Metaphorisation of Media Discourse: Contrastive Analysis of Business and Political Press Headlines in English and Lithuanian

LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF EDUCATION IN HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY AND DIDACTICS

Ieva Kamarauskaitė

METAPHORISATION OF MEDIA DISCOURSE: CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS AND POLITICAL PRESS HEADLINES IN ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN

MA THESIS

Academic advisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Linas Selmistraitis

Vilnius, 2017 1

LIETUVOS EDUKOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS

HUMANITARINIO UGDYMO FAKULTETAS

ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS IR DIDAKTIKOS KATEDRA

Metaforų vartojimas ţiniasklaidoje: lyginamoji angliškų ir lietuviškų verslo ir politikos antraščių analizė

Magistro darbas

Magistro darbo autorė Ieva Kamarauskaitė Patvirtinu, kad darbas atliktas savarankiškai, Naudojant tik darbe nurodytus šaltinius ______

(Parašas, data)

Vadovas: Doc. dr. Linas Selmistraitis

______

(Parašas, data)

CONTENTS

Abstract 5 Introduction 6 1. MEDIA DISCOURSE 9 1.1. Defining Media Discourse and Its Forms 9 1.2. Defining Mass Media Functions and Its Language 11 1.3. Characteristics of English Media Discourse 13 1.4. Characteristics of Lithuanian Media Discourse 16 2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWSPAPER 19 HEADLINES 2.1. Functions and Properties of Newspaper Headlines 19 2.2. Stylistic Features of Newspaper Headlines 21 3. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF METAPHOR 25 3.1. The Origin and Development of Metaphor 25 3.2. Metaphor in Business Discourse 29 4. HEADLINES WITH METAPHORS IN ENGLISH AND 32 LITHUANIAN 4.1. Methodology 32 5. SEMANTIC FEATURES OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS 33 IN ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN NEWSPAPERS‘ HEADLINES 5.1. METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS BASED ON SIMILARITY 33 OF PROCESS 5.1.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in The 33 Economist Headlines 5.1.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in the 38 Verslo Ţinios Headlines 5.1.3. Juxtaposition of Metaphorical Expression Based on Similarity 43 of Process in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios Headlines 5.2. METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS BASED ON SIMILARITY 44 OF QUALITY 5.2.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in The 44 Economist Headlines 5.2.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in the 49

Verslo Ţinios Headlines 5.2.3. Juxtaposition of Metaphorical Expression Based on Similarity 53 of Quality in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios Headlines 5.3. METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS BASED ON SIMILARITY 55 TO HUMAN BEING 5.3.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being 55 in The Economist Headlines 5.3.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being 58 in the Verslo Ţinios Headlines 5.3.3. Juxtaposition of Metaphorical Expression Based on Similarity 61 to Human Being in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios Headlines 5.4. Comparison of Frequency of Distribution of Metaphorical 62 Expressions in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios Headlines Conclusions 64

Summary 65

References 66

Appendices 71

ABSTRACT

The aim of the research is to contrast headline metaphors in terms of type of metaphorisation and meaning in English and Lithuanian media, i.e. business and political discourse. To achieve the aim the author of the present research sets the objectives as to collect the material for the research that consists of 200 headlines with metaphors in English newspaper The Economist and 200 headlines with metaphors in Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinios from business and political articles. The other objectives are to explore semantic features of metaphorisation in English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines, to conduct the contrastive analysis of semantic features of metaphors in English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines and to offer some implications towards different metaphorisation processes in business and political discourse in the two languages. The present research is not only based on Lithuanian scientists‘ doctrines such as Balčytienė, Drukteinytė, Krupavičius, Matonytė, Nevinskienė, Nugaraitė but also it is based on different foreign authors‘ doctrine. It was analysed scientific articles of Albrighton, Beger, Berry, Bucaria, Cameron, Crystal, Dor, Foster, Geary, Gomery, Gold, Hakobian, Halliday, Kovach, Lakoff, Leech, Majeed, Saxena, Swan, etc. In all the research it is compared the headlines of The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios and it is found differences and similarities in metaphorical expressions. The dominant type of transference of metaphorical expressions in English newspaper The Economist is metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality and these metaphors make 49% while in the Verslo Ţinios the dominant type of transference of metaphorical expressions is based on similarity of process and these metaphors make 45%. However, both newspapers are used the similar number of metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being because in the Verslo Ţinios it was found 18% awhile in The Economist 15% was identified.

INTRODUCTION

The process of metaphorisation is understood as treating something metaphorically or making a metaphor of something. Metaphor is recognized as a rhetorical device that compares two seemingly different objects which occur when certain distinct features of one object are appropriated to the other. Metaphor has become an object of investigation of an enormous volume of research for more than 2000 years. Traditionally, scholars regarded metaphor as a matter of language, a linguistic phenomenon and defined it as a figure of speech in which an implicit comparison is made between two unlike entities. However, the first person who discussed and defined metaphor as a rhetorical device was Aristotle in the 4th century. Aristotle‘s work laid the foundation for the classical views on metaphor. The classical view on metaphor is regarded as a specialized trait of ordinary language which is used for decoration, linguistic ornament and to construct imagery in literature and poetry. Metaphor is understood as something optional and outside of normal language (Saeed, 2007, 346). In other words, the classical view on metaphors is defined as ―the decorative view of metaphor‖ (Deignan, 2005, 2). A key role in establishing and maintaining power relations in societies as well as constructing an image about the society has media discourse. Media discourse refers to interactions that take place through a broadcast platform, whether spoken or written, in which the discourse is oriented to a non-present reader, listener or viewer (O‘Keeffe, 2011, 441). Therefore, media discourse is considered as a major tool of communication and information distribution including newspaper, magazine, radio, television or internet because it may be said that the world today is strongly dependent on the process of gathering, processing and distributing wide range of information. News may include every imaginable sort of information from serious to scandalous issues embracing all aspects and areas of our societies. Media discourse uses a specific language which differs from the ordinary because it is closely related to the particular genre, e.g. newspaper style. The aim of newspaper is to inform and affect the readers. One of the effective ways to achieve the maximal communicative effect is to use metaphors in newspaper headlines which arouses readers‘ curiosity and excitement but sometimes causes many difficulties for readers in understanding. Headline is a unique type of text and it is a central element of the article because the headline gives a particular picture of the current news for the reader. For this reason, metaphorisation of headlines is a very important means for drawing the potentials reader‘s attention. Study of metaphorisation has been traditionally associated with the study of literature however metaphorisation is not restricted to any type of discourse, for example, political discourse, media discourse, educational discourse or business discourse. The investigation of 6 metaphor in the language of business has been vastly researched by Boers (1999), Herrera and White (2000) and Koller (2008). The metaphorisation of economic facts has been explained by their abstract nature. In other words, the economy relies heavily on metaphors to make economic facts and processes easier to grasp (Richardt, 2003, 246). Metaphors in business discourse exist as a common fact in most of languages in the world. For this reason, the present research focus on metaphorisation of newspaper headlines in business discourse and political discourse in two different languages – English and Lithuanian. Therefore, the research question is as follow: What are differences and similarities of business language and political language metaphorisation in English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines? The aim of this research is to contrast headline metaphors in terms of type of metaphorisation and meaning in English and Lithuanian media, i.e. business and political discourse. In order to achieve the aim of the research, the following objectives were set: 1) To explore semantic features of metaphorisation in English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines. 2) To conduct the contrastive analysis of semantic features of metaphors in English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines. 3) To offer some implications towards different metaphorisation processes in business and political discourse in the two languages. The scope of the research and research methods used in the present research were as follows: Corpus for the study was randomly compiled from two business newspapers The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios in the two different languages – English and Lithuanian. The newspapers dating from the 2nd of February, 2016 to the 25th of March, 2017 were subjected to analysis. The data consisted of 200 Lithuanian and 200 English headlines with metaphors in business and political discourse. The data was processed and investigated applying quantitative method as the supplementary approach in the comparative study to provide quantitative basis for the insights. Contrastive analysis was employed in order to find out similarities and differences between metaphorisation in English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines in terms of type of metaphorisation and to draw the conclusions about metaphorisation of headlines in business and political discourse in the two languages. The significance of the research lies in the fact that it extends the existing knowledge in metaphorisation of newspaper headlines in business discourse and political discourse and adds to the comparative studies of the English and Lithuanian languages. This study is expected to be useful for deepening understanding of metaphors in the two languages, also in

7 teaching, learning, translating, writing and reading of English and Lithuanian newspaper headlines. The findings of this research on differences and similarities of metaphorisation of Lithuanian and English newspaper headlines in terms of semantics will help readers to enhance text comprehension and evaluative skills interpreting metaphors in newspaper headlines. Since the peculiarities of metaphorisation in media, i.e. business and political discourse from semantic point of view in the newspaper headlines have not been widely investigated, the results of the present research contribute to the comparison of metaphorisation of newspaper headline in English and Lithuanian languages in business and political discourse. As regards the structure of the research, it on consists of an introduction, theoretical part consists of three main chapters as follows: general characteristics of media discourse, general characteristics of headlines and general characteristics of metaphors. A practical part is made from one chapter which is divided into three sub-chapters: the first sub-chapter is ―Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process‖, the second sub-chapter is ―Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality‖ and the last sub-chapter is ―Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being‖. In the end of the present research there are conclusions, a list of references and an appendix presents all the collected headlines with metaphors which were randomly found in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios.

1. MEDIA DISCOURSE 1.1. Defining Media Discourse and Its Forms Various scholars define media discourse in many different ways. Zilova (2014, 247) defines media discourse as a type of institutional discourse, which is characterized by a stable system of status relations and social roles, in the sphere of the mass media, that use language to accomplish specific purposes and to perform certain functions. According to O‘Keeffe (2011, 441), the term ―media discourse‖ is defined as referring to the interaction that takes place through a broadcast platform, whether spoken or written, in which the discourse is oriented to a non-present reader, listener or viewer. In general, two major types of media discourse: written and spoken are distinguished. Written texts such as newspapers or magazines and spoken includes – radio, television, news broadcast and drama. In other words, the media encompass broadcast media such as radio, television, films, audio, the internet and print media which includes magazines and newspapers. To quote Gold and Revill (2004, 37), ―Traditionally, ‗media‘ meant the ‗media of mass communication‘, by which technologically based systems transmitted content (or messages) through print, broadcasting, posters or film to remote and scattered audiences‖. The development of print media has started at the end of 14th century in Europe. Print media industry was the leader of mass communication and the most important way to convey knowledge and ideas. The first printed works were books, brochures, leaflets, newspapers and magazines appeared in the early and middle of the 17th century. Newspapers were read only by rich and literate community who can afford buying expensive material because newspapers were considered expensive to write and produce (Fang, 1997, 8). The situation had changed when more efficient newsprint machine was invented in the 1830s. The invention of the ―Penny‖ newspaper was significantly important in that period of time because penny press papers were revolutionary in making the news accessible to middle class citizens for a reasonable price. Penny newspapers cost only one cent per paper while other famous contemporary newspapers cots 6 cents per issue (Stephens, 2007). By the end of 1990, printed mass media could be found in various forms such as books, magazines and newspapers. Newspapers provided all the necessary information about the world for the people at remote locations. As time was moving on, broadcasted mass media started to evolve from the beginning of the 20th century. The invention of the radio was an incredible innovation in the first half of the twentieth century. Radio became a favorite companion of all people because the information was transferred in more productive ways and all social classes could get it. Radio broadcast made a huge difference in transmitting the news because people noticed that it was not 9 necessary to wait for the news for weeks to be broadcasted. Radio transmission made it possible to hear the news within minutes from the occurrence of the event. From this invention it was only a small step to the invention of television which broadcast a spoken word with pictures. Television was used by various politicians because it was a mass communication tool to comment on different social, political or economic issues. Politicians used television to communicate with voters because performance on television guaranteed popularity in the street (Gomery, 2008). In any case, television or radio did not replace the press. However, the media has been added by Internet in the mid-1990s which is the most modern technological phenomenon and it is still growing and developing with new services and advancements. The internet is a real threat to newspapers, magazines or books which the Internet could rival evidently. As Hilliard and Keith (2005) state, personal computers and the World Wide Web (WWW) became available to people everywhere. Zelizer (2009) declares, the (WWW) offered to people new and variable information all day long regarding all interests. To quote Manovich (2001, 43), ―just as the printing press in the fourteenth century and photography in the nineteenth century had a revolutionary impact on the development of modern society and culture, today we are in the middle of a new media revolution -- the shift of all of our culture to computer mediated forms of production, distribution and communication‖. He argues that the latest revolution of media makes a profound impact than others in the past because it affects the most stages of communication ―including acquisition, manipulating, storage and distribution; it also affects all types of media -- text, still images, moving images, sound, and spatial constructions‖ (Monavich, 2001, 43). Therefore, this internet phenomenon introduces a new term ―new media‖ which is used to define all that is related to the internet and digital technologies. Lister and Dovey (2009, 13) explain that ―new media‖ refers to a wide range of changes such as technological, textual, conventional and cultural in media production, distribution and use. The main terms in discourses about new media are: digital, hypertextual, virtual, networked and simulated. Kaye and Johnson (2003, 199) distinguish two types of media: traditional media and digital media and claim that ―the audience is willingly exposed to the traditional media and passively being brain washed while being exposed to digital media requires active interactive users who know what they want and searching for it‖. To conclude, media discourse is a broad term which refers to two different forms of mass communication. The first one is written and it includes newspapers and magazines, the second one is spoken which includes television, radio and the internet. The development of print media started since the first printed newspaper was published in 1605. However, other forms of broadcast media such as radio, television and the internet have developed over the years.

Nowadays humanity has all possibilities to find out the latest news, to communicate and to educate in a more modern way than many years ago because the availability of print media and broadcast media is very simple and easily accessible. Nevertheless, the internet plays definitely the first and the most important role in today‘s society while the magazines and newspapers take just the supplementary role.

1.2. Defining Mass Media Functions and Its Language

Mass media is a powerful tool that influences public opinion by using special techniques and manipulating through language that people hear and read every day. Schmitz (2012, 886) classifies the functions of the mass media into two categories: general functions and specific functions. The general functions include informing, persuading, instructing and bonding functions. The fundamental function of media in this category is to inform the society. There are no doubts that as far as the spread of information media is irreplaceable. Kovach and Rosenstiel (2007) claim the main aim of journalism is to give information so people can become sovereign and it helps monitor the powerful and give voice to the unrepresented. According to them, the mass media enables people to be in control of their own lives and gave them a sense of safety. However, the mass media does not only provide information for the public but also the mass media has the power to influence public opinion. Therefore, another function of the media is persuasion. It involves making influence on the public minds using editorials, articles, commentaries, etc. as Talbot (2007, 3) states ―very few of us, if any, are unaffected by media discourse. The importance of the media in the modern world is incontrovertible‖. Despite the fact that various scientists‘ views on how it influences the society may vary, mass media is a major tool for affecting and informing masses of the public. Iyengar and Kinder (2010, 56) point out that mass media ―strengthen or reinforce the public‘s existing believes and opinions‖. The other essential function of the mass media is to provide education or instruct the society. Schmitz (2012, 887) states ―some media outlets exist to cultivate knowledge by teaching instead of just relaying information‖. He explains that the mass media try to educate people directly or indirectly using different forms of content. For example, distance education program is a direct approach while dramas, documentaries, interviews, feature stories are prepared to educate people indirectly. The last function of the mass media is bonding function. Schmitz (2012, 887) points out that the mass media can bring people close. For example, people who share common values and interests can be brought together while watching coverage of a tragic event.

The mass media also performs some specific functions such as surveillance, interpretation, linkage and socialization. According to the Dictionary of Media and Communication (2011, 236), surveillance function of the mass media is described as the role of circulating information and news ―one of the most important general roles that the mass media, a particular medium, or factual media genres, can be seen as serving for society as a whole‖. In general, surveillance function denotes observation of the society closely and warns about threating actions to the mass audience that are likely to happen in near future. For example, the mass media informs the society about threats from hurricanes, erupting volcanoes, depressed economic conditions, increasing inflation or military attack, etc. The second specific function of the mass media is interpretation. The journalists who report or write the articles for the newspapers or magazines not only provide information for the society but also supply explanations and interpretation of events and situations because it helps to make the reality clear. News analysis, commentaries, editorials and columns are examples of interpretative contents. However, such types of interpretative contents are prepared by those journalists who have knowledge and strong analytical ability ―it does not matter that the news is not susceptible of mathematical statement. In fact, just because news is complex and slippery, good reporting requires the exercise of the highest scientific virtues‖ (Lippmann, 2008, 74). Another specific function of the mass media is linkage. It becomes a bridge between different groups who cannot have a direct connection. For instance, mass advertising links the needs of buyers with the product of sellers or broadcasting news about people who are suffered from the natural disasters the media can help to collect the donation. The last specific function of mass media is socialization. The word socialization is defined as a learning process, one that involves development or changes in the individual‘s sense of self. Through this process, we learn to become a member of the society. Therefore, a person reads newspaper or watches TV, he/she knows how to react or behave in one or another particular event, issue or situation. The mass media is an important linguistic institution whose outputs make a huge influence on the language that people read and hear every day. Reach (2002, 54) explains that language is a very powerful instrument which might be used in order to promote, legitimize and maintain social structures and roles, especially, if views are not presented explicitly. Language of mass media differs variably compared to ―general language‖ because it is closely related to the journalistic style, which is also called news style or news writing style. Berry (2008, 27) defines journalistic style as a process of obtaining and providing news through printed media. According to Mencher (2010, 69), there are several essential features of journalistic language: accuracy, attribution, verification, balance, brevity, clarity, and also

12 objectivity, fairness and human interest. However, these features are not the only ones which have influence on the mass media language. In addition, there are social, economic and cultural determinants that have a direct effect on how the reported issues are presented. The following paragraph gives an overview of social-economic factors which have an influence on reported news. First of all, the news always is presented from a particular angle. Angle, as defined by Pape and Featherstone (2005, 37), is ―the main slant that the writer is taking with a story – the way he or she is interpreting and approaching the facts contained within it‖. Burns (2002, 102) considers taking an angle a very important factor in the evaluation of the gathered material which precedes the construction and production of the report. In other words, a different angle means a different approach to the same news. Secondly, the news media select events reporting according to newsworthiness or as ‗new values‘. Burns (2002, 51) defines news values ―‗themes‘ that have been shown to strike cord with media audiences‖, in other words, audiences take the most interest in events which have imminent impact on them. Burns (2002, 12) is also interested in the question whose business it is to decide and what standards determine what to report and how to approach the event. He states that the concept of newsworthiness is built on news values that are frequently molded by the actual printed medium and those values mirror its style of reporting, even political and moral views. Finally, economical determinants also have a power to influence journalists because newspapers publication is an industry with the same aim as many other industry - to make profit. To summarize, the mass media has plenty of functions such as to bring new information to the audience, to persuade, to educate, to regulate, to evaluate, to criticize, to publicize, to advertise, and, of course, to entertain. All these functions of mass media are essential in forming public opinion attitudes. Moreover, the mass media has a clear impact on language because the words which surround the society every day influence the words which are used.

