INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTING SCIENCE ISSN NO: 0972-1347

A REVIEW ON CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

*A Bharath Kumar ** S Hemanth Sai *** K. Suresh Kumar

* Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Jaya Pakash Narayan College of Engineering, Telangana, India ** Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Nalla Narasimha Reddy Group of Institutions, Telangana, India *** Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Nalla Narasimha Reddy Group of Institutions, Telangana, India

ABSTRACT

The bridge was necessity since ancient days to cross rivers, valleys, hills etc, the first bridge may be the fallen tree over these obstacles, further with the advancement of civil engineering so many types of came into existence like "Steel and RCC bridges", and now a days it is symbol of development for any country. The necessity and various types of bridges included in this review with history of worldwide and Indian bridges and there classification based on material used for the purpose. Keywords: Bridge, Civil engineering, Construction technology

INTRODUCTION TYPES OF BRIDGES AND ITS SUITABILITY A Bridge is a structure providing passage Details of components, classification and over an obstacle without closing the way suitability of different Bridges are as beneath. The required passage may be for a follows: road, a railway, pedestrians, a canal or a Components of Bridge pipeline. The obstacle to be crossed may be The bridge structure comprises of the a river, a road, railway or a valley. In other following parts: words, bridge is a structure for carrying the Superstructure or Decking: This includes road traffic or other moving loads over a slab, girder, truss, etc. This bears the load depression or obstruction such as channel, passing over it and transmits the forces road or railway. A bridge is an arrangement caused by the same to the substructures. made to cross an obstacle in the form of a Bearings : The bearings transmit the load low ground or a stream or a river without received from the decking on to the closing the way beneath. substructure and are provided for distribution of the load evenly over the IMPORTANCE OF BRIDGE substructure material which may not have sufficient bearing strength to bear the Bridges have always been an important part superstructure load directly. of our environment. They have been major Substructure: This comprises piers and subjects of literature and art, both – ancient abutments, wing walls or returns and their and modern. Wars have been fought over foundation. bridges and in many cases the capture of Piers and Abutments: These are vertical strategic structure has had a pronounced structures supporting deck/bearing provided effect on the final outcome of the war, for transmitting the load down to the bridges have been the centre of village or bed/earth through foundation. city life. Today the structural engineer has at Wing walls and Returns: These are his disposal the most powerful analytical provided as extension of the abutments to tool ever imagined, the digital computer; retain the earth of approach bank which this instrument can perform in a matter of otherwise has a natural angle of repose. minutes a volume of calculations that would Foundation: This is provided to transmit have previously taken years. the load from the piers or abutments and wings or returns to and evenly distribute the load on to the strata. This is to be provided

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sufficiently deep so that it is not affected by Figure: 2 shows the Through Bridge the scour caused by the flow in the river and does not get undermined. While the above Semi through bridges: The semi-through mentioned are structurally operational parts, bridge has its deck midway and the deck for safety hand rails or parapets, guard rails load is transmitted to the girder through the or curbs are provided over the decking in web of the girder. In this also, the main order to prevent vehicle or user from falling girders are on either side of deck. into the stream or for the separation of traffic streams.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGE

According to the flexibility of superstructure as fixed span bridges or movable bridges. Fixed span superstructure: In case of fixed span superstructure, the superstructure Figure: 3 shows the Semi - through Bridge remains in a fixed position and most of the bridges are of this category. According to the inter-span relations as Movable span bridges: In case of movable simple, continuous or cantilever bridges span superstructure, the superstructure is Simply supported: Generally width of lifted or moved with the help of some bridge is divided into number of individual suitable arrangement. spans. For each span, the load carrying According to the position of bridge floor member is simply supported at both ends. relative to the formation level and the The plate girder and truss girders are used as highest flood discharge as deck bridges, this type of bridges. They are suitable at through bridges or semi through bridges. places where uneven settlements of Deck bridges: Deck-type bridges refer to foundations are likely to take place. those in which the road deck is carried on Continuous: In continuous bridges spans the top flange or on top of the supporting are continuous over two or more supports. girders. The deck slab or sleeper may They are statically indeterminate structures. cantilever out to some extent beyond the They are useful when uneven settlement of extreme longitudinal girder. supports does not take place. In continuous bridges the bending moment anywhere in the span is considerably less than that in case of simply supported span. Such reduction of bending moment ultimately results in the economic section for the bridge. In continuous bridges the stresses are reduced due to negative moments developed at pier or supports. Thus continuous span bridges have considerable Figure: 1 shows the Deck Bridge saving compared to simply supported bridge construction. Through bridges: In the through type Advantages of RCC continuous girder bridges, the decking is supported by the bridges over simply supported girder bottom flange of the main supporting bridges. girders provided on either side. 1. As the bearings are placed on the centre line of piers, the reactions at piers are transmitted centrally. 2. It is found that the continuous girder bridge suffers less vibration and deflection. 3. The continuous girder bridge requires only one bearing at each pier as against

