoln book An Introduction to Modern Others, too, paid their respects to the "The Age ofGlass." Therefore, in no Park Palace Apartments, now the Architecture, J. M. Richards, noted critic legendary Crystal Palace. P. Morton small measure did the acceptance of Brewster Apartments, featured an airy, and editor of the Architectural Review, Shand criticized the press for treating the glass as part and parcel of the glass-topped atrium which was claimed that the 18 51 London Crystal building's demise as a local sensation International Style baggage as well as crisscrossed with footbridges paved Palace "was only rediscovered as a thing which barely exceeded in its level of its acceptance at long last as a so with glass block. 10 And in 1917 in San of architectural significance by modern interest the bulk of daily journalistic respectable building material con- Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill. Sears Transept ofthe Crystal Palace awaiting the Dallas Infomart, 1984. Tower Entry Pavilion. 1985. entry ofQueen Victoria. I May 1851. tribute to the interpretation of the Crystal Palace into the Garden Grove canonical work is this Infomart (it is, be built by a contractor who normally Crystal Palace as important Crystal Cathedral is, at present, barely as a matter of fact, clad with silver specialized in the fabrication of vessels architecturally. perceptible as a force that has had any reflective glazing and cast aluminum for the nuclear industry-was the sort of influence at all in molding panels that mimic the original in irreducible core of the Crystal Palace, a By 1950, when both Philip Johnson and contemporary architectural preferences. benumbingly finite detail) that one is rather conservative-looking barrel­ Ludwig Mies van der Rohe had Consider, as well, the 1985 glass­ stupefied by the glaring absence of any vaulted atrium space endeavoring to completed their landmark glass houses, arcaded addition to the Sears Tower. real wit that might have otherwise replicate the most identifiable qualities no one would demand any longer that This entry pavilion seems to stand playfully exploited the irony of housing of Paxton's venerable old temple made the Crystal Palace had to justifY itself as timidly and uncomfortably next to the cyber technology showrooms in a of glass. 2 1 Paradoxically, the spitting architecture. The legacy of the Crystal glass behemoth it serves; it is hardly the "virtual" copy of the authentic Crystal image of the rather dowdy old lady of Palace, as embodied in its particular grand gesture the architects must have Palace exhibition halJ.2° the Crystal Palace herself held court at brand of modern aesthetic sensibilities intended because both its scale and its the center of all that new technological and its construction techniques alike, historicizing form appear so discordant At the close of the present century, the flux emanating from Rogers's agile was by this time too much a part of and feeble when juxtaposed with what specter of the Crystal Palace has once imagination. What had been in the contemporary architecture. Indeed, R. was, up until 1997, the world's tallest more loomed large and architecturally mid-19th century undeniably non­ Furneaux Jordan titled his Crystal Palace building. The parody comes all the more relevant in its ability to exert still very architectural was now the only thing of centennial anniversary article in the sharply into focus when one realizes that palpable influence upon the critically real, immutable substance and RIBA Journal "The Architectural both parts of the Sears Tower were noteworthy and, therefore, highly architectural validity within an Significance of 1851."19 designed by the same firm and that that credible work of the so-called British otherwise indeterminate proposition for firm, Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, "high-tech" architects. As the Richard some sort of "high-tech" paradigm. The Crystal Palace had, fortunately, once the bastion of a duly inherited set Rogers design for the new Lloyd's of When Queen Elizabeth II, in eery escaped history's relegation of it to of idealistic Miesian principles, had London took shape in the early 1980s, verisimilitude to her illustrious utilitarian anonymity, bur it still had not apparently felt compelled to it was apparent to even the most casual predecessor Queen Victoria at the yet escaped attempts to mimic its compromise its integrity in order to stay observer that a Crystal Palace parti sat opening of the London Crystal Palace, significance. Such parodies furnish proof in vogue. In the process, the lessons at the very heart of an otherwise officially dedicated the new insurance to many architectural observers of the which could have been learned from the technologically radical building design. headquarters in November 1986, the shallow faddishness and trivialized Crystal Palace have been reduced to a Preserved, even cocooned, deep within picture was complete and the odyssey insubstantiality of that contemporary sort of architectural trivia. This satire a external perimeter committed formally of the Crystal Palace had come nearly body of architecture that has been called became even more absurd when, in to the exposition of mechanical systems full circle. 