1.3. Characteristics of English Media Discourse

According to Berry (2008, 5), human kind has always manifested a considerable drive, hunger, even pathological need for news of any sort. Such appetite can be considered as one of the most prominent features of a human that differentiates mankind from animals and has become inseparable, integrated part of our nature. To satisfy such need, media plays a vital role in providing news and entertainment to the people. This part of the present thesis is concerned with print media, specifically in the newspapers. The historical development of English print media has started since the 17th century when the first newspaper in English language was published in Amsterdam by Joris Veseler. It was 13 published in Amsterdam because the printing was strictly controlled in England in the beginning of the 17th century. However, the situation changed when the English started printing their own papers in London ―first true newspaper in English was the London Gazette, published <…> in 1665‖ (Patil, 2011, 8). In the early 18th century, the first English daily newspapers appeared ―The Daily Courant‖ on 11 March 1702 which was the starting point of the circulation of daily newspapers in England. However, the printing of newspaper was under control of government. The Stamp Acts of 1712 and 1725 conducted the taxes on paper and advertisements and they affected the format and the content of newspapers including The Daily Courant (Raymond, 2005, 25). The 18th century was the most significant of the development of newspaper industry because a new format of newspaper was introduced, with eight pages instead of four. Many other daily and evening newspapers were published, for example: the London Chronicle (1757-1765), the Daily Post (1719-1746), the Gazetteer and London Daily Advertiser (1753-1764), the Public Advertiser (1752-1794), the Morning Chronicle (1769-1862), the Morning Post (1772-1937) and the Morning Herald (1780-1869, etc. As the time was going on the competition of the newspapers increased and newspapers carried for more than just social and political news - they had essays and articles, including book and theatre reviews, letters, and other types of comment, and a huge variety of advertisements (Clarke, 2004, 85). Today the situation has going to be the same and newspapers are widely used in Britain. According to the data compiled by the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the average of the sales of national newspapers is around 15 million copies on weekdays and almost 18 million on Sundays in the United Kingdom. The most recent statistic shows (see Picture 1.) the average of the most popular national newspapers (including online version) in the United Kingdom from July 2015 to June 2016. The Daily Mail reached an average 18, 4 million individuals a month through both print and digital newspaper, so it is the most marketable newspaper in the UK.

Picture 1. The average of national newspapers in the UK from July 2015 to June 2016 compiled by Statista.

These numbers clearly demonstrate that the power of the newspapers and their language are extremely big. Crystal (2003, 92) claims ―newspapers are not solely international media: they play an important role in the identity of a local community. Most papers are for home circulation, and are published in a home language‖. United Kingdom has a tendency to distinguish press into ―quality press‖ and ―popular press‖ or in other words into broadsheets, for example, The Times and tabloids such as The Daily Mail. Bell (1991, 20) explains the reasons for such division ―the distinction generally reflects a somewhat different definition of what is news, different visual impact and typographical means. The elite press tends to use the larger broadsheet (A2) page, while popular papers are printed on tabloid size (A3) – and are often called ‗tabloids‘‖. Tabloid or it may also be called ―gutter‖ press is read by more people than quality press nowadays. The reasons could be that people are interested in the gossips about famous people, they want to have a rest while they are reading, they do not use ―their brains‖, they do not think about the life around them. The writing style is usually simple and the stories are accompanied by many various pictures. Tabloid does not require time so people read on the train station or in the train. People are controlled by sense which is produced through newspaper. Broadsheets are opposite to tabloid because it is a serious newspaper in which it is used more objective and formal style because they want to appeal more intellect. Language is formal because stories are serious and longer than in tabloid, articles are written in depth. In other words, newspapers do not only differ in design, typography or size of photographs, first of all the most important differences involve linguistic features for example headlines, the length of 15 articles, angle, lexis and punctuation. Broadsheets have a tendency to maintain the factual angle and tone appears to be impersonal while tabloids incline to maintain rather a human angle as there is a direct relation to people, tone is more conversational and informal. Furthermore, newspapers of the United Kingdom can be divided not only into tabloid or broadsheet but also into national newspapers such as The Daily Telegraph and local or regional newspapers. National newspapers are reported news on a national scale, while local or regional newspapers are transmitted mostly news within a region or town. Pape and Featherstone (2005, 3) write that newspapers society, an organization acting on behalf of regional and local newspapers in the UK, claims that over 40 million people (85% of all adults) engage in reading local as well as regional newspapers on regular basis making it the country‘s most widely read print medium. In addition, it can be assumed that both print media, national and regional, sell millions of copies every day and such high sales demonstrate that media is one of the most powerful and influential phenomena which undoubtedly plays a key role in forming public opinion. By the way, some newspapers also can be differentiated into daily, weekly or another can be published twice or three times per week in the United Kingdom. However, it is worth to mention that the sharp rise of online newspapers is a real risk for any type of newspapers. In conclusion, English print media industry has started to develop since 17th century, when the first English printed newspaper was published ―The London Gazette‖ in 1605, and it is still growing and expanding till nowadays. English print media industry has a unique division of newspapers into two the main categories: tabloids and broadsheets. This division helps to classify news according to their seriousness because tabloid is a small size newspaper which refers to such topics as sensational crime stories, astrology, celebrity gossip or television. While broadsheet is the largest newspaper size and it is based on serious news such as politics or education. However, according to the Statista, tabloids newspapers are more readable than broadsheets in the UK. The most popular tabloids newspapers are The Daily Mail, the Sun and the Daily Mirror also including online version.

1.4. Characteristics of Lithuanian Media Discourse

Before the political transformation in 1990, Lithuanian mass media could be divided into two periods: a centralized, highly regulated media system, and decentralized. Media was particularly regulated according to the model of soviet media at the turn of the 20th century. Lithuania was occupied in 1940 by the USSR, the Lithuanian media underwent revolutionary changes. As Matonytė (2008, 130) points out, the structure of mass media ownership and management changed, the ideological profile was monopolized by the Communist party, and 16 accessibility of newspapers was broadened up. Only the language of mass media (the Lithuanian) kept intact until the Russian language was introduced. The media was the main tool of the party propaganda mechanism because the majority of media was privatized and censorship was included into press. This strict control continued until the privatization of media began in 1990s when the Law of Press and Other Mass Information Media adopted banned censorship and limited the influence of the state on the work of the media. When the media outlets were privatized in 1990 they were acquired by their incumbent editors and staff, however several years later the media outlets were sold to new publishers from abroad and Lithuania (Nugaraite, 2004, 268). A new period of the Lithuanian media started in 1990-1991 which was marked by a rapid process of desovietization. According to Krupavičiaus and Šarkute (2004, 156), this is a process which in essence meant that the Communist Party lost their ability to use the press, radio and TV as an influential instrument of the communist propaganda. Lithuanian media specialist Balčytienė (2006, 172) pointed out that ―after the restoration of independence in the beginning of the 1990s, the most important goal for the Lithuanian media was to eliminate censorship <…> journalists started <…> to work under conditions of freedom of speech‖. The freedom of speech was achieved when the Lithuanian Constitution was adopted on October 25, 1992 by the Supreme Council. The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuanian lays down the main provisions and safeguarding freedom of speech and freedom of information. The article 44 of the Constitution states ―Censorship of mass media shall be prohibited. The State, political parties, political and public organizations, and other institutions or persons may not monopolize means of mass media‖ (Nugaraitė, 2004, 268). Krupavičius and Šarkutė (2004, 151) explain that the growing of democratization of political- cultural life evoked new tendencies in the media system in post-communist Lithuania. For example, high public trust in TV and press, initial growth of newspaper titles and their subsequent market concentration, active commercial radio and TV stations. Current media system of Lithuania is regulated by the Law on Provision of Information to the Public which enhance the protection of the information space against information harmful to national security. According to Balčytiene (2009, 41), the Law on Provision of Information to the Public prohibits state institutions and banks from producing or owning public information. This law was declared by foreign experts as the most liberal media law in Europe. After two decades of independence, Lithuania finally has liberal and active media systems. The overall number of newspaper publications (daily and weekly) is estimated at 327 in Lithuania. According to Nugaraite (2004, 272), Lithuanian newspapers can be divided into two groups: the first one, the former official dailies, magazines and many of the regional

17 newspapers which were established in the Soviet era and which have since been privatized. The second group of newspapers comprises the new titles that came into existence during or after the change of the system. Daily newspapers are the leaders in Lithuanian print market and at the moment there are five daily newspapers: the Lietuvos Rytas, the Vakaro Ţinios, the Respublika, the Lietuvos ţinios and the Kauno diena. The circulation of these daily newspapers, excluding Sunday editions, amounts to 300, 000 in total. However, the largest newspaper of Lithuania is the Lietuvos Rytas and ―the most popular daily Lietuvos Rytas is read by 23,4 % of population‖ (Krupavičius, Šarkutė, 2004, 152). The Lietuvos Rytas is one of the oldest newspapers because it was established during the Soviet era and owned by the communist youth organization – Komsomol. The Lietuvos Rytas became the first daily newspaper which was privatized by journalists and Komsomol leaders. Furthermore, nowadays the Lietuvos Rytas is a private limited liability company and one of the market leaders because the circulation is the highest since 2005. The Lietuvos Rytas has two regional newspapers the Paneveţio Rytas and Laikinoji sostinė, and the weekly magazines Kompiuterija, Ekstra, Stilius Plius (Nugaraitė, 2004, 273). Daily and weekly newspapers are not the only kinds of newspapers in Lithuania. Cities newspapers are also published in the largest Lithuanian cities such as Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda. According to Nugaraite (2004, 274), majority of cities newspapers has been published in Soviet times but nowadays only their names having been changed. For example, the Kauno tiesa was renamed the Kauno diena or the Tarybinė Klaipėda was changed into the Klaipėda. All these city newspapers are published by private liability companies owned by members of their editorial staffs. However, these city newspapers do not have the high circulation of publication nowadays ―the situation of the Lithuanian weeklies is somewhat peculiar. The weeklies that have survived from the Soviet era <…> lost popularity or simply went bankrupt‖ except the Kauno diena ―the case of the city daily newspaper ‗Kauno diena‟ published in the second largest city in Lithuania, Kaunas, is exceptional. For several years now it has been successfully competing with the national dailies‖ (Nugaraite, 2004, 274). In conclusion, the Lithuanian media has experienced too many rapid changes since the 20th century. The Lithuanian media got freedom from the USSR occupation and managed to set up independent and active media systems in which free speech is guaranteed and censorship is prohibited in Constitution of the Republic of Lithuanian. Despite the fact that the Lithuanian print media industry has grown up and published various kinds of newspapers and magazines not only in paper version but also online ―the media market in Lithuania is small, so there is no reason to expect that a newspaper can make business just by reporting‖ (Balčytienė, 2009, 43).

2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWSPAPER HEADLINES

2.1. The Functions and Properties of Newspaper Headlines

Whenever a newspaper is chosen, the first thing which is noticed is a headline. As Dor (2003) notes headlines are the most important part of the newspaper because the headline informs the readers of what the article will be about. Saxena (2006, 17) describes a headline ―one that in less than a dozen words summarizes what a reporter has said in 100, 250 or even 500 words‖. Foster (2008, 66) describes headline as a crucial element in printed communication. In fact, Foster (2008, 68) emphasizes that the headlines must give the news but not present the opinions of the authors. The headlines must present the news more precisely and succinctly, however, the authors of the headlines generally deal with problems such as space limitation or creativity. As Dor (2003, 705) claims, headlines are ―the negotiators between stories and readers‖ and she distinguishes four functions: to summarize, to highlight, to attract and to select. Basically, the main function of the headline is to attract the reader‘s attention who would be the potential reader of the article. For this reason, the headline should capture his/her interest to such extent so as to make him/her to read the whole article. Dor (2003, 718) explains, the most readers of newspaper spend their time by scanning the headlines but not reading the articles ―most readers spend most of their reading time scanning the headlines than reading the stories‖. Another valid function of the headline is to summarize the news in minimum striking words. The headline should be the outline of what the article is about, however, there are many cases when the meaning of the headline is not clear or sometimes misleading and misinterpreted. The main reason why the headlines become incomprehensible is that not only language differs but also grammar, stylistics and semantics break some rules. Therefore, vocabulary itself has more importance than the grammatical structure and length of the sentence. The lexical or content words are words which have the meaning such as nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs. These words are more useful and they give much more information for the reader than the grammatical words. Grammatical or function words are words which only show the grammatical relationships among words such as definite/indefinite article, demonstrative pronouns (this, that), conjunction, etc., so these words are omitted in most cases in the headlines. Bucaria (2004, 284) notes ―<…> headlines are very ‗rich‘ on a lexical level, including, for example, slang or colloquial terms instead of their unmarked equivalents‖. As it is mentioned below the headline there is a unique type of text, for this reason, the headline has some specific features of writing which help to highlight the importance of the 19 news. Foster (2008) claims, space is always limited that is why it is often difficult to write a bright and informative headline within the constraints of the column or page widths. Consequently, the authors of the headlines often use short words or abbreviations in the newspapers headlines because they save space. Majeed points out (2012, 196), ―abbreviations are widely used in headlines they save space on page and they also require the readers to stop a little to think of the original word or expression‖. According to Walsh (2009), the journalists try to avoid abbreviations in the body of the story because the story must be written in plain language. However, in the headlines the necessity of abbreviations is of high importance, because it helps to provide the readers with the most relevant information in the limited space. Some short words have absolutely different meaning in headlines than in usual context. Swan (2005, 212) claims, ―Other words are chosen not because they are short, but because they sound dramatic and are emotionally colored (i.e. ‗Blaze‘ meaning ‗Fire‘) very often intriguing‖. In order to use space economically headlines employ a special type of language called block language. The term ―block language‖ was introduced by Straumann in 1935 who was the first to study newspaper headlines. Crystal (2003, 216) claims that the minor sentences ―are common in certain types of written language, such as notices, headlines, labels, advertisements, subheadings, Web sites and other settings where a message is presented as a ―block‖ language‖. Chovanec (2003, 55) explains that block language is specific among others for its absence of articles, the omitted auxiliary and the complex nominalization. Headlines which are written using block language do not refer to the writer or participant ―<…> canonical headlines ten to avoid any reference to the discourse participants (writer/reader) <…>‖. These headlines often use passive verb structures and omit finite verbs. The resulting non-finite clause is then more impersonal. Another property of block language is a graphical layout. Journalists must choose between different styles, colors, weight and typeface, bold face, type size, etc. Saxena (2006, 28) writes, ―The weight of a typeface is decided by how ‗black‘ typeface is‖. There are distinguished four types of typeface: light, normal, bold and ultra-bold. The reader from typeface can decide the news is important or not because bolder headlines are more important message is transmitted. The importance of the news which is hidden after the headline also could show the capitalization of the letters which depends on the authors and his/her own style. There are many different cases how the author can capitalize the letters. Wagener (2005) and Lowe (2010) distinguish three prevalent cases of using capitalization in the newspaper headlines. The first case is ―down style‖ or another name could be sentence case. It means that the author of the headline capitalizes only the first word or proper nouns in the

20 headlines. ―Down style” requires little space and is emotionally neutral. Despite these facts, it is the best choices for the author. Another case is ―Up Style‖ or title case. As Lowe (2010) explains that the author can capitalize the first letter of every word or whenever to capitalize the word it depends on its part of speech. Though, this style occupies more space and send unconscious message. The last case is ―All Caps”. This case requires much more space than others because all the letters are capitalized. However, using all capitals letters in headlines the author must have the reason because this case of writing sends considerable message for the readers, it presents enormous breaking news. This type of headlines is strong emotionally. To conclude, headline writing is a special form of short writing because it is an artful phrasing that informs the reader in just a few words. The main function of the headline is to attract the reader‘s attention because headlines play a big role in helping readers navigate through pages and in getting readers to look at stories. Another function of the headline is to summarize stories because headline is to inform, not to entertain. Consequently, headline must simply index the news as concisely as accurately as possible. These are only two major functions of the headlines but headlines have many qualities of writing which requires skill and imagination. Grammatical structures also vary from the ordinary writing to make a headline succinct and accurate. Headlines also include design elements because the authors choose text-sized type, colors, weight and typeface and all these elements help to determine the significance of the story.