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two bearing for simply supported girder bridge. 4. The depth of decking at mid span is reduced and it may prove to be useful for over bridges where headroom is of Figure: 5 shows the with prime consideration. simple construction 5. The expansion joints required will be According to the form or type of less. superstructure as arch, beam, truss, slab, 6. There is reduction in cost as less rigid frame or suspension bridges. quantity of concrete and steel are Beam: A beam or "girder" bridge is the required. simplest and most inexpensive kind of Disadvantages of RCC continuous girder bridge .In its most basic form, a beam bridges over simply supported girder bridge consists of a horizontal beam that is bridges. supported at each end by piers. The weight of the beam pushes straight down on the 1. The design is more complicated as it is a piers. statically indeterminate structure. The beam itself must be strong so that it 2. The detailing and placing of doesn't bend under its own weight and the reinforcements are to be carried out with added weight of crossing traffic. extreme care. When a load pushes down on the beam, the 3. The placing of concrete and removal of beam's top edge is pushed together formwork are to be executed carefully (compression) while the bottom edge is in proper sequence. stretched (tension). Prestressed concrete is Cantilever: A cantilever bridge is formed an ideal material for of cantilevers projecting from supporting construction; the concrete withstands the piers. The ends of a cantilever bridge are forces of compression well and the steel treated as fixed. A cantilever bridge rods imbedded within resist the forces of combines the advantages of a simply tension. Pre-stressed concrete also tends to supported span and a continuous span. For be one of the least expensive materials in long spans and deep valleys and at places construction. But even the best materials where it will not be practicable to use can't compensate for the beam bridge's centering, cantilever bridges are more biggest limitation: its length suitable. They are suitable in case of uneven settlement of foundation. The construction of a cantilever bridge may either be of simple type or of balanced type.

Figure: 6 shows the beam and girder bridges

Figure: 4 shows the cantilever bridge with Girder: A girder bridge is perhaps the most simple construction common and most basic bridge. A log across a creek is an example of a girder In case of cantilever bridge with balanced bridge in its simplest form. In modern steel type of construction, hinges are provided at girder bridges, the two most common the points of contra flexure of a continuous girders are I-beam girders and box-girders. span and an intermediate simply supported An I-beam is very simple to design and span is suspended between two hinges. build and works very well in most cases. However, if the bridge contains any curves, the beams become subject to twisting forces, also known as torque. The added second

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web in a box girder adds stability and increases resistance to twisting forces. This Figure: 8 shows the barrel type makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges with any significant curve in them. Suspension: Aesthetic, light and strong, Box girders, being more stable are also able suspension bridges can span distances from to span greater distances and are often used 2,000 to 7,000 feet -- far longer than any for longer spans, where I-beams would not other kind of bridge. They also tend to be be sufficiently strong or stable. the most expensive to build. True to its However, the design and fabrication of box name, a suspends the girders is more difficult than that of I beam roadway from huge main cables, which Truss: The truss is a simple skeletal extend from one end of the bridge to the structure. In design theory, the individual other. These cables rest on top of high members of a simple truss are only subject towers and are secured at each end by to tension and compression forces and not anchorages. The towers enable the main bending forces. Thus, for the most part, all cables to be draped over long distances. beams in a are straight. Trusses Most of the weight of the bridge is carried are comprised of many small beams that by the cables to the anchorages, which are together can support a large amount of imbedded in either solid rock or massive weight and span great distances. In most concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cases the design, fabrication, and erection of cables are spread over a large area to evenly trusses is relatively simple distribute the load and to prevent the cables The girder/beam as well as the truss can be from breaking free. made up of timber, steel or concrete, or can be made up of combination of steel and concrete.