22 Post-Modernism. For instance, while 1984, the new computer merchandise and service equipment- stair towers and lauded at the time, Philip Johnson's mart in Dallas was completed. So 33 prefabricated "clip-on" toilet modules In the end it is appropriate that the 197 6 near-literal translation of the exacting a replica of Paxton's great so new in concept that they could only Crystal Palace should have been 51 invested with its last iota of architectural expeditious means by which the respectability from yet another English could quickly and eco­ experimental exhibition pavilion built nomically reformulate in one place at by the British themselves for yet another one particular point in time the world's fair. In explaining his concept accumulated essence of earlier, more for the British Pavilion at the 1992 substantive English cultural Seville Expo, Nicholas Grimshaw achievements including, of course, unabashedly and forthrightly hailed those achievements in the realm of Paxton's work as the great progenitor of bona-fide, historically ratified works nearly all contemporary architecture of of architecture. While the opening of any cutting-edge significance. He said, the London Crystal held the world's "A lot of a!chitects who are practising undivided attention in May 1851, the traditional British architecture, such as following lines of poetry were Foster, Rogers and Hopkins, have circulated among the masses to Paxton's Crystal Palace in their describe the momentous occasion: background as a root building."23 To the outside of this technoid-age glass-box As I slept, I dreamt I was within a temple made of glass, offshoot of the Crystal Palace Grimshaw In which there were more images Queen Elizabeth II officially dedicates Ri­ grafted energy-saving gadgets including Of gold, standing in sundry stages chard Roger's Lloyd's of London. The roof sails with integrated solar cells and In some rich tabernacle, Times, 19 November 1986. a water wall by which the front facade And with more jewels, more pinnacles, of the pavilion was cooled with curtains And more curious portraitures, of water cascading over its surface. And quaint manner of figures of the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Messiah oratorio. It encapsulated, in one Indeed, because Britain was a maritime Of gold work, than I saw ever. London. 25 Their intent also was, in part, swelling lyrical evocation of all that was nation-naval battles, shipping, the to link the Crystal Palace to England's thoroughly English, that triumphant Thames, the Channel Tunnel-all Then saw I stand on either side, grandest cultural traditions in general human effort that had also created the Straight down to the doors wide throughout its long history, water and to its most respectable building Crystal Palace. Surely, there was no more From the dais many a pillar traditions in particular. While Chaucer's transcendent work of architecture in the became the theme for Grimshaw's Of metal that shone out full and clear. imaginative building design in general. poem presumed, in actual fact, to world then when the Crystal Palace Furthermore, the interior volume ofhis Then gan I look about, and see describe a fabled Greek temple, a style opened on 1 May 1851. glass pavilion he likened to a cathedral, That there came entring in the hall of architecture that the poet had never and he praised the enormous human A right great company withal, seen firsthand, his imagery was Chaucer had seemingly predicted it all; effort that was poured into the And that of sundry regions necessarily derived from the most and in manipulating his vision, the building's design and fabrication. Of all kinds of conditions imposing sort of architecture he could Victorian admirers of the Crystal Palace Grimshaw regarded his work, on what That dwell in earth beneath the moon, have readily observed in his own time simultaneously coupled this remarkable Poor and rich. was admittedly nothing more than a and locale-an English Gothic piece of mere engineering with both the cathedral. 26 Thus, when Chaucer spoke most solid of English traditions and the "demonstration building," to be "a way Such a great congregation of those metal-like pillars that are so most formidable of Western cultural of pulling us back to the real values of Of folks as I saw roam about, architecture" after an appalling period Some within and some without, premonitory of the cast-iron columns of cornerstones. Like the contemporary of regrettable architectural taste in the Was never seen nor shall be no more! the Crystal Palace, he was actually "high-tech" British architects who now 1980s.24 He claimed that his design had envisioning the darker colonnettes of imitate his methods and who come to represent the spirit of the polished stone affixed to the main piers polemicize for legitimacy in their present age. These elegiac bits of verse, from a much of a nave space like that at Salisbury. works as well, Paxton exploited a fresh longer poem entitled "The House of Similarly, chroniclers of the Crystal set of technical possibilities-in his In this respect Grimshaw was aspiring Fame," were written by Geoffrey Palace adopted the entire lexicon of case, metal-and-glass construction to re-engage the very purpose and Chaucer in 1372! Now, Chaucer was ecclesiastical architecture terms to techniques-in order to materialize, ultimate objective of the London hardly a visionary who could