2.2. Stylistic Features of Newspaper Headlines As Leech and Short (2007, 9) claim ―The word ‗style‘ has a fairly uncontroversial meaning: it refers to the way in which language is used in a given context, by a given person, by a given purpose, and so on‖. The newspaper style is one of the five functional styles which were recognized as a specific form of writing in the 17th century. The word newspaper itself is understood that its main function is to give news or educate and entertain people. Moreover, the newspaper endeavors to influence public opinion on political, business or other matters. The newspaper style is divided into four different sub styles: brief new items, advertisements, the editorial and the headline. The author of the master thesis focuses on the fourth sub-styles of newspaper styles – the headline. As it is mentioned above the main function of the headline is to catch the potential reader‘s attention. Stylistic devices are frequently used in newspaper headlines because they are one of the most effective ways to grab the reader‘s attention. Verdonk (2002, 4) states that writers of headlines use a wide range of devices to create a very specific style, which is sometimes called ―headlinese‖. Hakoblian and Krunkyan (2009, 25) explains that expressiveness in 21 headlines is achieved with the help of various stylistic phonetic devices. For example, alliteration, rhyme or rhythm. All these phonetic stylistic devices are used because they catch the reader‘s attention as they sound more poetic. Moreover, phonetic stylistic devices create a musical affection which could make the headline more pleasant to read. Hakoblian and Krunkyan (2009, 26) distinguish one more group of devices which are also used in creation the headlines - lexical stylistic devices. The lexical stylistic devices are based on the interaction of two opposite meanings, for example, primary and derivative logical meanings or logical and emotive meanings, and logical and nominative meanings. Lexical stylistics devices are such as allusion, simile, metaphor, etc. The last type of stylistic devices is syntactical stylistic devices which are also used in headlines for the main purpose to impress the reader. The syntactical stylistic devices are with reference to two oppositions of syntactical meanings regardless of their semantics, for example, parallel constructions or antitheses. In addition, stylistic devices are used for the main purpose to catch the reader‘s attention because the headlines become more attractive. The reader must stop and think about the real meaning which is hidden under the stylistic devices. The reader is interested in reading the whole article. Stylistic devices are not the only way to create catchable and intriguing headlines. One more essential stylistic aspect is special grammatical features because headline style differs from ordinary language and has special rules of grammar. Metcalf (2013) presents basic features of grammar in the headlines. 1) Use future tense for past events (e.g. Columbus discovers new route to India); 2) Use to for future events (e.g. Sun to Burn Out In 6 Billion Years); 3) Omit the, a and an (e.g. Cow Jumps over Moon; Dog Watches, Laughs); 4) Use comma for and (e.g. Jack, Jill Fall from Hill; Confusions Possible); 5) Never spell out numbers (e.g. Virgil Guides Dante Past 9 Levels of Hell); 6) Use colon for said or says (e.g. Galileo: ― “I Confess Earth Stays Still”); 7) Use single quotation marks (e.g. Ceaser To Brutus: - “Et Tu?” Falls by “Unkindest Cut”); 8) Omit be in its various forms, except if it is emphasized (e.g. Candide, Pangloss Happy Cultivating Garden). The main purpose of the headlines is to catch the reader‘s attention and it should convey relative significance and seriousness of the story to the hurried reader. It also must be appropriate to the newspaper style with its attractive presentation. Znamenskaya (2005, 151) introduces the classification of the headlines patterns: 1) Full declarative sentences;

2) Interrogative sentences; 3) Nominative sentences; 4) Elliptical sentences;  With an auxiliary verb omitted;  With the subject omitted;  With the subject and part of the predicate omitted. 5) Sentences with the articles omitted; 6) Phrases with verbal – infinitive, participial, gerundial; 7) Questions in the form of statement; 8) Complex sentences; 9) Headlines including direct speech:  Introduce by a full sentence;  Introduced elliptically; The classification introduced by Znamenskaya is very explicit. She identifies a number of different lexical and syntactical categories by which the headlines are subdivided. Another classification is given by Isani (2011, 6) is more generic than the previous one because this one is not divided into special parts by the use of lexical, phonetic, grammatical or syntactical means. Isani (2011, 6) identifies typical linguistic features of headlines in English newspapers.  The omission of articles;  Nominalizations;  Use of present tense  Use of the verb ‗be‘;  Omission of conjugation;  Extensive use of metaphors;  Use obsolete lexical items (e.g. ―bid‖, ―probe‖, ―pledge‖, ‖axe‖, etc.);  Extensive use of acronyms and abbreviations;  Extensive use of alliteration, assonance, punning, clichés, distortion of well-known catch-phrases; There are many features of headlines that journalists use to create memorable headline and Chovanec (2003, 57) is interested in headlines and suggests the following strategies used in tabloid headlines:  Lexical choices – the vocabulary tends to be colloquial, emotional and evaluative, thus also subjective (e.g. thug, stampede), which increases the newsworthiness of the story.

 Word play, imitation of sounds and unusual spelling are common in tabloid headlines (e.g. T‟wit tshoo!).  A personal pronoun referring to the participants – personal pronoun you is often used to indicate familiarity (e.g. Shopping‟s bad for you). Quality press uses mostly nonfinite clauses or nominalization to ensure the impersonality.  Full evaluative statements instead of reporting the mere facts are used (e.g. A good job you lied...).  Wider range of sentence structures such as exclamatives, interrogatives etc. may be traced (e.g. Who is to blame?).  Close connection between the verbal and visual channels – headline can be a commentary to the picture, in this case headlines tend to be more narrative (e.g. The moment Andrew was picked up in front of Fergie).  Action tends to be reported rather than the final state (e.g. Rod Stuart sees his thug son jailed). However, these strategies are usually used in tabloid headlines in order to create headlines in more ordinary speech. These strategies could not be found in quality press because such type of press must be as objective and as impersonal as possible. To sum up, there are different ways to structure the headlines by using various patterns in sentence and which is used only depends on journalists but all these headlines patterns which are mentioned above are used in order to make newspaper articles more attractive to the reader.

3. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF METAPHOR 3.1. The Origin and Development of Metaphor

The interest in metaphor is continuing since the oldest time. Metaphor is interesting not only for linguists, but also it receives a lot of attention from other various science specialists. According to Drukteinyte (2003, 4), researchers usually try to discuss metaphor as a special meaning shape of signs and a case of figurative meaning. They are interested in formation of metaphor, its origin and ground and also functioning in a broad sense. Metaphor is the most frequently used lexical stylistic devices in the newspaper headlines which the main function is the impression to the reader. As Haiyan (2013, 1558) writes, ―<…> metaphor functions as the stimulus to affect potential readers‘ cognitive environment in attaining optimal relevance in communication‖. Nevertheless, metaphor is defined slightly different in various sources. According to Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (2006, 744), metaphor is defined ―metaphors are linguistic images that are based on a relationship of similarity between two objects or concepts, that are based on the same semantic features. Metaphor is <…> a shortened comparison, in which the comparison is nonetheless not explicitly expressed.‖ According to Macmillan English Dictionary (2006, 895), metaphor is defined as a phrase then two things are referring to each other in order to emphasis the similarities. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006) the word metaphor is defined as ―metaphor is a way of describing something by comparing it to something else that has similar qualities without using the words ‗like‘ or ‗as‘‖. Oxford Dictionary of Advanced Learner (2007), indicates more concrete definition ―metaphor is a word or phrase used to describe sb/sth else, in a way that is different from its normal use, in order to show that the two things have the same qualities and to make the description more powerful‖. From the semantic point of view, metaphor is defined as a semantic change based on the associations of similarity between referents. The meaning is transferred on the basis of the fact that the two referents resemble one another. Nevertheless, Geeraerts (2009, 40) suggests classification of metaphor according to different types of similarity:  Metaphors based on similarities of shape and appearance. Concrete objects are compared among each other, for example, body parts may be transferred to plants, animals, artifacts, landscape features - ―ear‖ refers to the handle (the ear) of a cup.  Metaphors based on similarities of structural position. The position of the object within the larger structure of which it is a part. For instance, ―foot of mountain‖.

 Metaphors based on similarities of functional similarities. Source domain (concrete) is compared with the target domain (abstract). For example, ―head of state‖, ―the head of the family‖.  Metaphors based on similarities of space and time. For instance, ―the hour comes‖.  Metaphors based on similarities of color. For example, ―read-headed boy‖. Geeraerts (2009, 42) points out that in many cases metaphor has a complex similarity. For example, ―the leg of table‖ has a similarity to human leg in its shape, structural position and function. Generally, all these definitions demonstrate that metaphor contains two verbally expressed ideas, objects and concepts, one of which is interpreted in terms of another on the basis of similar qualities that they share. According to Ricoeur (2000, 201-206), the etymology of the word metaphor has started from the 16th century Old French word métaphore which comes from the Latin and later in turn from the Greek word metaphora derived from ―meta‖ meaning ―a change‖ and ―pherin‖ – ―to bear‖ or ―carry‖. The linguists have been trying to define metaphor and what it represents since the times of Aristotle in the 4th century B.C. The scholar Aristotle was considered to be the first who described and discussed about the metaphor in his well-known books ―Poetics‖ and ―Rhetoric‖. Aristotle‘s works made the foundation for the classical views of metaphor which the key elements are comparison and similarity. Aristotle compared metaphor with simile while the other famous philosopher Cicerone stated that metaphor was used because people needed to express the concepts that there were no words for them. Aristotle (2005, 15) claimed that metaphor is a unique linguistic phenomenon and only talented people were able to use it in their language ―But the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone cannot be imparted by another; it is the mark of genius, for to make good-metaphors implies an eye for resemblances‖. Aristotle defined metaphor as a unique literary device which indicates the similarities of things and adds style or elegance for the speech. He approached the metaphor as a rhetorical stylistic device ―ornamental‖ while other linguistics such as Richards (1936), Halliday (1985), Lakoff (2003) and Kövecses (2005) discussed about metaphor as a matter of thought or the tool of cognition. Lakoff and Johnson (2003, 4) write ―our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people‖. Metaphor was considered as a figure of style or rhetorical decoration for a long time which does not convey any information and appears merely as a stylistic ornament, but from the middle of the 20th century metaphor was discussed as a cognitive phenomenon as the principle of thinking. This explanation seems to be applicable to conceptual metaphor. However, the author of this final thesis analyses metaphor from linguistic, not conceptual perspective. 26

There are distinguished different types of metaphor. The first one is a traditional approach to metaphor which is defined above. Halliday (1985, 319) represents metaphor from traditional or linguistic approach ―a word which is used for something resembling that which it usually refers to‖. Traditionally, the scholars regarded metaphor as a matter of language, a linguistic phenomenon or a figure of speech in which an implicit comparison is made between two unlike entities. To quote Gibbs (2008, 3), ―Metaphor is not simply an ornamental aspect of language, but a fundamental scheme by which people conceptualize the world and their own activities‖. The author of the master thesis is concerned with the linguistic metaphors therefore they are divided into - direct and indirect metaphors. The main differences between direct and indirect metaphors are that ―Direct metaphors explicitly contain a cross-domain mapping in language, as it is typically the case in analogies and similes like <…>‖ (Beger, 2011, 40). Direct metaphor usually identifies what is being compared with ―is‖, ―are‖ or ―like‖, for example, ―the mind works like a computer‖. In this example, the two domains, MIND and COMPUTER are directly compared. However, according to Krennmayr (2011, 78), indirect metaphors are typically used in newspaper. Indirect metaphor hints at what is being compared but does not say it directly. Despite the fact metaphors are used direct or indirect metaphors evoke imagery which engages readers emotionally, but in some circumstances certain emotional reactions are artificially generated by newscasters, either to align the readers with their own interests, or to displace rational arguments in the public debate (Kozakowska, 2014, 14). As Kowecses, (2000) notes, emotions such as love, hate, joy and sorrow are also known to have been rendered metaphorically since antiquity. The second type is a conceptual metaphor which linguists are defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another. The linguist Black (1979) was the first who started speaking of metaphors in terms of concepts rather than in terms of words. The idea of conceptual metaphor was extensively explored by famous linguists Lakoff and Johnson in 1980s in their significant work ―Metaphors We Live By‖. According to them, metaphor is viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather that actions or thoughts. A lot of people think that they can live well without metaphor. However, the truth is that people think and act metaphorically in nature, this is our ordinary conceptual system. Ortony (1993) explains that metaphors perform cognitive functions and they create a new attitude to the world. The main idea of cognitive approach is that cognition is the result of mental construction. This general orientation is of the cognitive view. Lakoff and Johnson (2003) explain that our underlying fundamental metaphorical concepts are divided into several types of conceptual metaphor:

• Orientational metaphors relate to spatial orientation and directly arising from the experiences of our bodies functioning in three dimensional spaces (up/down, in/out, front/back, on/off, near/far, deep/shallow and central/peripheral). Orientational metaphors give a concept with a spatial orientation. For example, HAPPY IS UP. • Ontological metaphors help us to identify our experiences and associate activities, emotions and ideas as entities or substances. For example, life has cheated me. The underlying conceptual metaphor is LIFE IS A PERSON. • Structural metaphors: cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, TIME IS MONEY. Richards (1950) established theory and described metaphor as the fundamental principle of the language that all people use in their speech every day. He proposed to analyse metaphor according to its components: the tenor, which refers to the underlying idea, and the vehicle, which conveys the underlying idea, resembled by the tenor. Furthermore, I.A. Richards (1950) introduced the term ground which represents the similarities between the tenor and the vehicle. It stabilizes the relationship between the tenor and the vehicle, whereas in poetic and literary use of the metaphor the ground is very often shifting, it is unstable because the metaphor itself often constructs its own ground. There are semantic similarities which exist between the tenor and vehicle concept on which the interpretation is based. Other scientists such as Cameron (2003) separate deliberate and non-deliberate metaphors. Also, metaphors can be classified according to the degree of unexpectedness: dead metaphors, live or active metaphors, extended metaphors and mixed metaphors. However, these kinds of metaphors are outside of the scope of this present thesis. To conclude, this present research is conducted in a traditional concerning metaphor and it is defined as a figure of speech which refers to one thing by mentioning another thing. This traditional approach to metaphor would be applied to the analysis of all the randomly collected headlines with metaphors in headlines. Nowadays there is a huge body of empirical works from various academic disciplines that clearly demonstrates that metaphor is used in every day and specialized language. Likewise, there is a significant research indicating not only the prominence of metaphor in many areas of abstract thought but also in people‘s emotional and aesthetic experiences.

3.2. Metaphor in Business Discourse

A modern metaphor theory denies the idea that metaphors are merely poetic stylistic devices rather than a part of every day speech or characteristic of human thought. Metaphors allow people to make sense of the world and deal with their experiences on it. Vasiloaia (2011, 231) points out that the discussion of metaphor in economics started in 1982 by Willie Henderson who pointed at the scarcity of analyses of metaphor in economics, in spite of the ―wide and deliberate use of metaphor in economic texts‖. However, there were lots of doubts about using metaphors in economics because most economists say that they have never heard of metaphor and it should be avoided in scientific language because it is an instrument of imprecision, though they are unconsciously using it daily. Undoubtedly, these economists are wrong and metaphor plays a very important role in popularizing business concepts. Geary (2012, 3) points out, metaphor is met in all fields of human endeavor, including advertising, politics, business, psychology and science. According to Albrighton (2003), ―Metaphors are valuable tools in business, particularly when people need to communicate complex, dry ideas. Because metaphors nearly always depend on familiar physical objects as their vehicles, they make abstract concepts more concrete and sensory rich‖. English business discourse is full of examples of various figures of speech or clichés. There are plenty of metaphors in the present-day newspapers. To quote Krennmayr (2011, 17), ―the press is full of metaphorical language such as attention grabbing metaphor use in headlines or clustering of metaphorical expressions from the same source domain‖. Skorczynska and Deignan (2006, 89) claim that there are three main uses of metaphor in business discourse: 1) Those that serve as a textual decoration or illustration ―but not being allocated any central purpose‖; 2) Metaphors that occur in all language ―as a central organizing device‖; 3) Metaphor that is ―a device for exploring specific economic problems and a basis for extending the domain of economic ideas‖. These three strategies of metaphors in business discourse may be of use for the journalists of the headlines and can help to create the most ―eye-catching‖ headline with metaphor. Skorczynska and Deignan (2006, 88) point out that ―writer‘s choices of linguistic metaphor are importantly influenced by 2 factors: the text‘s intended readership and its purpose‖. It means that metaphors are used in business discourse with reader in mind. However, the most difficult task is to recognize metaphor in business discourse. Metaphor identification has been widely investigated by many scholars (e.g. Kitis & Milapides, 1997;

Zinken, 2003, Musolff, 2006; Chiang & Duann, 2007), but it is still unsolved issue, as new ways for metaphor recognition are sought for. According to the Linguistic Encyclopaedia (2004, 309), ―the criterion for identifying a metaphor is that, taken literally, the metaphorical utterance would be plainly false‖. Scholars still do not agree in what should be recognized as metaphorical and what should not. Therefore, recently appeared a new paper on metaphorical identification ―metaphor identification procedure‖ (MIP) by Pragglejaz Group (2007). This is a new method for identification of metaphorically used words in texts. The MIP is as follows (2007, 3): 1) Read the entire text–discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning. 2) Determine the lexical units in the text–discourse: 3) (a) For each lexical unit in the text, establish its meaning in context, that is, how it applies to an entity, relation, or attribute in the situation evoked by the text (contextual meaning). Take into account what comes before and after the lexical unit. (b) For each lexical unit, determine if it has a more basic contemporary meaning in other contexts than the one in the given context. For our purposes, basic meanings tend to be: —More concrete; what they evoke is easier to imagine, see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. —Related to bodily action. —More precise (as opposed to vague). —Historically older. Basic meanings are not necessarily the most frequent meanings of the lexical unit. (c) If the lexical unit has a more basic current–contemporary meaning in other contexts than the given context, decide whether the contextual meaning contrasts with the basic meaning but can be understood in comparison with it. 4) If yes, mark the lexical unit as metaphorical. This procedure would be used to identify metaphorical expressions in business discourse and political discourse in the headlines taken from the corpus in this present paper. Metaphors are used in the headlines not only for the rhetorical effect. They also perform linguistic, cognitive, social and aesthetic functions‖ (Zheng, 2015, 133). First of all, metaphors fill terminological gaps especially in scientific articles on business, finance and economics discourse. Secondly, metaphors in business have a decorative and illustrative purpose making headlines more vivid, impressive and expressive. Metaphors also make a strong impact on people‘s senses contain emotive meaning. Thirdly, metaphors are usually organized in chains. Metaphors provide cohesion to the text. According to Zheng (2015, 134),

30 there are distinguished two types of metaphors in business discourse: nominal metaphors and verbal metaphors. Nominal metaphors in business discourse help readers infer unknown concepts with familiar experience or get accurate concepts with jargons in another field. Meanwhile, verbal metaphors are used to describe and explain abstract and complex economic trends or business activities in business discourse. To conclude, metaphors are not only used in poetic but also in business discourse because it also helps to create a strong impact on people‘s senses which could be either positive or negative. Metaphors convey information in a rational, argumentative and more suggestive way.