Figure: 9 shows the suspension bridge

Suspension bridges are made up of high tensile steel cables strung in form of Figure: 7 shows the truss girder bridge catenaries to which the deck is attached by steel suspenders, which are mainly made up Arch: Arch bridges are one of the oldest of steel rods/members/cables. The decking types of bridges and have great natural can be of timber, concrete or steel spanning strength. Instead of pushing straight down, across the stiffening girders transmitting the weight of an arch bridge is carried load to the suspenders. outward along the curve of the arch to the Cable stayed: Cable-stayed bridges may supports at each end. These supports, called look similar to suspensions bridges both the abutments, carry the load and keep the have roadways that hang from cables and ends of the bridge from spreading out. both have towers. But the two bridges When supporting its own weight and the support the load of the roadway in very weight of crossing traffic, every part of the different ways. The difference lies in how arch is under compression. For this reason, the cables are connected to the towers. In arch bridges must be made of materials that suspension bridges, the cables ride freely are strong under compression. across the towers, transmitting the load to the anchorages at either end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which alone bear the load. The cables can be attached to the roadway in a variety of ways. In a radial pattern, cables extend from several points on the road to a single point at the top of the tower. In a parallel pattern, cables are attached at

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different heights along the tower, running parallel to one other. For medium length spans (those between 500 and 2,800 feet), Figure: 11 shows the double cable-stayed are fast becoming the bridge of Movable – swing bridges: In swing choice. Compared to suspension bridges, bridges, the girders and deck can be swung cable-stayed require less cable, can be about its middle over the middle pier, constructed out of identical pre-cast clearing the span on either side for passage concrete sections, and are faster to build. ship. There will be no suspenders in the cable- stayed bridges and a number of these can be of masonry, concrete or steel. The earliest form of materials used for construction of bridges was first stone and later brick. The masonry bridges are used for short spans and according to availability of material and skilled labour. Figure: 12 shows the Pier They are mainly of arch type of bridges. The next form of construction was Timber Movable – lift bridges: In this case, Bridge in which timber was used for gantries are provided at the piers at either spanning the gap and also for supporting the end of the span and the entire girder and the beams. Timber bridges are used for short floor system is lifted up by a hydraulic spans, light loads and for use as temporary arrangement to the extent required for free and unimportant bridges. With the invention passage of the ship. and development of concrete, bridges are being built entirely with concrete, either reinforced or prestressed or a combination of both for superstructure. Many combination of above types are also possible. Movable – bascule bridges: In bascule bridges, the main girders are lifted together with deck about the hinge provided on one end of the span. Depending upon the width of channel, the bascule bridge may either be single or double.

Figure: 13 shows the lift bridge

Transporter: In case of transporter bridges, a moving cage is suspended from an overhead truss with the help of cable or wire ropes. The overhead truss rests on two towers and it contains rails for cage to roll. This type of bridge is used within a harbour area to provide an arrangement for shifting of men and materials across a channel. Figure: 10 shows the single bascule bridge According to the expected utility period of service as temporary, military or permanent bridges. Temporary bridges: The temporary bridges are defined as structures, which are constructed to cross a river or a stream in place of permanent works. Such bridges are useful when it is not possible to construct a permanent bridge due to shortage of money,