foresee the describe its various elements-nave, side out of nothing of apparent substance Crystal Palace. For if the Crystal Palace world renowned status of his nation at aisles, transept, gallery, and so on. The or real lasting importance, a grand set any precedent at all in the minds some distant future point in time. To opening ceremony, at which were synthesis of his age. His genius­ of the Victorians, it was not as the the contrary, it turns out that these gathered the Queen, the Archbishop, indeed, the genius behind all true objectified manifesto for some new fragments of the heroic poet's work had and heroes and dignitaries from "sundry architecture-lay in the ability to invest style of architecture; but rather its been cut apart, reshuffled, and then regions" the world over, culminated with old concepts with startling new power. clever exploitation of available reconstituted by certain Victorian literati the jubilant performance of the 52 technology was seen as the most to describe more fittingly the sensations "Hallelujah Chorus" from Handel's The Crystal Palace. Destroyed by fire, 30 November 1936

Notes l.Folke T. Kihlstedt, "The Crystal Palace," the Museum's final form was largely indirect 12.Christopher Hussey, "The Personality of 26. B. G. Koonce, Chaucer and the Tradition Scientific American 251 (October 1984): the result of the effect of his writings on the Sir Edwin Lutyens," RIBA]ourna/76 (April ofFame: Symbolism in the "House of Fame" 133-139. Kihlstedt's article is the best of architects. He did, however, contribute some 1969): 145. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, several recent studies which attempt to decorative designs for the building. See Eve 13.Richards, p. 66. 1966), passim. establish the architectural legitimacy of the Blau, Ruskinian Gothic: TheArchiureofDeane 14.Le Corbusier, "A Tribute," Architectural Crystal Palace on the basis of its construction and Woodward, 1845-186J,(Princeton: Review 81 (February 19 3 7): 72. logistics and advanced structural techniques. Princeton University Press, 1982), especially 15.Ibid.l6. P. Morton Shand, "The Crystal Even earlier rediscoveries of the modern pp. 67,72,78. Palace as Structure and Precedent," architectonic qualities of the Crystal Palace ?.Thomas Harris, 'What is Architecture?" Architectural Review 81 (February 1937): 65. include: Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of the Examples of the Architecture of the Victorian 17.Markham, p. ix. Modern Movement, From William Morris to Age (London: Darton and Hodge, 1862),p. 57. 18.See, for example, "The Glass Age Arrives," Walter Gropius (London: Faber and Faber, 8.George Gilbert Scott, Remarks on Secular Architectural Forum 68 (February 1938): 1936); ]. M. Richards, An Introduction to and Domestic Architecture (London:]. supplement 17-28. Modern Architecture (Harmondsworth: Murray, 1858), pp. 109-110. 19. R. FurneauxJordan, "The Architectural Penguin Books Ltd.,1940); Sigfried Giedion, 9.Horace Greeley, Glances at Europe in a Significance of 1851," RIBA]ournal58 Quly Space, Time and Architecture (Cambridge, Series of Letters from Great Britain, France, 1951): 340-348. Massachusetts: Harvard Universiry Press, Italy, Switzerland, Ec. (New York: Dewitt and 20. "Palatial Hall Design Spans the 1941); and James M. Fitch, "The Palace, the Davenport, 1851), p. 19. Centuries," Engineering News Record2l3 (6 Bridge and the Tower," Architectural Forum 10."Synopsis of Building News," Inland December 1984): 32-33,36. The Infomart, 87 (October 1947): 88-95. Architect20 (December 1892):58. Also see or more properly the International 2.James Fergusson, History of the Modern Carl W. Condit, The Chicago School of Information Processing Market Center, was Styles ofArchitecture, second edition (London: Architecture (Chicago: University of Chicago designed by architect Martin C. Growald of John Murray, 1873), p. 556. Press, 1964), pp. 157-158. Fort Worth, Texas. The building measures 3.Ruskin quoted in Violet R. Markham, 11.Keith W. Dills, "The Hallidie Building," 492 feet by 540 feet in plan. Paxton and the Bachelor Duke (London: Journal of the Society of Architectural 21. Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre, Hodder and Stoughton, 1935), p. 220. Historians 30 (December 1971 ): 324,327. Architecture in Europe: Memory and Invention 4.John Ruskin, The Stones of Venice (New In something of a show of profound modesty, Since 1968 (London: Thames and Hudson York: John Wiley, 1851), p. 412. Polk's self-appraisal of his work of that of a Ltd., 1992), pp. 157-158. 5.Pevsner, p. 135. "master builder" rather than that of an 22. "Queen praises futuristic tower of glass," 6.Ruskin did, however, criticize the execution "architect" would, therefore, tend to render The Times (19 November 1986):24. of Woodward's design for the Oxford his work something less th~n traditionally 23. Nicholas Grimshaw and Richard University Museum. Admittedly, the "architectural" in the lingering 19th-century Haryott, "Solar-powered Pavilion," RIBA building was for Ruskin more important as sense of the word. Also see Nory Miller, journal99 (October 1992): 32. a cause-the revival of the Gothic-than as "Down and Dirty in 1917," Progressive 24. Ibid., p. 35. an architectural design. Ruskin's influence on Architecture62 (November 1981): 108. 25. Markham, p. 210. 53