4. HEADLINES WITH METAPHORS IN ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN

4.1. Methodology

The corpus for this study was compiled manually from two business newspapers – the English newspaper The Economist and the Lithuanian newspaper Verslo Ţinios. 200 headlines containing the metaphors in English and 200 headlines with metaphors in Lithuanian were collected randomly from business and political articles. In total, from two sources there were collected 400 headlines with metaphors. The newspapers dating from the 2nd of February, 2016 to the 25th on March, 2017 were subjected to analysis. The performance of the research required several procedural steps to be taken:  First of all, 200 headlines with metaphors in English and 200 headlines with metaphors in Lithuanian were collected randomly from two business newspapers.  Secondly, contrastive analysis of metaphors was conducted to determine their semantic characteristic according to their type of transference based on the similarity.  Finally, contrastive analysis was performed to find out similarities and differences about metaphorisation process in English and Lithuanian newspapers‘ headlines with metaphors in business and political discourse. Contrastive method was employed in order to find out similarities and differences between metaphorisation process of business and political discourse in English and Lithuanian in terms of semantic aspects. Besides, the quantitative approach, namely, statistical analysis was used as supplementary in order to calculate the relative frequency of occurrence of metaphors in headlines in English and Lithuanian.

5. SEMANTIC FEATURES OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN NEWSPAPERS’ HEADLINES 5.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process 5.1.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in The Economist Headlines According to the corpus, metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process occur in 72 out of 200 headlines and they make 36 per cent of the analyzed headlines (See Appendix 2, Table 1). The analysis of these headlines shows three dominant tendencies or types of transference in such kind of metaphorical expressions. The first tendency of this type of metaphorical expression based on similarity of process is realized by verbs which express actions or movements ahead or forward. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples of this tendency. In all of them there are verbs which indicates movements ahead such as ―to catch‖, ―to rise‖, ―to pick up‖ ―to grow‖, ―to nudge‖, ―to push‖, ―to go‖. This tendency was found in 23 out of 72 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Why Colin Kaepernick‟s silent protest is catching on‖ (September 20, 2016) ―Where smoking is on the rise process‖ (January 23, 2017) ―The rise of the Herbal Tea Party‖ (January 26, 2017) ―The world economy is picking up‖ (March 18, 2017) ―China‟s growing clout in international economic affairs‖ (March 23, 2017)

One of the examples of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―How governments can nudge informal businesses to leave the grey economy‖ (November 14, 2016). The primary meaning of the verb ―to nudge‖ is to prod or push someone kindly or gently in order to attract attention. Thus, a direct meaning of the headline is meaningless because the reader could understand that governments come and push informal business to leave a particular place or in this case the grey economy. In a figurative way the verb ―to nudge‖ symbolizes the process of stopping the grey economy. The headline informs the reader that there are illegal incomes in the informal businesses and this situation cannot be tolerated anymore. The governments would like to go out from this situation that is why the governments prod or push informal businesses but not in a gently way. From the literally and figurative point of view, the verb ―to nudge‖ demonstrates the process of moving ahead but a direct meaning and an indirect meaning is actually the same.

The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Breitbart News pushes deeper into Europe‖ (December 10, 2016). The primary meaning of the verb ―to push‖ is to exert force on someone in order to move them away. The statement ―pushes deeper‖ means that Breitbart News wants to spread in Europe as the main information source. It is like a movement ahead from one particular place or in this case America Breitbart News would like to conquer wider audience in Europe. Breitbart sends an international approach to the audience by appealing anti-globalisation or anti-immigrant sentiment and it could help to grab readers‘ attention in Europe. From the literally and figurative point of view, the verb ―to push‖ demonstrates the process of moving ahead but a direct meaning and an indirect meaning is actually different. Meanwhile, in an indirect way the verb ―to push‖ means to go forward or in this case to spread in Europe as one of the main information source. One more proving example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Why is American football going big in Britain?‖ (September 29, 2016). The primary meaning of the verb ―to go‖ is to go from one particular place to another. Literally, the meaning of the headline is understood word for word because it means that American football team is going to Britain. The process of ―going‖ symbolizes a successful team moving ahead because they achieve something bigger than they have before and they become stronger. The team becomes bigger and it could play better as well. From the literally and figurative point of view, the verb ―to go‖ demonstrates the process of moving ahead. In a direct way, the verb ―to go‖ means to move from one particular place to another while in an indirect way it means to become bigger than before or in this case that American football team expands its boundaries in Britain. The second tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process is that the process is expressed through verbs which mean ―to encounter difficulties‖. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples of this tendency because in all of them there is a key element the verb which means ―to conduct with difficulties‖ or in the most cases collision is expressed by word ―to face‖. This tendency was found in 13 out of 72 headlines with metaphors, for instance:

―The air-leasing sector may soon face harder times‖ (June 1, 2016) ―Markets start to face the prospect of a Trump victory‖ (September 16, 2016) ―Republican tax-reform plans to face many hurdles, including Donald Trump‖ (January 21, 2017) ―Uber is facing the biggest crisis in its short history‖ (March 25, 2017) ―In Copeland and Stoke, Labour faces threats from different sources‖ (February 16, 2017)

One of the examples of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Uber is facing the biggest crisis in its short history‖ (March 25, 2017). A direct meaning of this headline means that the company Uber is positioned with its face to the crisis. The verb ―to face‖ shows the process which is directed to the difficult situation in which Uber company is. Metaphorically, this headline means that Uber company befalls into a difficult situation in the short period. Probably, Uber has just started to operate and as in the beginning of all new companies it got societies‘ popularity. Unfortunately, people‘s opinion is negative and people do not want to use Uber service. Instead of calling Uber people are calling other firms which suggest the similar services. Thus, Uber does not gather enough money as it expected in the beginning of its operation. Therefore, Uber has to reconsider their services for going out of the situation of crisis. From the literally and figurative perspective, the meanings are different. In a direct way ―to face‖ means to turn the face to somebody and to look into another person. While in an indirect way, it means to confront with problems as in this case Uber company. One more example of the analysis of metaphorical expression of this type is ―Crumbling ceasefire‖ (September 23, 2016). A direct meaning of this headline signalizes that something bad is happening because the verb ―crumbling‖ refers to the process when one part of the whole breaks or falls apart into small fragments, especially as a part of a process of deterioration. Metaphorically, this headline informs the reader that the agreement which was reached between two companies or two people or other organizations is falling down. It means something really wrong is happening and the arrangement will not be successfully achieved by these organizations or companies. Therefore, a ceasefire is breaking into different parts. From the literally and figurative prospective, the meaning is actually the same. In a direct way it means breaking or falling into small fragments while in an indirect way it means that the process of crumbling shows not a happy ending of a ceasefire. Finally, the last example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―The challenges facing Peru‟s new president‖ (July 29, 2016). A direct meaning of this headline means that Peru‘s president is positioned with his face into the challenges. The verb ―to face‖ shows the process which is directed to the difficult situation in which there is a new Peru‘s president. A new president has to admit new responsibilities and commitments because the president in Peru is the central figure of the executive power. The president has to work with a powerful opposition and decide over different political and economic issues. From the literally and figurative prospective, the meaning actually is different. In the literally way the metaphor means that Peru‘s president is positioned with his face into challenges while in the

35 figurative way it means that Peru‘s president has to admit new responsibilities and commitments and to solve different political and economic issues. The third tendency of this type of metaphorical expression is realized through verbs which reflect the situation of war. The war is usually related to fighting, shooting or killing. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples of this tendency. In all of them there are verbs which are related to war such as ―to grapple‖, ―to share their struggles‖, ―battle to be‖, ―beating‖, ―to race‖, ―to beat‖. This tendency was found in 12 out of 72 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Religious leaders grapple with doctor-assisted dying‖ (August 1, 2016) ―Why former Mormons club together to share their struggles‖ (August 21, 2016) ―Gary Johnson‟s battle to be a contender‖ (September 3, 2016) ―Beating Apple, Xiaomi and the Gang in China‖ (February 4, 2017) ―Companies are racing to add value to water‖ (March 25, 2017)

From the collected examples it can be observed the tendency that various business or political situations are represented as battle, fight or race in which businessmen or politician are like soldiers or armed forces who would like to win by any means. One of the examples of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―The presidential race enters the classroom‖ (October 20, 2016). The headline means that the presidential race goes into the classroom. The verb ―enter‖ shows that the political competition between two competitors is moved to the next level. A particular place ―classroom‖ creates an irony because it means that the presidential race is similar to the quarrel when two children do not share the sweets. Thus, in a figurative way this headline means that the competition is not as serious as the reader can understand or think about. In both ways, the process shows the movement from one particular place to another. In a direct way, the presidents go directly into the classroom but in an indirect way it means that the competition moves to the childhood level when children are arguing for small things. Another example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Companies are racing to add value to water‖ (March 25, 2017). The primary meaning of the verb ―to race‖ is to compete with another and to see who is fastest at achieving an objective. In this headline, the verb ―to race‖ demonstrates the process which is reflected to the situation of war or the competition. Companies are like soldiers which are fighting against each other because of the wish to win. Companies are using several different places to get the pure water. They

36 are competing because bottle of water business gives benefits and it is very competitive. In a direct meaning and an indirect meaning, the meaning of the headline is actually the same because it means that one of the companies wants to be the best and win by any means. The same as is in the military situation when armed forces want to conquer others they do it by any conditions. One more proving example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―How athletes can use medical exemptions to beat drug testers‖ (September 19, 2016). The primary meaning of the verb ―to beat‖ is to strike a person or an animal repeatedly so as to hurt or injure them. Metaphorically, the verb ―to beat‖ means ―to deceive‖ drug testers. It means that athletes know some secrets how to deceive drug testers that the tests would show a wrong answer. Athletes try to deceive drug testers because they want to win in a sport competition and in this way to beat their competitors. In the same way the soldiers try to beat their opponents in the war. In both ways, the meaning of the headline is actually the same because in a direct way it means to hurt someone, while in an indirect way it means to show the misleading test‘s answer in order to beat competitors. In conclusion, it is clear from the analysis above that that there are three predominant tendencies in the metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process. The first tendency is the process is expressed through a particular action or movement ahead, the second tendency is the process is expressed through the verbs related to war and the last tendency is the process is expressed through the verbs which mean ―to encounter difficulties‖. However, these three tendencies were observed many times in the corpus of headlines but these are not the only ones. These three tendencies are the most prevailing but they are not limited to that. Processes based on similarity of action are also expressed through the verbs related to flying such as ―Flying on a budget carrier for business is bad for the ego, but necessary‖ (July 10, 2016), also business companies‘ actions are expressed through the verbs related to the weather or natural phenomenon, for example, ―Samsung‟s meltdown‖ (October 12, 2016) or ―A well-loved monster takes Japan‟s box office by storm once again‖ (September 26, 2016), actions also express through the verbs related to the entertainments activities, for instance, ―Japanese golf courses hunt for a new driver‖ (December 1, 2016) or ―The spectre of slavery haunts George Washington‟s house‖ (January 5, 2017), actions express through the verbs related to the sea, for example, ―The European Union tries to prevent a wave of migrants from Libya‖ (February 4, 2017). However, all these cases, which are mentioned above, are just single cases expressions because they were found just in several metaphorical expressions. They are not prevailing tendencies in the metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process.

5.1.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in the Verslo Žinios Headlines According to the corpus, metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process occur in 90 out of 200 headlines and they make 45 per cent of the analyzed headlines (See Appendix 2, Table 2). The analysis of these headlines shows three dominant tendencies or types of transference in such kind of metaphorical expressions. The first tendency of this type of metaphorical expression based on similarity of process is through the verbs which are related to body parts or body organs. These examples below are specific because in some of them are conducted two types of similarity – process and personification which is based on the process such as ―kyščioja suomiškos ausys‖, ―toliau savo barzdos nemato‖, ―rieškučiomis semia‖, ―rankų nenuleido‖, ―plauna smegenis‖, ―parduos iš vienų rankų‖, ―bado pirštu‖, ―uţuosti‖. This tendency occurs in 14 out of 90 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Kai toliau savo barzdos nemato‖ (March 3, 2016) ―Klaipėdos „Akropolis“ atnaujino veidą‖ (June 6, 2016) ―Švediška bambagyslė apie kaklą dar nesivinioja‖ (June 8, 2016) ―Rusija rieškučiomis semia juodos dienos atsargas‖ (September 9, 2016) ―Po bankroto rankų nenuleido: plovyklą iškeitė į naują technlologiją‖ (October 29, 2016)

One of the examples of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―„Teo― ir „Omnitel― visas paslaugas parduos iš vienų rankų‖ (August 11, 2016). Literally, this headline shows that two juridical people act as one juridical person and give services to individuals. In this metaphorical expression ―parduos iš vienų rankų‖ two people have one hand, for this reason the headline is meaningfulness because it cannot be true that two people have just one hand. From the figurative point of view, this metaphor is significant because it shows that two big companies ―Omnitel‖ and ―Teo‖ merger and start processing as the one company. They both will sell products and services acting together and as one juridical person. They will have one seat, one executive committee and one administrative committee. At the same time, this metaphor based on similarity of process has a positive connotation to the merged company. It will improve the services and will suggest to the clients more services than before. Besides, it is a well-known company and that could attract even more clients and more incomes in the future. Two big companies have merged and they will sell the products having one seat, one executive and administrative committee. 38

The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―EBPO bado pirštu į Lietuvos inovacijų spragas‖ (February 10, 2016). This is one of the examples of personification which is based on the process. ―EBPO‖ is an inanimate thing which is personified. The headline means that the company ―EBPO‖ sticks with its finger to Lithuania. ―EBPO‖ emphasizes the problems which Lithuania has in innovation. However, this statement ―bado pirštu‖ sends a deeper and extra meaning for the reader through the metaphorical expression. ―EBPO‖ is an economical and prestigious organization whose aim is to help the countries economically and financially, also to promote employment and expand global trading. Figuratively, ―EBPO‖ shows to Lithuania what problems the country has in innovation. The statement ―bado pirštu‖ shows the process that is usually done by a human being when someone does something wrong but in this case ―EBPO‖ sticks its finger. In any case, Lithuania wants to be a member of this organization despite of the actions of the ―EBPO‖. The metaphorical expression demonstrates that there are some gaps in innovation and technologies but Lithuania is ready to improve it. In addition, the meanings are the same in a literally way and figurative way. Literally, the headline means that the company ―EBPO‖ sticks with its finger to Lithuania, while in a figurative way means that ―EBPO‖ emphasizes the problems which Lithuania has in innovation and technologies. The following example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―„Millenium“ karta neturi užuosti reklamos‖ (February 3, 2016). The first association of verb ―uţuosti‖ is nose. This is a process of perceiving odours or scents by means of the organs in the nose. For this reason, this headline is expressed rather figuratively than literally, because a direct meaning of the headline means that ―Millennium karta‖ have not to smell the advertisements. Figuratively, the verb ―uţuosti‖ demonstrates the process of creation of advertisements the goal of which is to create very delicate advertisements. ―Millenium karta‖ is a group of people who does not believe in advertisements but they believe in products‘ effectiveness. Therefore, people who create advertisements have to think how to create such the advertisements that ―Millennium karta‖ does not think this is the advertisement and just beautiful words. In other words ―Millenium karta‖ likes practically approved things and is even more spoiled than those who born in the twenty century. In both ways the meaning of the headline is different. In a literally way it means to smell something while in a figuratively way it means that the people who create advertisements have to create very delicate advertisements. The second tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process is that the process or changes are expressed through the weather or natural phenomenon. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples. In all of them there are verbs which

39 indicate the process based on weather or natural phenomenon such as ―lenda verslumo spindulys‖, ―rikiuos rudens rinkimų karštinė‖, ―išpūtė kviečių kainą‖, ―įpūtė‖, ―tirpsta‖, ―ištirpo‖, ―pučia‖. This tendency occurs in 11 out of 90 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Pro nykius debesis lenda verslumo spindulys‖ (February 2, 2016) ―Pavasario darbus rikiuos rudens rinkimų karštinė‖ (March 8, 2016) ―Liūtys išpūtė kviečių kainą‖ (June 6, 2016) ―Trumpas įpūtė entuziazmo Europos populistams‖ (November 11, 2016) ―Didţiosios grąţos laikas tirpsta‖ (February 2, 2017)

One of the examples of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Į akis pučiama reform migla‖ (June 16, 2016). In most cases, the word ―pūsti‖ is associated with the wind. The wind is a natural movement of the air, especially in the form of a current of air blowing from a particular direction. In a figurative meaning the headline informs about the lie which is said by people or organization to the other side. The verb ―pūsti‖ shows the process which takes time and gives a result after a concrete period. Furthermore, the verb ―pūsti‖ also creates a negative meaning to this headline. It means that something wrong is saying directly to people‘s eyes without any shames. In addition, both meanings of the headline express a negative process of blowing. Literally, the headline means that someone is blowing to the other person‘s eyes, while in a figurative way means that the verb ―pūsti‖ stands for the lie which is said by people or organization to each other. The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―„Švyturys― paaiškino, kodėl ištirpo pelnas‖ (April 26, 2016). Literally, in most cases the word ―ištirpo‖ is associated with winter because only snow can melt from the sunlight. For this reason, the word ―ištirpti‖ reflects the natural phenomenon which becomes liquefied by heating. Thus, a direct meaning of the headline is meaningless because ―pelnas‖ is not the snow which can easily melt by heating. However, the headline has an extra and deeper meaning for the reader which is expressed through the metaphorical expression which is directed through the natural phenomenon. Figuratively, the headline informs about the decreasing situation of the ―Švyturys‖ company‘s profits. It means that the company has fewer incomes because it probably sells fewer products in the market. From the literally and figurative point of view, the meaning in a direct way and an indirect way is actually the same. In both ways the word ―ištirpo‖ signalizes about disappearing of something. In a direct way it could be the snow or in an indirect way it is ―Švyturys‖ company‘s incomes.