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time, good materials or skilled labour. The  Major bridge (above 30m) temporary bridges are often constructed on  Long span bridge (above 120m) diversions during the reconstruction of an According to the degree of redundancy as existing permanent bridge. The useful life of determinate or indeterminate bridges. a temporary bridge is estimated as about 10  Determinate years.  Indeterminate Military (pontoon, bailey): Pontoon According to the level of crossing of bridges are constructed on roads on which highways and railways as over bridges or traffic is minor and seasonal and the river under bridges. itself is subjected to floods during only short Over bridge: When the highway bridge is periods, not exceeding three months of the carried over or under the highway by means year when the traffic on the load can safely of bridge, the bridge is known as over be suspended floating type bridges, bridge. pontoons are provided. These are made up Under bridge: When the highway is carried of floating cylinders or barges/flats which under the railway track by means of bridge are kept afloat in a row and are connected to is known as the under bridge. each other by hinged beams over which According to the alignment as straight or decking is provided. skew bridges. Such bridges can also be used for movement Causeway: It may be found that in some of army, which movement may be of short cases, the high flood in the stream is duration, across a waterway or on roads occasional and the normal flow is very little used in fair weather only. or the bed is dry most of the time. Bailey refers to bridge superstructures In such cases, causeways are provided. normally made up of assemblage units, Causeways are a paved road formed which can be carried in units, assembled and between retaining walls on either side, taken launched, in a short duration over a gap. sufficiently deep to withstand scour action. They may be provided for the short-term High-level: A high level bridge is a bridge, movement of an army or also be used in which carries the roadway above the highest case of damage to a permanent bridge due to flood level of the channel. There may be the approaches or even a part of the bridge cases were ships may have to pass through having been damaged leaving a wide gap, or them requiring very high clearance. They if the traffic has been suspended and will then need very high approaches or permanent repairs to the bridge are likely to highly graded approaches even if the take a long time. maximum clearance need be provided in the Permanent bridges: The permanent middle portion only. Where the traffic on bridges are defined as structures, which are the bridge is such that suspension of traffic constructed to cross a river or a stream for a short duration on the road or railway permanently. will not materially affect the overall traffic, According to the function as road, railway, they are built with decks with minimum road-cum-railway or pipeline bridges and clearance above high flood level for normal according to the method of connections passage of water. adopted in steel bridges as riveted, welded Submersible: A submersible bridge is a or pin-connected bridges. bridge designed to be overtopped in floods. Riveted: Riveted connections are proved to Submersible bridge is something between be more rigid and responsible for secondary the normal causeways and the high-level stresses. bridges. This is provided in such a way that According to the length of span as culvert, the bridge openings provided with properly minor bridges, major bridges or long span built piers and slabs can pass ordinary bridges. floods and rarely expected high floods spill Culverts (less than 6m): Culvert is a bridge and pass over the deck. The normal having a gross length of six meters or less convention in India is to provide between the faces of abutments or extreme submersible bridges on roadways with less vent way boundaries and measured at right traffic and where the stoppage of traffic due angles thereto. to the passage of high floods is not likely to  Minor bridge (6 to 30m)

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exceed 3 days at a time and not more than [3] B. C. Punmia, A. K. Jain and A. K. Jain. 18 days during the course of the year. RCC Designs, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd, 10th edition. 25-34. CONCLUSION [4] D. J. Victor. Essentials of Bridge With the advancement and recent engineering. 5-20. development in bridge construction [5] R. K. Raina. Bridge Engineering. 2000, technologies now we have several options to 10-18. select bridge from different types as [6] B. C. Punmia, A. K. Jain and A. K. Jain discussed and also which fulfills different .Soil Mechanics and Foundations, parameters viz. economy, safety, stability Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd,16th and aesthetic view of sub-structure. edition. 1-15 Introduction and different types of bridges [7] Gopal Rajan and Rao A. S. R. Basic and considered in this review and the selection Applied Soil Mechanics, New Age of different type of bridges in construction International Publishers, Revised 2nd technologies in civil engineering Edition. 32-43. [8] B. C. Punmia, A.K.Jain and A.K.Jain. REFERENCES Theory of Structures, Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd, 12th edition. 12-20. [1] B. C. Punmia, A. K. Jain and A. K. Jain. [9] V. K. Raina. Concrete Bridge practice- Building Construction, Laxmi Analysis design and economics, Shroft Publication Pvt. Ltd, 10th edition. 1-15 publication, 2nd edition 2005. 1-12. [2] Sushil Kumar. Building Construction, [10] Vaziranu, Ratvani and Aswani. Standard Publication Distributors. 30- Design of concrete Bridges, Khanna 42. publishers, 2nd edition 2008. 10-20.

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