Another proving example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Permainų vėjai Lotynų Amerikos valstybių politikoje‖ (June 28, 2016). Literally, the statement ―permainų vėjai‖ means that the different wind is blowing in Latin America. The wind is a natural movement of the air, especially in the form of a current of air blowing from a particular direction. Thus, the reader of the headline could understand that the different wind is blowing in Latin American countries. However, this headline is expressed rather figuratively than literally, because it sends a deeper meaning for the reader through the metaphorical expression. Figurative, a natural phenomenon ―vėjas‖ stands for the changes in politics in Latin American countries. Changes are compared with the wind because as the wind is blowing strong or weak changes also could turn to a good or bad side and could be big or small ones. Moreover, a person never knows when it starts happening the changes or it starts blowing the wind because nature is an uncontrolled phenomenon. From the literally and figurative point of view, the meaning in a direct way and an indirect way is actually different. In the literally way it means that the different wind is blowing and in the figurative way it means that the changes in politics have already appeared in Latin American countries. The third tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process is that the process or changes are expressed through verbs related to water. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples of this tendency. In all of them there are verbs which are related to water such as ―kelia naujas bures‖, ―atsišvartuoti‖, ―pasisemti‖, ―banga pasiekė‖, ―nepaskęstų‖, ―neria‖, ―ţvejoja‖. This tendency occurs in 8 out of 90 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Rusijoje kvailių laivas kelia naujas bures‖ (July 13, 2016) ―JK gyventojai sprendţia ar atsišvartuoti nuo ES‖ (July 23, 2016) ―Pasisemti pinigų yra kur‖ (August 17, 2016) ―Keitimosi informacija apie sąskaitas banga pasiekė Monaką‖ (August 11, 2016) ―Kad salelė nepaskęstų prekybos centro vandenyne‖ (November 17, 2016)

The first example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Rusijoje kvailių laivas kelia naujas bures‖ (July 13, 2016). Literally, from the headline the reader can understand that Russian ship starts the voyage in the sea or the ocean. The ship raises new sails. Just the word ―kvailių‖ creates a misleading meaning in the literally way because the direct meaning of ―kvailių‖ is a stupid person. However, this headline is absolutely metaphorically because the metaphor is under the words ―kvailių laivas kelia naujas bures‖. This metaphor has a negative connotation because the adjective ―kvailių” describes person who acts unwisely and imprudently. Metaphorically, ―kvailių laivas‖ stands for the Russian‘s 41 government and ―kelia naujas bures‖ stands for the new political directions or perhaps a new law that has just been released. From this metaphorical headline the reader can understand that the new rules in Russia have been established which will be applied in the society. It could be that the society is not satisfied with the new political moves because the ship is full of fools. However, in both ways in literally and figuratively meaning the action ―kelia naujas bures‖ shows that the new action starts. In literally way the engine of the ship starts going and in figuratively way the new political directions are applied in the society. The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Smulkieji drąsiai neria į gilesnius verslo vandenis‖ (February 3, 2016). Literally, the word ―neria‖ is usually associated with the water because it means to plunge into the water or to go to a deeper level in the water. Thus, from a direct meaning of the headline the reader can understand that some of the small companies dive into the ocean. However, companies are inanimate things and for this reason they cannot dive into the ocean or the sea, thus a direct meaning of the headline is irrelevant. The headline has an extra and deeper meaning for the reader which is expressed through the metaphorical expression which is directed through the sea or ocean. Figuratively, the headline means that smaller business companies or shops are searching better opportunities and conditions for their business or they decide to expand their business ―neria į gilesnius verslo vandenis‖. For example, the small company can start selling more products that are different or a smaller company can merge with a bigger company. The companies are brave because when the company is small is not so much to lose in taking a risk to expand the business. In both ways in a literally and figuratively meaning, the process of ―nerti‖ expresses the action of going deeper or further. In a direct meaning means to go deeper into the water or swim under the water while in an indirect meaning means to expand and to extend businesses‘ boundaries. Finally, the last example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Bendrovės Kauno rajone strategija: kol žvejoja investicijas, imasi kitų uţsakymų‖ (June 19, 2016). Literally, the word ―ţvejoja‖ is related to water because the primary meaning of this word is to catch a fish, typically by using a net or hook and line. For this reason, the headline is meaningless in a direct way because ―bendrovės Kauno rajone‖ are inanimate things and they cannot fish by using a net or hook. In a figurative way, the verb ―ţvejoja‖ means searching new possibilities for ―Kauno bendrovei‖. The headline means that ―bendrovės Kauno rajone‖ are searching new investments because it can help to improve their business. The process of searching new possibilities is expressed in a figurative way through the verb ―ţvejoja‖ because it requires patience and time as the same in fishing. If you want to catch a fish you must stay calm, silent and concentrated on your aim because you never know when

42 fish starts sticking unless you know secret places. In the business world is the same situation if you want to achieve something better than you have now you must search new places and better conditions for your investments. In both ways in a literally and figuratively meaning the process of ―ţvejoti‖ expresses the action of catching a fish or investments. In a direct meaning it means to catch a fish using a net or hook while in an indirect meaning it means to search better conditions and circumstances for ―Kauno bendrovės‖ business. In conclusion, it is clear from the analysis above that there are three predominant tendencies in metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process. The first tendency is the process is expressed through the verbs related to body parts or body organs. The second tendency is the process is expressed through the weather or natural phenomenon and the last tendency is the process is expressed through the verbs related to water. These three tendencies were observed many times in the corpus of headlines but these are not the only ones. These three tendencies are the most prevailing but they are not limited to that. Processes based on similarity of action are also expressed process through verbs related to war such as ―Grumiasi dėl rinkos dalies‖ (February 11, 2016) or ―Bręsta mūšis dėl VVĮ kapitalo grąţų‖ (April 19, 2016), also process is dedicated through the verbs related to clothes, for example, ―Kobe Bryantas velkasi rizikos kapitalo marškinėlius‖ (August 22, 2016) or ―Investavimas 2017 m.: Prisisekite diržus duobėtoms rinkoms‖ (November 18, 2016), process is expressed through the verbs related to sports, for instance, ―Per reformą šuoliuojama uţsimerkus‖ (June 21, 2016) or ―Vien su reinvestuoto pelno lengvata maratono prieš estus nelaimėsime‖ (April 24, 2016). However, all these cases, which are mentioned above, are just single cases of the metaphorical expressions because they were found only several times. They are not prevailing tendencies in the metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process.

5.1.3. Juxtaposition of Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios Headlines The corpus analysis shows that the metaphorical expressions based on the similarity of process are more frequently used in the Verslo Ţinios than in The Economist. In the Verslo Ţinios there are 90 of 200 headlines or 45 per cent while in The Economist 72 of 200 headlines or 36 per cent of such metaphorical expressions. It could be claimed that in the Verslo Ţinios it was found 25 per cent more metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process than in The Economist. Moreover, the analysis of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process shows not only statistical data but also it indicates the dominant tendencies of expressing the processes in metaphorical expressions.

Table 1. Frequency of distribution of the dominant tendencies in metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios headlines

Metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process Newspaper Dominant Tendencies Number of Occurences The Economist Movement ahead or forward 23 ―To encounter difficulties‖ 13 War 12 The Verslo Ţinios Body parts or body organs 14 Weather or natural phenomenon 11 Water 8

As the results of the analysis show (see the Table 1) the tendencies of expressing business and political news through metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process are different in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios. The dominant tendencies in The Economist are the process expressed through the verbs which mean movement ahead, the second tendency is the process expressed through the verbs which mean ―to encounter difficulties‖ and the last tendency is the process expressed through the verbs related to war. In the Verslo Ţinios the dominant tendencies of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process are as follows: first tendency realized through the verbs is related to body parts or body organs, the second tendency is the process expressed through weather or natural phenomenon and the last tendency is the process expressed through water.

5.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality 5.2.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in The Economist Headlines According to the corpus, metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality occur in 98 out of 200 headlines and they make 49 per cent of the analyzed headlines (See Appendix 2, Table 3). The analysis of these headlines shows three dominant tendencies or types of transference in such kind of metaphorical expressions. The first dominant tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality is business or politics deal with body parts or body organs. The examples below are randomly collected but they are typical examples of this tendency because the key elements are nouns

44 denoting body parts or body organs such as ―hand‖, ―eye‖, ―head‖, ―heart‖. This tendency was found in 14 out of 98 headlines with metaphors, for instance:

―The eye of the storm‖ (May 12, 2016) ―Keeping it under your hand‖ (April 16, 2016) ―Their eyes on Albion‖ (June 11, 2016) “Making eyes across the ocean‖ (September 8, 2016) ―The hole at the heart of economics‖ (November 22, 2016)

The first example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Their eyes on Albion‖ (June 11, 2016). A direct meaning of the eyes is a pair of globular organs of sight in the head of humans or animals, thus is the body organs. In this headline, the noun ―eyes‖ stand for the other countries that are concerned about British decision to remain European Union or not. ―Eyes‖ symbolizes accuracy attention from the whole world to Britain. This is not only other countries but also various institutions which are interested in Britain economics situation after Brexit. From the literally and figuratively perspectives, the meaning is different because in a direct way eyes are humans organs on the head while in an indirect way eyes stands for the other institutions which are cared about Britain‘s decision about Brexit. The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―The hole at the heart of economics‖ (November 22, 2016). A direct meaning of this headline is not significant because economics is an inanimate thing which does not have the heart, so it cannot be a hole at it. Figuratively in this case, ―heart‖ stands for the central place of the economics. It is the most important part of a successful functioning process but the statement ―the hole at the heart‖ signalizes about the disease in the main organ ―heart‖. If the main organ is damaged, the person or economics of a country will die. In this case, it can be that one of the countries has economic problems, for example, many debts which can lead to the countries bankrupt. In both ways, the meaning of the metaphorical expression is the same. In a literally way it means that there is a hole at the heart, in other words that a person has a heart disease and in a figuratively meaning it is clear the one of the countries has economic difficulties, probably lots of debts. In both cases the situation has to be improved, otherwise a person or a country will die or disappear. The last example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expressions is ―Should we turn our understanding of the Middle East on its head?‖ (October 20, 2016). The direct meaning of the word ―head‖ is the upper part of the human body which is separated from the rest of the body by neck and which also contains the brain, mouth and sense organs. Thus, a

45 direct meaning of this headline is misleading because the reader could understand that someone who is interpreted as ―we‖ should turn their heads to the Middle East. Figuratively, the headline means to change the general understanding about the Middle East and to start thinking in another way. From the literally and figurative perspective, the meaning is actually different. In a direct way, it means that some people have to turn their heads to the Middle East. In an indirect way it means that some people have to change their understanding and ideas about the Middle East. The second tendency of metaphorical expressions is business or politics substitute as war or in other words could be called ―war metaphors‖. The first thing that comes to our mind when we think of war is battles, military forces, troops, weapons (e.g. guns and bombs, etc.), war strategies and the outcomes of war. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples of this tendency. In all of them there are nouns which are related to war such as ―race‖, ―invasion‖, ―battle‖, ―weapons‖, ―war‖, ―traps‖. This tendency was found in 11 out of 98 headlines with metaphors in business or political discourse, for example:

―The state of the race‖ (September 30, 2016) ―Trump and the political economy of liquidity traps‖ (November 10, 2016) ―War of the words‖ (January 4, 2017) ―A scandal throws France‟s presidential race wide open‖ (February 4, 2017). ―Britain‟s war on seagulls‖ (February 9, 2017)

One of the examples of the analysis of metaphorical expressions of this type is ―The state of the race‖ (September 30, 2016). The word ―state‖ means a particular condition that someone or something is in at a specific time while the word ―race‖ means a competition between runners, vehicles, etc. to see which is the fastest of all the competitors. Literally, the headline could be understandable as the beginning of the competition when all the competitors are standing at the starting line and are waiting for the sign to begin. The statement ―state of the race‖ announces about the presidential race in the USA. The statement ―state of the race‖ stands for the beginning of the tense situation in the USA. Two candidates to the president compete to each other. They are not running directly as in the race but the ―race‖ means a competition and wishes to win. Perhaps the candidates participate in the debates or presenting themselves and their views in different TV shows. From the literally and figurative perspective, the meaning is actually the same because in both ways the meaning of the word ―race‖ is the competition. In a direct way, it is the competition when the participants are running and the winner is the fastest person. In an indirect way, ―race‖ means

46 the beginning of the president elections and the winner will be the one who the society likes more. The following example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expressions is ―The FARC agree to hand in their weapons and become a normal political party‖ (September 23, 2016). The primary meaning of the word ―weapon‖ is a thing that is used to make bodily harm or physical damage, so the word has a negative connotation. In an indirect way, the headline means that ―FARC‖ does not want to fight any more. ―FARC‖ wants to achieve the agreement and to solve the problem in a peaceful way. In the same way as in the war, one of the armies gives up and raises a white flag which means that army wants to stop fighting and finish the war. Thus, in this case ―FARC‖ is like an army which decides to give up and to negotiate peacefully. In both ways a direct meaning and an indirect meaning is the same. Literally, the metaphorical expression means to put weapons on the ground, while figuratively it means to surrender and stop fighting. One more proving example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Invasion of the bottle snatchers‖ (July 9, 2016). The noun ―invasion‖ is associated with the state of war because a primary meaning of this word is an instance of invading a country or region with an armed force. For this reason, literally this headline is meaningless because it is difficult to imagine how bottle snatchers could invade into a country, region or city. Figuratively, the noun ―invasion‖ stands for the new brand coming to the market. The incoming of the new brand to the market is compared to ―invasion‖ or in other words to a state of war and it just emphasizes how important this brand is in the business. It means that these bottle snatchers are expected to consolidate in the market‘s industry very quickly. These products would like to occupy all shops‘ shelves and customers‘ heart. This is a strategy of the new brand as the same in the war when soldiers would like to invade a country or region they appear unexpected and behave in a thoughtful way. From literally and figuratively point of view, a direct meaning and an indirect meaning is actually the same. Literally, the metaphorical expression means to invade a country or a region with armed forces, while figuratively it means that a new brand is coming to the market. The last tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality is business or politics refer to food or drinks. Food is applied to the business discourse or politics discourse for a positive or a negative evaluation of the situation. The examples below are randomly collected typical examples of this tendency. In all of them there are nouns which are related to food such as ―recipe‖, ―stakes on the menu‖, ―lemons‖ ―fruit‖, ―fodder‖. This tendency was found in 5 out of 98 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―A recipe for Parliamentary chaos‖ (April 16, 2016) ―Buffett, Apple and DidiChuxing: $1 billion stakes on the menu‖ (April 21, 2016) ―When life gives you lemons‖ (May 5, 2016) ―No Oscar fodder at this year‟s Karlovy Vary film festival‖ (July 11, 2016) ―Ireland‟s forbidden fruit‖ (August 30, 2016)

One of the examples of the analysis of metaphorical expression of this type is ―Apple in India: Forbidden fruit‖ (June 2, 2016). Actually, all the words of the headlines are expressed metaphorically but the statement ―forbidden fruit‖ is the key element of the metaphor. A direct meaning of the headline is misleading because the reader could understand that an apple as a fruit is forbidden in India. It means that no one from the Indians eats apples as a fruit. Apple stands for the mobile phones company which is very popular nowadays in the whole world. Apple is the main symbol of this company which is the company‘s logo. Figuratively, the headline means that the huge mobile phones company does not consolidate in India. It means that Apple mobile phones are not widely spread in India it is ―forbidden fruit‖. In addition, in a direct meaning and in an indirect meaning the headline expresses a negative meaning. In a direct way it means that apple as a fruit is not eaten by Indians while in an indirect way it means that the huge company Apple is not successfully selling their mobile phones in India. One more example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―A recipe for Parliamentary chaos‖ (April 16, 2016). The word ―recipe‖ is usually associated with the food or a meal because a primary meaning of ―recipe‖ means a set of instructions for preparing a particular dish which includes a list of ingredients. The word ―recipe‖ stands for the plan which is prepared for the parliamentarians because their work is compared to chaos. It means that parliamentarians‘ behavior is very unpredictable and they do not show the good results of their job. The society is unsatisfied and confused. For this reason, it needs a plan or in this case a ―recipe‖ for the parliamentarians that they will start working properly. Nevertheless, a direct meaning and an indirect meaning of the word ―recipe‖ is actually the same. In both ways, it means a detailed plan which is step by step written for the users or in this case for the parliamentarians. The last proving example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expressions is ―Buffett, Apple and Didi Chuxing: $1 billion stakes on the menu‖ (April 21, 2016). The first association that comes to the mind when we hear the statement ―stakes on the menu‖ is a restaurant which suggests $1 billion as a meal for their clients on the menu. Thus, a direct meaning of the headline is actually the same that $1 billion as a stake is put on the menu. As

48 the primary meaning of the word ―stake‖ is a sum of money or something else of value gambled on the outcome of a risky game. Figuratively, this headline means that there is a gamble among all these brands Buffett, Apple and Didi Chuxing and the winner takes $1 billion. The statement ―on the menu‖ expresses that the prize is easy available as one of the meal which customers can order in the restaurants or bars. From the literally and figuratively perspectives, the meaning is different because in a direct way it means that the prize or stake is involved into the menu as one of the restaurant‘s meals while in an indirect way the statement ―stakes on the menu‖ stands for the accessibility of the prize for one of the winner. To sum up, from the analysis above it can be stated that there are three main tendencies in metaphorical expressions in business and political discourse which are based on similarity of quality. The first tendency is when business or politics is related to body parts or body organs, the second tendency is when business or politics is related to the war and the last tendency is when business or politics is related to the food. These three tendencies were observed many times in the corpus of headlines but these are not the only ones. These three tendencies are the most prevailing but they are not limited to that. Metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality are also expressed the qualities through education, for example, ―Lessons from the debates of the past‖ (September 23, 2016) or ―Norway‟s deal with the EU still holds lessons for Britain‖ (February 2, 2017), also quality is dedicated through clothes such as ―The wrong trousers: To what extent should travelers adjust their dress when abroad?‖ or through the natural phenomenon, for instance, ―A flood of false headlines probably did not swing America‟s election‖ (January 19, 2017) and ―An earthquake in European banking‖ (March 23, 2017). However, all these cases, which are mentioned above, are just single cases of the metaphorical expressions because they were found only several times. They are not prevailing in the metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality.

5.2.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in the Verslo Žinios Headlines According to the corpus, metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality occur in 73 out of 200 headlines and they make 36.5 per cent of the analyzed headlines (See Appendix 2, Table 4). The analysis of these headlines shows three dominant tendencies or types of transference in such kind of metaphorical expressions. The first dominant tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality is business or politics is related to food. This tendency is one of the prevailing because it was found more than others. The examples below are randomly collected but they are typical examples of this tendency because the key elements are nouns and they are related to food 49 such as ―grietinėlės‖, ―prieskonis‖, ―vaisiai‖, ―receptų‖. This tendency was found in 6 out of 73 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Maţiau nugriebti grietinėlės nuo algos‖ (April 19, 2016) ―Maţų parduotuvių genocido vaisiai‖ (May 11, 2016) ―Laisvė su atsakomybės prieskoniu‖ (August 11, 2016) ―Stojimo į aukštąsias mokyklas vaisiai kartesni nei visi tikėjosi‖ (August 29, 2016) ―Stebuklų nebūna, bet receptų yra‖ (February 2, 2017)

One of the examples of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Maţų parduotuvių genocido vaisiai‖ (May 11, 2016). A direct meaning of the word ―genocidas‖ has a negative connotation because it is related to the deliberate killing of people or a large group of people, especially the ethnic group. The word ―vaisiai‖ stands for food because it is a sweet and fleshy product of a tree or other plant which can be eaten. In a figurative meaning the headline informs that small shops have been closed recently. The big shopping centers like Maxima, Rimi, Lidl push away small shops next to people houses. People prefer going to the bigger shopping centers because of the prices and a bigger assortment of goods. The qualities from the direct meaning of the statement ―genocido vaisiai‖ are applied into a figurative way. ―Genocidas‖ means closed shops in this case. ―Vaisiai‖ means the result which in this case is that shops like Maxima, Rimi or Lidl act the main role in the society. In both ways, in a literally and figuratively the meaning is actually the same. Literally, ―genocidas‖ means killing people and in this case closed small shops, literally ―vaisiai‖ means sweet food and in this case a bigger assortments of products. One more example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Laisvė su atsakomybės prieskoniu‖ (August 11, 2016). Literally, the word ―atsakomybė‖ means a state or a fact of having a duty to deal with something or having control over someone. This word is associated with reliability, specificity and dutifulness. All these features is associated with the high quality as well as the word ―prieskonis‖. In a direct way, ―prieskonis‖ is used as an extra ingredient in any dishes because it gives a specific taste for the meal. Hence, ―prieskonis‖ can improve the taste of the meal into a better side but at the same time it could damage the taste of the meal if you embedded it too much. In this case, the statement ―atsakomybės prieskoniu‖ is used rather figuratively than literally because the responsibility cannot be eaten and the spices cannot be added to the thing. However, in an indirect way this metaphor means that no one is free because everybody has responsibilities in their life such as children, job or other commitments and all these factors like ―prieskoniai‖ make an influence

50 on person‘s freedom. ―Prieskonis‖ turns person‘s life into a better side or a worse side. Everything depends on human‘s mind and wishes because everybody controls himself/herself and the freedom. In addition, in both ways the meaning of the metaphorical expression ―atsakomybės prieskoniu‖ symbolizes an extra ingredient into the meal or life. In a direct way, ―prieskonis‖ means an extra ingredient into the meal while in an indirect way ―prieskonis‖ means children, jobs or other boundaries of freedom which the person determines by himself/herself. One more proving example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Maţiau nugriebti grietinėlės nuo algos‖ (April 19, 2016). A direct meaning of the headline is insignificant because ―grietinėlė‖ is a liquid and someone can take some spoons of ―grietinėlė‖ from the jar but not from the salary. In an indirect meaning, the noun ―grietinėlė‖ stands for the money in this metaphorical expression. The headline means to take the money from people‘s salary in a way when people pay taxes. From the metaphor the reader can understand that people want to pay fewer taxes to the government. In literally and figuratively ways the meaning is different because in a direct way ―grietinėlė‖ is a fatty liquid which is made from the milk and people could take ―grietinėlė‖ from the jar, while in an indirect way ―grietinėlė‖ stands for money which could be taken from the people‗s salary. The second tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality encompasses three different spheres because all of them occur in the same number of metaphorical expressions. Thus, the first one is business or politics related to body parts or body organs which were found in 4 out of 73 headlines such as:

―Eksportuotojai augina raumenis‖ (April 9, 2016) ―Austrijos prezidento rinkimai: per plauką nuo kraštutinių dešniųjų‖ (April 23, 2016) ―Pirštu– į įsisenėjusias problemas‖ (April 23, 2016) ―Donaldas Trumpas, Vladimiras Putinas ir stiprios rankos trauka‖ (July 25, 2016)

As could be seen from the examples above, the key words of metaphorical expression are nouns and they are the parts of a human‘s body such as ―raumenis‖, ―plaukai‖, ―pirštas‖ and ―ranka‖. This type of metaphorical expressions could be named as ―body metaphors‖ because such type of metaphor uses body parts and body organs to describe other things such as communication, complex things like team or groups or in this case business companies or politics. Organs of body or parts of body are compared with business or politics in parallel way because as long as the organs work well, the business works well too or the general well- being of human is understood as its business health. On the contrary, medicine is necessary to

51 cure illness of the human body while sometimes business companies or politics can also get medical treatment when they do not work properly. The further tendency of metaphorical expressions in business is expressed through the noun that means ―milţinas‖. This tendency was found also in 4 out of 73 headlines with metaphors, for instance:

―Naftos milžinas ieško dugno‖ (February 5, 2016) ―Baltijos šalyse kuriamas komunalinių paslaugų milžinas‖ (June 30, 2016) ―Gimsta Baltijos šalių bankas milžinas: DNB + „Nordea“‖ (August 25, 2016) ―Saudo Araija ir „SoftBank“ kuria investicijų fondą milžiną‖ (October 14, 2016)

From these four examples of metaphorical expressions when business seems as giant the word ―milţinas‖ was found in all of these metaphors which symbolize power and capacity or greatness to others. The word ―milţinas‖ means being of human but superhuman size or in these cases ―milţinas‖ symbolizes a very huge business companies or organizations which have the power in their hands. In another cluster of metaphorical expressions, business or politics are related to war. The first thing, which comes to our mind when we think of war, is battles, military forces, troops, weapons (e.g. guns and bombs, etc.), war strategies and the outcomes of war. The examples below are randomly collected but they are typical examples of this tendency because the key elements are nouns and they are related to war such as ―šūvis‖, ―karas‖, ―minų laukas‖ and ―ginklai‖. This tendency was found as well as the previous two in 4 out of 73 headlines with metaphors, for example:

―Tobulas “Lidl” šūvis – kaip į savopusępalenktipirkėją‖ (July 5, 2016) ―Slaptas politikų planas: „šventas karas“ su ES?‖ (July 14, 2016) ―Besijungiantiems DNB ir „Nordea“ – komunikacijos minų laukas‖ (August 29, 2016) ―Kokie stipriausi darbdavio ginklai kovoje dėl talentų?‖ (October 11, 2016)

These four metaphorical expressions‘ examples could be called ―war metaphors‖ because they key elements of metaphorical expressions are nouns which are related to war. Business is represented as soldiers fighting with other companies on battlefields. To win or to achieve success in war, soldiers are often used different strategies and tactics. The same is in business, when trying to reach an agreement or to make a deal business groups also attacks each other. Just like in the real war, business companies are also in the risk.

To sum up, it is clear from the analysis that there are four main tendencies in metaphorical expressions in business and political discourse which are based on similarity of quality. The first tendency is when business or politics is related to the food, the second tendency is when business or politics is related to the body parts or body organs, the third tendency is when business or politics is expressed through the noun ―milţinas‖ which means the force and the power of the business or political companies and the last tendency is when business or politics is related to the war. These four tendencies were observed many times in the corpus of the headlines but these are not the only ones. These four tendencies are the most prevailing but they are not limited to that. Metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality also express the qualities through a particular place, for example, ―Premjero vaikų darželis‖ (February 25, 2016), or through the nouns which are related to games such as ―„Google‟ nuodėmės ir kozeriai ‘Android‟ byloje‖ (April 29, 2016) or ―Politikų žaidimai tarp stadiono vaduoklių‖ (June 9, 2016), also through the nouns which symbolize a royalty, for instance, ―Į Mačiulo karūną kesinasi kiti lyderiai‖ (May 26, 2016) or ―Skandinavai praranda karūną, bet ţaidimų rinka auga‖ (August 16, 2016). However, all these cases, which are mentioned above, are just single cases of metaphorical expressions because they were found only several times. They are not prevailing tendencies in metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality.

5.2.3. Juxtaposition of Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios Headlines The corpus analysis shows that metaphorical expressions based on the similarity of quality are more frequently used in The Economist than in the Verslo Ţinios. In the Verslo Ţinios there are 73 out of 200 headlines or 36.5 per cent while in The Economist 98 out of 200 headlines or 49 per cent of such metaphorical expressions. It could be claimed that The Economist has 17.5 per cent more metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality than the Verslo Ţinios. All the metaphors are easy understandable because of the noun which helps to understand the deeper or an extra meaning of the headline. The analysis of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality shows not only statistical data but also indicates the dominant tendencies of expressing the quality in metaphorical expressions.

Table 2. Frequency of distribution of the dominant tendencies in metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios headlines

Metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality Newspaper Dominant Tendencies Number of Occurences The Economist Body parts or body organs 14 War 11 Food or drinks 5 The Verslo Ţinios Food or drinks 6 Body parts or body organs 4 ―Milţinas‖ 4 War 4

As the results of the analysis show (see the Table 2) the tendencies of expressing business and political news through metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality are the same in The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios. The first dominant tendency of metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality is expressed through the nouns that are related to the body parts or body organs in both newspapers, just in The Economist it was found 14 headlines while in the Verslo Ţinios only 4 headlines. The second tendency is through the nouns related to the war, just in The Economist it was found 9 headlines while in the Verslo Ţinios only 4 headlines. The third tendency is through the nouns related to the food, just in The Economist it was found 5 headlines while in the Verslo Ţinios only 4 headlines. The fourth tendency, which was noticed only in the Verslo Ţinios and appears also in 4 headlines, quality is expressed through the noun which means ―milţinas‖. The Verslo Ţinios is the newspaper which dominant part is Lithuania and its economic growth. It could be that for this reason we cannot find the fourth tendency in The Economist.

5.3. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being 5.3.1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being in The Economist Headlines Metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being appear in 30 out of 200 headlines and they make 15 per cent of all the collected headlines (see Appendix 2, Table 5). The analysis of all these 30 of 200 headlines shows the tendency that human‘s actions such as ―to talk”, ―to speak”, ―to run”, ―to spar”, ―to step”, and ―to fight” or ―to flirt‖ are applied to the inanimate objects, ideas and it is as a predominant feature in such metaphorical expressions, for example:

―OPEC‟s talks on curbing oil production come to nothing‖ (April 18, 2016) ―A well-loved monster takes Japan‟s box office by storm once again‖ (September 26, 2016) ―As Britain and Russia spar, their spiritual leaders confer‖ (November 18, 2016) ―As Egypt quarrels with Saudi Arabia, it is finding new friends‖ (November 25, 2016) ―Japanese banks grapple with ultra-low interest rates‖ (December 20, 2016) ―The state steps in to rescue Monte dei Paschi di Siena‖ (December 23, 2016) ―Asia is still just saying no to drugs‖ (January 12, 2017) ―The markets have second thoughts on Donald Trump‖ (January 24, 2017) ―As America and Russia talk, Ukraine fights‖ (February 2, 2017) ―India floats the idea of a universal basic income‖ (February 2, 2017)

The author of this present research has chosen to analyse 7 of 30 metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being and those metaphorical expressions have been chosen randomly but all of them are typical because all of them express human‘s actions which are done by the inanimate things. The detailed analyses of such kind of metaphorical expressions are in the following paragraphs below. The first example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―System says slow‖ (April 16, 2016). The language style used in the headline is a personification because the statement ―system says‖ implies as if the system is personified. ―System‖ is indicated as a human being who can talk or say something and this action is one of the main activities which a human being actually does every day. It means that one of the organization‘s processes is going very fast and for this reason the capacity needs to be slowed down. The system is unable to work properly. This headline means that something wrong is going on with the system and it will stop working soon if nobody acts appropriately. 55

The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―India flirts with a UBI‖ (February 2, 2017). This headline has personification because the statement ―India flirts‖ implies as if India is personified as human being which act as a person ―flirts‖. The process of flirting is a playful behavior when someone wants to attract someone, thus this behavior is totally done by human. It means that Indian‘s government tries to deal with a UBI model (Universal Basic Income) that this form of social security will establish successfully in their country. This UBI model is necessary because it helps for citizens or residents of a country receive unconditional sum of money and citizens feel more warranted in their country. For this reason, India acts as a human being who can flirt because it helps to achieve your aim. The headline means that India behaves sexually with a UBI, thus the meaning is meaningless. Another example of this type of metaphorical expression that demonstrates human‘s action is ―Cash is still king in Britain‖ (September 14, 2016). The language style used in the headline generates a personification because the word ―cash‖ is humanized in stating that ―cash is king‖. King must be a male ruler of an independent state who inherits the position on the day of his birth. It practically means that the majority of people in Britain pay off for their products or services in cash. The British do not use often bankcards, they prefer money which they can touch and use in a visible way. The headline means that someone is a king in Britain and he rules the country. One more illustrative example of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Nuclear power play‖ (September 28, 2016). The language style used in this headline composes a personification because the words ―nuclear power‖ is personified in claiming that ―Nuclear power play‖. Reactor is an inanimate thing which has a specific and concrete function to produce electricity to the world. So, in this case, the headline has a connotative meaning. The headline sends a deeper meaning for the reader. It means that nuclear power station tries to show that it is more powerful than any other way which generates the heat. Denotative meaning of this headline is that something funny is happening in the nuclear power station because someone is playing. Games are always associated with positive emotions and states. One more example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Wage growth surges, just in time for the Trump presidency‖ (January 6, 2017). The language style generates a personification because the statement ―Wage growth surges‖ personifies a human being. Just a human being grows from a child into a teenager, from a teenager into an adult, but not the wage. So, in this case, the headline has a connotative meaning. The statement ―wage growth surges‖ means that the salaries are increasing fast and the difference between previous and today‘s salary is obvious. It changes to the positive side. The headline means

56 that something is happening with the wage. It is a positive but temporary situation because another part of the headline states that it is ―just in time for the Trump presidency‖. Another analysis of metaphorical expression is ―Why a top university runs a London state school on Soviet lines‖ (January 28, 2017). The language style used in this headline is personification because the statement ―a top university runs‖ is personified as a human being. University is equated with a human being who can manage something. Management is one of the activities which human beings do when they want to deal or control things or people. This headline informs the reader about the situation of university in UK. The university is one of the best in UK and it is established according to the example of a university in Russia. Denotative meaning in this case is that Russia universities are controlling London university. The last example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Death of a Brazilian justice‖ (January 26, 2017). The language style used in this headline is personification because ―justice‖ is personified as human being who can die. The death is a state of being dead. It is the end of the life of a person or organism but not of the inanimate thing as in this headline ―justice‖. This headline informs the reader about a current situation of the Supreme Court in Brasilia. After the tragedy when the lawyer of the Supreme Court died so many important works have left and they will not be finished until the politicians appoint a new lawyer. Moreover, the statement ―death of <….> justice‖ highlights that the situation or the nomination for a new lawyer will not be equitable because justice is died in Brasilia. To sum up, the main principle of the formation of metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being in the business discourse or political discourse is to transfer human‘s actions on the inanimate things. This is a common tendency which was observed in all collected headlines with personification. This feature is applied not only to these 7 analyzed metaphorical expressions above, for example, ―System says slow‖, ―India flirts with a UBI‖, ―Cash is still king‖, ―Nuclear power play‖, ―Wage growth surges‖ and ―university runs‖, ―Death of a Brazilian justice‖ but to the all group of such metaphorical expressions. In addition, this language style impels the reader to stop and think of the real meaning of the headline. At the first sight, it looks like the headline sends one message for the reader but then the reader starts thinking, he/she notices a connotative meaning of the headline as the analysis above shows.

5.3.2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being in the Verslo Žinios Headlines According to the corpus, metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being occur in 37 out of 200 headlines and they make 18.5 per cent of all the collected headlines (See Appendix 2, Table 6) in the Verslo Ţinios. The analysis of all these 37 out of 200 headlines shows the tendency that human‘s actions are attributed to the inanimate objects, animals or ideas and it is as a predominant feature in such metaphorical expressions. The examples below are randomly collected but they are typical examples of this tendency because in all 37 headlines are based on human‘s actions such as ―išaugo‖, ―nesuvalgė‖, ―kanda‖, ―blaivosi‖, ―suliesėję‖, ―atodūsiai‖, ―vedybos‖, ―stojasi‖, ―pulsas‖, for example:

―Paskutiniai naftos atodūsiai‖ (February 9, 2016) ―Universitetai blaivosi: pagaliau optimizacija‖ (February 12, 2016) ―Verslas švenčia kartu su klientais‖ (February 16, 2016) ―Pigi elektronika ruošiasi žygiui į Europą‖ (February 25, 2016) ―Kiaulienos eksportas stojasi ant kojų‖ (April 20, 2016) ―Batutų parkas jau išaugo marškinėlius‖ (June 7, 2016) ―Pensijų fondų pusmetis: ―Brexit‖ visos grąţos nesuvalgė‖ (July 8, 2016) ―Rusijos ūkio pulsas – kiek spartesnis‖ (August 12, 2016) ―Euro zonos kredito įstaigų sergėtojai didţiausią rūpestį kelia suliesėję bankų pelnai‖ (September 2, 2016) ―Bankų vedybos iš išskaičiavimo‖ (September 15, 2016)

The author of this present research has chosen to analyse 7 of 36 such metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being and metaphorical expressions have been chosen randomly but all of them are typical because all of them express human‘s actions which are done by the inanimate things. The detailed analyses of such kind of metaphorical expressions are in the following paragraphs below. The first example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―„Mediapark„ suvalgė „App Camp‗―‖ (February 10, 2016). The language style used in the headline is a personification because the statement ―„Mediapark„ suvalgė” implies as if the Mediapark is personified. As it is mentioned before, personification describes a nonliving object but it lives like a human being. In this case, the noun of the headline ―Mediapark” is used as substitute of a human being who can eat. The word of ―suvalgė‖ itself is one of the activities that human beings always do. The meaning of this headline is that one bigger 58 company “Mediapark” ousts a smaller one and ―Mediapark‖ wins. In this headline, a denotative meaning means that ―Mediapark‖ was hungry that is why it ate another company ―App Camp‖. The second example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is “Birţoms kraują nuleidžia po 2-4% perdien‖ (February 12, 2016). The language style as in the previous example is a personification because the statement ―birţoms kraują nuleidžia‖ implies as if ―birţa‖ is personified. In this case, ―birţa‖ is acting as a human being which has the main source of life - blood. Blood is one of the key elements which are necessary for human beings every minute in daily life. The headline means that the stocks are reduced 2-4% every day. Denotative meaning of this headline means that something bad is happening in the Stock Exchange and it requires improvement and help from the outside. The third example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Pinigai kraustosi į alternatyvas‖ (November 15, 2016). The language style used in this headline is also personification because the statement ―pinigai kraustosi‖ implies as if ―pinigai‖ is personified. In this headline, the statement ―pinigai kraustosi‖ is substituted as human being who can change the position from one particular place to another. ―Pinigai‖ is personified in order to stress their power and capacity to control everything as human being. The statement ―pinigai kraustosi‖ means that the payment of the money would be changed into another way or in this case ―alternatyvas‖ which could be presented in various forms. Thus, a denotative meaning of the headline is misleading and illogical because money cannot take their bags and move to another place as human being can do. Only a person can go in specified direction or change job, house or state but not the money. One more example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Batutų parkas jau išaugo marškinėlius‖ (June 7, 2016). The language style used in this headline is also a personification because the statement ―išaugo marškinėlius‖ implies as if “batutų parkas” is personified. In this headline, the statement ―batutų parkas išaugo‖ is substituted as human being who can grow. The headline contains a connotative meaning because it has an extra meaning. Trampoline is personified in order to stress and emphasize the important but hidden meaning – the park of trampoline has too many visitors and for this reason it is not enough places for all of them. It needs extra trampolines in this place. ―Batutų parkas‖ is the place where the action takes place, for instance, children can come here and jump on the trampoline. The trampoline cannot outgrow because it is an inanimate thing. Only human beings or children can grow up, gain weight and ingrown T-shirt. Another illustrative example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Pensijų fondų pusmetis: ―Brexit‖ visos grąţos nesuvalgė‖ (July 8, 2016). The language style

59 used in the headline is a personification because the statement ―‟Brexit‟ visos grąţos nesuvalgė‖ implies that ―Brexit‖ is personified. In this case, it is almost the same as in the first given example of a personification. ―Brexit‖ is replaced as a human being who can eat, when the word ―nesuvalgė‖ itself is one of the most important activities that human beings always do. ―Brexit‖ refers to the referendum whereby British citizens voted to exit from the European Union. Consequently, ―Brexit‖ represents a very important event in the UK but the headline has a connotative meaning because by using this personification in this headline, the journalist wants to emphasize that there is still left money from the pension funds. Another analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Po ―Brexit‖ kylančios kainos kanda JK vartotojams‖ (August 10, 2016). The language style used in this headline is a personification because the statement ―kylančios kainos kanda‖ implies as if ―kainos‖ is personified. In this case, the statement of headline used ―kanda‖ as a substitute of human beings which can bite like human beings. The reasons why the journalist uses a personification in this headline are that it is a simple way to catch the reader‘s attention and send an extra meaning in an indirect way. Denotative meaning of the headline means that ―Brexit‖ has a negative influence on the prices because they are increasing. The last example of the analysis of this type of metaphorical expression is ―Rinka alkana sandėlių ir logistikos centrų‖ (August 23, 2016). The language style used in this headline is a personification because the word ―rinka‖ is personified as a human being which can be ―alkana‖. The word ―alkana‖ shows the feeling or showing the need for food which usually feel the person but not the inanimate thing. Thus, in this case, ―rinka‖ is personified and it is attributed by human‘s state. The journalist implies a personification ―rinka alkana‖ in this headline because he/she wants to highlights a current situation of Lithuanian markets. It means that ―sandelių ir logistikos centrų‖ necessity is very huge because it is compared to human being when he/she wants to eat so much. He/she does not want to wait food it needs immediately. The same is in this situation that ―rinka‖ cannot wait anymore she is ―alkana‖ new storages and centers. In conclusion, from the analysis above it can be assumed that the tendency of this metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being is to attribute human‘s action to the inanimate things. This is a common tendency which was observed in all collected headlines of this kind of the metaphorical expressions. This feature is applied not only to these 7 analyzed headlines above, for example, ―„Mediapark„ suvalgė „App Camp‗‖, “Birţoms kraują nuleidžia po 2-4% perdien‖, ―Pinigai kraustosi į alternatyvas‖, ―Pensijų fondų pusmetis:”Brexit“ visos grąţos nesuvalgė‖ and “Po „Brexit“ kylančios kainos kandaJK vartotojams‖, ―Rinka alkana sandėlių ir logistikos centrų‖ but to the all group of

60 such kind of metaphorical expressions. Generally, the journalists use personification style because it is a simple and interesting style to catch the reader‘s eyes. It is also used to persuade and influence the reader‘s opinion and attention.

5.3.3. Juxtaposition of Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios Headlines The corpus analysis shows that in The Economist there are 30 out of 200 headlines with personification or 15 per cent while in the Verslo Ţinios there are 37 out of 200 headlines with personification or 18.5 per cent. It could be assumed that both newspapers The Economist and the Verslo Ţinios are used the similar number of metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being in business discourse or political discourse. However, the analysis of metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being shows not only statistical data but also indicates the dominant tendency of expressing such kind of metaphorical expressions.

Table 3. Frequency of distribution of the dominant tendency in metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios headlines

Metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being Newspaper Dominant Tendencies Number of Occurences The Economist The human‘s actions are 30 attributed to the inanimate things. The Verslo Ţinios The human‘s actions are 37 attributed to the inanimate things.

As the results of the analysis show (see the Table 3) the tendency of expressing business and political news through metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being is the same in both newspapers in The Economist and in the Verslo Ţinios. The human‘s actions are attributed to the inanimate things or ideas in all cases of personification in both newspapers. This tendency is predominant because other features of human‘s qualities except state do not occur in the headlines with personification. Thus, personification is in great request used stylistic device because it helps to create the expressive and striking headlines that can show enthusiasm and excitement of the journalists. It this way it is easily attracted the reader‘s attention and made that the reader would be interested in the whole article.

5.4. Comparison of Frequency of Distribution of Metaphorical Expressions in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios Headlines

According to the analysis of the corpus, it can be stated that the dominant tendencies of headline metaphors in terms of type of semantic metaphorisation in the English newspaper The Economist and in the Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinios are different (see Figure 1).

The Economist 30 the Verslo Žinios 20

0 Based on Process Based on Quality Based on Human Being

Figure 1. The comparison of frequency of distribution of metaphorical expressions in The Economist and the Verslo Žinios headlines

As the results of the analysis show, the biggest difference between different type of semantic metaphorisation in the English newspaper The Economist and the Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinios is in metaphorical expressions based on quality. It could be claimed that in The Economist it was found 12.5 per cent more such type of metaphorical expressions than in The Verslo Ţinios. Moroever, this type of metaphorical expressions is dominant in the English newspaper The Economist and these metaphors make 49 per cent of all collected examples and this type takes the biggest percentage of all types of metaphorical expressions. While in the Verslo Ţinios these metaphors make 36.5 per cent of all 200 headlines. The diagram also illustrates that metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process are more frequently used in the Verslo Ţinios than in The Economist. In the Verslo Ţinios it there were 9 per cent more metaphors than in The Economist. Furthermore, this type of metaphorical expressions is dominant in the Lithuanian newspaper headlines because these

62 metaphors make 45 per cent of all collected headlines and it takes the biggest percentage of all types of metaphorical expressions. While in The Economist there were found 36 per cent of such metaphors. The smallest difference is in metaphorical expressions based on similarity to a human being if the English newspaper The Economist and the Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinios are compared. The difference is only 3.5 per cent. However, this type of metaphorical expressions is more frequently used in the Verslo Ţinios because these metaphors make 18.5 percent while in The Economist a little bit less, i.e. 15 per cent of all collected headlines. To summarize, the dominant types of metaphorical expressions are different in the English newspaper The Economist and the Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinios. The dominant type of metaphorical expressions is based on quality in The Economist while in the Verslo Ţinios metaphors are mostly based on process.

Conclusions 1. The quantitative method allowed to find out that the dominant type of transference of metaphorical expressions in the English newspaper The Economist is based on similarity of quality and these metaphors make 49% (98 headlines) of all collected examples (200 headlines). Meanwhile, in the Verslo Ţinios this type of metaphorical expressions has occurred less than in The Economist, i.e. just 36.5 % (73 headlines) of all 200 headlines. 2. The dominant type of transference of metaphorical expressions is based on similarity of process and these metaphors make 45% (90 headlines) of all the collected headlines in the Verslo Ţinios. However, this type of metaphorical expressions is not predominant in The Economist because it was found in 36% (72 headlines) of all 200 headlines. 3. Metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being are used in a similar number in The Economist and in the Verslo Ţinios because the difference is only 3.5 %. This type of metaphorical expressions is dominant in the Verslo Ţinios because it makes 18.5% (37 headlines) while in The Economist a bit less – 15% (30 headlines) of all 200 headlines. 4. The similarity is determined in metaphorical expressions based on similarity of quality. In the English newspaper The Economist and in the Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinios the dominant tendencies of expressing metaphorical expressions are the same. These kinds of metaphorical expressions are realized by nouns related to body parts or body organs, war and food or drinks in both newspapers. 5. The same dominant tendencies are identified in metaphorical expressions based on similarity to human being. In the English newspaper The Economist the dominant tendency of expressing business or political news is that human‘s actions are attributed to the inanimate things or ideas. Furthermore, in the Lithuanian newspaper the Verslo Ţinos the dominant tendency is absolutely the same is that human‘s actions are attributed to the inanimate things or ideas. 6. The main difference is identified in metaphorical expressions based on similarity of process. In The Economist, the most common tendencies of expressing business or political actions or movements are through the verbs which are related to common actions or movements ahead, war and collision. In the Verslo Ţinios the most common tendencies of expressing business or political actions or movements are through the verbs which are related to body parts or body organs, weather or natural phenomenon and water. 64

Summary Magistro baigiamajame darbe analizuojami lietuviškų ir angliškų antraščių metaforizacijos skirtumai ir panašumai semantiniu lygiu. Lyginamoji analizėje panaudota 200 lietuviškų antraščių iš Verslo Ţinios ir 200 angliškų antraščių iš The Economist. Darbe analizuojamos metaforos yra susijusios su verslo ir politinėmis naujienomis. Praktinė magistro darbo dalis yra suskirstyta į tris poskyrius: metaforos pagrįstos proceso panašumu, metaforos grindţiamos kokybe ir metaforos išreikštos per ţmogaus veiksmus. Darbo eigoje pirmiausia yra analizuojamos metaforos iš The Economist, paskui – metaforos iš Verslo Ţinios, o kiekvieno poskyrio pabaigoje yra daroma gretinamoji analizė, atskleidţianti metaforų skirtumus ir panašumus semantiniu lygiu. Lyginamosios analizės metu nustatyta, kad angliškame laikraštyje The Economist vyraujantis metaforų tipas yra metaforos pagrįstos kokybės panašumu (49%), kai tuo tarpu lietuviškame laikraštyje Verslo Ţinios vyraujantis metaforų tipas yra metaforos pagrįstos proceso panašumu (45%). Taip pat, tyrimo metu pastebėta, kad metaforos išreiškiančios ţmogaus veiksmus yra panašiai dominuojančios abiejų kalbų antraštėse, nes laikraštyje Verslo Ţinios buvo rasta 18%, kai tuo tarpu The Economist 15%. Tyrimo metu nustatyta, ne tik statistiniai skirtumai ir panašumai, bet taip pat ir dominuojančios metaforų išreiškimo tendencijos lietuviškose ir angliškose laikraščių antraštėse. Pagrindinis panašumas tarp The Economist and Verslo Ţinios laikraščių antraštėse yra metaforose, kurios grindţiamos kokybe. Šios metaforos išreiškiamos per daiktavardţius, susijusius su kūno dalimis, karu ir maistu. Kitas tyrimo metu pastebėtas panašumas yra tarp metaforų, išreiškiančių ţmogaus veiksmus. Tiek angliškose, tiek lietuviškose antraštėse šio tipo metaforos yra išreikštos per ţmogaus veiksmus: kalbėti, flirtuoti, ţaisti, išaugti, kąsti, kraustytis, kt. Tyrimo metu pagrindiniai skirtumai pastebėti tarp Verslo Ţinios ir The Economist metaforų, kurios yra pagrįstos proceso panašumu. Laikraštyje The Economist verslo ir politinės naujienos išreiškiamos veiksmaţodţiais, reiškiančiais judėjimą į priekį, karo veiksmus, susidūrimą su sudėtinga situacija. Tuo tarpu laikraštyje Verslo Ţinios verslo ir politinės naujienos išreiškiamos veiksmaţodţiais, susijusiais su kūno dalimis, oru ir vandeniu. Magistro darbo pabaigoje yra pateikiamos išvados, kuriose atsispindi lietuviškų ir angliškų antraščių metaforizacijos skirtumai ir panašumai semantiniu lygiu.

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APPENDIX 1

English Headlines

1) Why too much oil in storage is weighing on prices 2) Beating Apple, Xiaomi and the Gang in China 3) The European Union tries to prevent a wave of migrants from Libya 4) The world economy is picking up 5) Talking the dollar down, or is it up? 6) Cutting immigration will not placate British voters 7) Britain‘s local councils face financial crisis 8) The rise of the Herbal Tea Party 9) Indian outsourcing specialists must reboot their strategies 10) Republican tax-reform plans face many hurdles, including Donald Trump 11) Where smoking is on the rise process 12) The French left faces a grim election year 13) Moscow‘s power players toast President Trump 14) Gambia‘s dictator hangs on even as Senegal‘s army crosses the border 15) The spectre of slavery haunts George Washington‘s house 16) Breitbart News pushes deeper into Europe 17) Japanese golf courses hunt for a new driver 18) Uber is facing the biggest crisis in its short history 19) The changing face of global trade 20) Tearing down the wall before it gets built 21) Barack Obama bows out reflecting on the fragility of democracy 22) Lutherans and Catholics play down their 500-year-old differences 23) Waking up from the American dream 24) The presidential race enters the classroom 25) How governments can nudge informal businesses to leave the grey economy 26) On both the left and right, religious rage in the presidential race is more political than spiritual 27) The rise of Syria‘s White Helmets 28) Samsung's meltdown 29) Sterling takes a pounding 30) Donald Trump boasts of groping women 31) China worries subside 71

32) Why is American football going big in Britain? 33) Visit Osaka, and turn into a fish, in VR 34) China‘s growing clout in international economic affairs 35) A sponge wrung dry 36) Companies are racing to add value to water 37) How athletes can use medical exemptions to beat drug testers 38) Why Colin Kaepernick‘s silent protest is catching on 39) Francis is facing down opposition from traditionalists and Vatican bureaucrats 40) A well-loved monster takes Japan‘s box office by storm once again 41) Crumbling ceasefire 42) Defying prejudice, Islam‘s mystical, musical strain appeals to New Yorkers 43) Feelings-first voters have found a voice in Donald Trump 44) Paralympians face fewer competitors than Olympians do 45) A lukewarm reboot of ―Cold Feet‖ 46) Markets start to face the prospect of a Trump victory 47) Making eyes across the ocean 48) Deaths from heroin overdoses are spiralling in Britain. Many are preventable 49) Hillary Clinton opens up as the presidential race tightens 50) Gary Johnson‘s battle to be a contender 51) Why markets obsess over bond yields 52) Is the language of politics broken? 53) Red ink rising 54) Why former Mormons club together to share their struggles 55) Raising a glass to Britain‘s Indian pubs 56) Donald Trump shakes up his team again 57) Tour operators are down but not out 58) Strong jobs growth will tempt the Fed to make an error 59) Religious leaders grapple with doctor-assisted dying 60) How Clinton and Trump plan to boost wages 61) Harry Potter makes an enchanting transition from page to stage 62) The challenges facing Peru‘s new president 63) Flying on a budget carrier for business is bad for the ego, but necessary 64) How ―Amexit‖ sent shockwaves through the financial markets 65) Diving into the mire 66) The Brexit contagion spreads

67) Britain faces Project Reality 68) The air-leasing sector may soon face harder times 69) Religious charities are stepping in as welfare is cut 70) Peace breaks out in currency markets 71) Spain‘s banking clean-up 72) In Copeland and Stoke, Labour faces threats from different sources 73) Republican tax-reform plans face many hurdles, including Donald Trump 74) Britain‘s war on seagulls 75) Norway‘s deal with the EU still holds lessons for Britain 76) A scandal throws France‘s presidential race wide open 77) Digital immortality for the Holocaust‘s last survivors 78) How necessary is Donald Trump‘s wall? 79) McDonald‘s is going for healthier fare and greater digitisation 80) Understanding the spike in China‘s birth rate 81) The war on baby girls winds down 82) In their presidential primary, France‘s Socialists tack to the left 83) The curious case of high blood pressure around the world 84) War of the words 85) Remittances to Mexico spike in anticipation of Donald Trump‘s wall 86) The manufacturing jobs delusion 87) Why President Trump might be a boon for autonomous vehicles 88) The most profitable time of the year 89) The fall of Sirte 90) The hole at the heart of economics 91) You may be higher up the global wealth pyramid than you think 92) Why Africa‘s borders are a mess 93) On the brink of the abyss 94) Night and day in a vital swing state 95) Trump and the political economy of liquidity traps 96) A tale of two rallies 97) The Iraqi army is on the brink of defeating Islamic State 98) Battle of ideas 99) Crunch time for Obamacare 100) An earquake in European banking 101) Should we turn our understanding of the Middle East on its head?

102) Hillary Clinton, trail-blazer 103) The power of comics journalism 104) There is more than one kind of economic mess to be in 105) The global burden of disease 106) The justices puzzle over the right to an impartial jury 107) Brexit stage right 108) Keeping it under your hat 109) More hat than cattle 110) The state of the race 111) Lessons from the debates of the past 112) A dreadful week for British sport 113) The 2016 election: No happy ending 114) The cockroaches of finance 115) Globalisation backlash revisited 116) Grab battles Uber in South-East Asia 117) Bridget Jones: woman of substance, top news producer, millennial 118) Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton, the unlikely muses 119) The FARC agree to hand in their weapons and become a normal political party 120) Growing competition between universities is changing student life 121) Can Donald Trump turn Texas blue? 122) The global shipping industry‘s woes 123) Prosecutors drop corruption case against former Virginia governor 124) The glass harmonica‘s unlikely comeback 125) Ireland‘s forbidden fruit 126) The Countess of Computers 127) What is Africa‘s ―Great Green Wall‖? 128) Clinton says Trump has based his campaign on prejudice and paranoia 129) ―Spiritual blackmail‖ in politics may be undesirable, but outlawing it is hard 130) How to get poor countries out of low-trust ruts 131) Now that anyone can be a DJ, is the art form dead? 132) Vladimir Putin‘s powerful right-hand man steps down 133) Duterte's dirty war 134) Public space in Turkey is central to the government‘s power grab 135) Politics hogs the Olympic spotlight in the Middle East 136) Hillary Clinton opens up a sizeable lead

137) Mahasweta Devi: a writer of blood, protest and grief 138) Everything under the sun 139) The Olympics as a kind of religion 140) European carriers are in for a bumpy ride 141) Donald Trump‘s disastrous fortnight 142) The cost of political limbo in Spain 143) The Guardian‘s losses mount 144) Abbas Kiarostami‘s long shadow 145) Scientists pave the way for large-scale storage at the atomic level 146) Melania Trump‘s excruciating blunder 147) No Oscar fodder at this year‘s Karlovy Vary film festival 148) Invasion of the bottle snatchers 149) When life gives you lemons 150) The wrong trousers: To what extent should travelers adjust their dress when abroad? 151) China‘s tyranny of characters 152) Their eyes on Albion 153) Brexit: markets in shock 154) Banks v investors. Of snowballs and red ink 155) Buffett, Apple and DidiChuxing: $1 billion stakes on the menu 156) French manufacturers in Morocco: Factories in the sun 157) Apple in India: Forbidden fruit 158) The eye of the storm 159) A recipe for Parliamentary chaos 160) A pensions chicken comes home to roost 161) The elephants in the stats 162) Keeping it under your hand 163) Follow the sun 164) Putin‘s right-hand woman 165) A battle over Euro Disney 166) Money from heaven 167) Donald Trump is poised to paint America‘s judiciary red 168) A flood of false headlines probably did not swing America‘s election 169) Crises in its main industries have set Scotland on a poorer path than the rest of Britain

170) Sub-national currencies struggle to survive 171) A controversial transaction sits at the heart of Liberty Media‘s takeover of Formula One 172) OPEC‘s talks on curbing oil production come to nothing 173) System says slow 174) Cash is still king in Britain 175) Nuclear power play 176) A well-loved monster takes Japan‘s box office by storm once again 177) Japanese banks grapple with ultra-low interest rates 178) The state steps in to rescue Monte dei Paschi di Siena 179) The markets have second thoughts on Donald Trump 180) Businesses can and will adapt to the age of populism 181) Inflation is on the way back in the rich world, and that is good news 182) A controversial transaction sits at the heart of Liberty Media‘s takeover of Formula One 183) Wage growth surges, just in time for the Trump presidency 184) China‘s currency upsets forecasts by beginning the new year stronger 185) Why a top university runs a London state school on Soviet lines 186) Asia is still just saying no to drugs 187) Death of a Brazilian justice 188) As America and Russia talk, Ukraine fights 189) India floats the idea of a universal basic income 190) India flirts with a UBI 191) Can cities sue banks for predatory lending? 192) As Britain and Russia spar, their spiritual leaders confer 193) As Egypt quarrels with Saudi Arabia, it is finding new friends 194) America leaves foreign firms out in the cold 195) Inflation is on the way back in the rich world, and that is good news 196) Singapore tries to become a fintech hub 197) Europe gets ready for Donald Trump 198) McDonald‘s is going for healthier fare and greater digitisation 199) ESPN is losing subscribers but it is still Disney‘s cash machine 200) Neste uses animal waste to make a cleaner form of diesel

Lithuanian Headlines

1) Specialistas pataria: kaip išsipainioti iš finansinių sunkumų 2) „Millenium― karta neturi uţuosti reklamos 3) Estų birţoje virė emocijos 4) Grumiasi dėl rinkos dalies 5) Smulkieji drąsiai neria į gilesnius verslo vandenis 6) Apie ateitį Lietuvoje tik puse lūpų 7) Bendrovės Kauno rajone strategija:kol ţvejoja investicijas, imasi kitų uţsakymų 8) Turizmo sektorius ţada šokti pagal kliento dūdelę 9) Pasaulio reakcija į Trumpą: vieni ragina prisisegti dirţus, kiti juos atsilaisvina 10) Pasisemti pinigų yra kur 11) Lenkijos valdantieji klimpsta gilyn į krizę 12) Pekinas stoja į prekybinį mūšį 13) Algos Lietuvoje šoktelėjo 7,9%, ekonomistai nedţiūgauja 14) Kad salelė nepaskęstų prekybos centro vandenyne 15) Rusija priversta karpyti ir gynybos išlaidas 16) „Note 7― pakirpo „Samsung― pelną 17) Esi prekybos tinkle, ir pajamos šauna aukštyn 18) Ispanijos saulė šildo ne visus 19) Į JAV rinka ţengia per barjerus, bet kelią palengvins TTIP 20) Pasiskiepiję nuo valstybinio mąstymo 21) Valanda su „Tez Tour― pardavimų vadove: prekiauti svajonėmis nėra paprasta 22) Butų kainos auga lyg ant mielių, lietuviai dairosi į namus 23) Kai toliau savo barzdos nemato 24) Mugėje mezga verslo ryšius ir uţsitikrina uţsakymų metams 25) Susprogdinti finansų technologijų burbulą 26) Maţiau nugriebti grietinėlės nuo algos 27) Trina rankomis: Lietuvos veţėjai atnaujina parkus 28) Trumpas įpūtė entuziazmo Europos populistams 29) Vis kyšteli šaukštą deguto 30) Politinės skiedros lekia, reikalai stovi 31) Bręsta mūšis dėl VVĮ kapitalogrąţų 32) Namus perkantys britai tampo velnią uţ ragų 33) Melţė banko akcijas ir gaudė Yellen ţodţius

34) Linkevičius: Rusija plauna smegenis europiečiams 35) Klerkai popierius skaito kilogramais 36) Investavimas 2017 m.: Prisisekite dirţus duobėtoms rinkoms 37) „Švyturys― paaiškino, kodėl ištirpo pelnas 38) Liūtys išpūtė kviečių kainą 39) Individualių namų pardavimai ūgtelėjo tik Vilniuje 40) Lūţis „Vilniaus prekybos― akcininkų kare 41) Po bankroto rankų nenuleido: plovyklą iškeitė į naują technlologiją 42) JAV rinkimai: iš Donaldo Trumpo maišo lenda posovietinės ylos 43) Teo― ir „Omnitel― visas paslaugas parduos iš vienų rankų 44) Gazprom ―taikys į nuvaţiuojantį rinkos traukinį― 45) Pastangos apeiti „Latvijas Gaze― monopolį atsimušė į teismo sieną 46) Einantis visad aplenks stovintį 47) Tuštėjantys bankų pelno aruodai 48) Pasaulio ekonomika dreifuoja į sąstingio spąstus 49) Trumpas ţiba stipriau uţ auksą 50) Su graţia striuke lengviau čiuoţti nebus 51) Komandiruotės į visuomenę, arba stalčius atsidaro 52) Investuotojai jau šluoja ir B klasės turtą 53) Kinijos sandoriai uţsienyje: įmonės šluojamos bet kokia kaina 54) Kas sėdi ant kirsti uţdraustų šakų? 55) Ţvilgsniai nukrypo į Pekiną: kaip ramstys ekonomiką? 56) Balansuoja tarp kainų karų ir sveiko skonio 57) Didelės įmonių grupės turės atskleisti kortas 58) Pienininkai nukraujavo, bet išlieka optimistiški 59) Naktinis 5% naftos kainos šuolis 60) Investuotojams audţia konfidencialumo skraistę 61) Biodyzelino gamintojams koją pakišo brangusi ţaliava 62) Oportunistai šoko į išjudantį „Latvijas Gaze― traukinį 63) Pro nykius debesis lenda verslumo spindulys 64) Purvini šokiai aplink koldūnus 65) Alkūnėmis rikiuojami prioritetai 66) Theresa May nori uţvesti naujus JK ūkio variklius 67) Iš snaudulio paţadintas Alijansas 68) Investuotojai persisotino pokemonais: „Nintendo― akcijos pinga 12,5%

69) Permainų vėjai Lotynų Amerikos valstybių politikoje 70) Turkijoje turistų skaičius nudardėjo ţemumon 71) Per reformą šoliuojama uţsimerkus 72) Uţsienio verslui Kinijoje nesaldu 73) Į paslaugų centrus verţiasi robotai 74) Mokestis stumia į šešėlį 75) Ukrainos kelias grįţo į augimo kelią 76) Valdantieji neatsispyrė pagundai: skolų kupra toliau auga 77) Kad švediško burbulo sprogimas neaptaškytų 78) Rusijoje kvailių laivas kelia naujas bures 79) Didţiosios grąţos laikas tirpsta 80) Uţţėlusi viešųjų pirkimų reforma 81) JK gyventojai sprendţia ar atsišvartuoti nuo ES 82) Į akis pučiama reformų migla 83) EBPO bado pirštu į Lietuvos inovacijų spragos 84) Microsoft― ţemyn tempia kompiuteriai, o kelia debesys 85) Kaip nuleisti darbuotojus ant ţemės 86) Gintaro birţa: perka katę maiše 87) Tarp bėgių įstrigusi atmintis 88) „Studentų naktys― birţos neišjudino 89) Kobe Bryantas velkasi rizikos kapitalo marškinėlius 90) Ar nespaudţia roţiniai akiniai? 91) Draudikų ašaros: lietuviui automobilis svarbiau uţ gyvybę, esame kone Afrika 92) Dolerių atsargas Putinas saugo it aukso puodą 93) Rio ―2016‖ didţiulė olimpinės šlovės kaina 94) Sparnuotos Irano ambicijos 95) Naftos milţinas ieško dugno 96) Donaldas Trumpas, Vladimiras Putinas ir stiprios rankos trauka 97) Maţų parduotuvių genocido vaisiai 98) Verslininkai vėl tampa baubu 99) Brexit― derybos: ES lyderiai nori visus pamokyti, kad skyrybos – bloga išeitis 100) Lietuviškas „vienaragis― slenksčio dar neperţengė 101) Azijos tigrą stabdo įmonių nesėkmės 102) Saudo Arabija ir „SoftBank― kuria investicijų fondą milţiną 103) Besijungiantiems DNB ir „Nordea― – komunikacijos minų laukas

104) Pasiklydę vokelių labirintuose 105) Klaipėdos baseino statyboms – ţalia šviesa 106) Stebuklų nebūna, bet receptų yra 107) Valdininkų „saulėlydis― – deja vu? 108) Girgţdantys gamybos ratai? 109) Politikos viraţai skurdo ekonomikoje 110) Slaptas politikų planas: „šventas karas― su ES? 111) Švediška bambagyslė apie kaklą dar nesivinioja 112) Eksportuotojai augina raumenis 113) Pirštu – į įsisenėjusias problemas 114) Rusijos ekonomika: audros akyje 115) Privačių miškininkų uţdirbti pinigai – į valdišką kišenę 116) „Verslas 2017―: dairytis ne tik po savo kiemą 117) Kokie stipriausi darbdavio ginklai kovoje dėl talentų? 118) Spaudos industrija: uţ posūkio šviesa nepasirodė 119) Verslo valdymo pokyčių vėjai: kokią svarbu suformuoti valdybą 120) Bankų chuliganas „Revolut― sustabdė veiklą uţ Europos ribų 121) Laisvė su atsakomybės prieskoniu 122) Vilytė apie juodųjų sąrašų botagą: tai gali virsti šantaţu 123) Viešojo sektoriaus IT projektai: pasaka be galo 124) Premjero vaikų darţelis 125) Stojimo į aukštąsias mokyklas vaisiai kartesni nei visi tikėjosi 126) Pavasario darbus rikiuos rudens rinkimų karštinė 127) Gimsta Baltijos šalių bankas milţinas: DNB + „Nordea― 128) Ginčių liūnas be elektrinės 129) Angela Merkel: vieniša pabėgelių fronto lauke 130) Birţoje investuotojams rūpėjo liemenėlės 131) Nusibodę Seimo šlageriai 132) Keitimosi informacija apie sąskaitas banga pasiekė Monaką 133) Meniu vadovui: „Mercedes-Benz―, „Jaguar― ar BMW 134) Skandinavai praranda karūną, bet ţaidimų rinka auga 135) Iš rūko – į kreivų veidrodţių karalystę 136) Prognozė: kova dėl valdţios liepsnos tarp trijų partijų 137) Tobulas ―Lidl‖ šūvis – kaip į savo pusę palenkti pirkėją 138) Didieji duomenys – smulkiųjų kozeris apes milţinus

139) ―Lados‖ gamintojai jau nuostolių liūne 140) Lenkijos ekonomikos inkaras – populizmas 141) Valstybei nuostolinga bičiulystė 142) Į Mačiulo karūną kesinasi kiti lyderiai 143) ―Google‖ nuodėmės ir kozeriai „Android― byloje 144) Nepakanka palikti atviras duris 145) Trys miestai, trys skirtingos siuvimo kišenės 146) ―Brexit‖ ir juodųjų gulbių scenarijai 147) Dviguba pilietybė – pasaka be galo 148) Baltijos šalyse kuriamas komunalinių paslaugų milţinas 149) ―Brexit‖ politinės ir ekonominės pagirios 150) Vien su reinvestuoto pelno lengvata maratono pries estus nelaimėsime 151) ES piktţaizde apes ilgalaikis nedarbas maţėja 152) Kam rūpi Lietuvos Ţaliasis auksas 153) Europa – kryţkelėje. Šįkart iš tiesų 154) Politikų ţaidimai tarp stadiono vaduoklių 155) Darbo rankų stoka – balastas pramonė 156) Pasaulinio nerimo fone – išskirtinis Lietuvių optimizmas 157) Austrijos prezidento rinkimai: per plauką nuo kraštutinių dešniųjų 158) Ant padėklo – ne vien britų likimas 159) Po paslapties skraiste – manupuliacijos 160) Britai iš ratų? Ratams lengviau 161) Irano verslo labirintus įveikia atkakliausieji 162) Europos birţose – liūdesys, Baltijos – ramybė 163) Darbo kodeksas – be paţangos 164) Batutų parkas jau išaugo marškinėlius 165) Pensijų fondų pusmetis: „Brexit― visos grąţos nesuvalgė 166) Paskutiniai naftos atodūsiai 167) „Mediapark― suvalgė „App Camp― 168) Po „Brexit― kylančios kainos kanda JK vartotojams 169) Rinka alkana sandėlių ir logistikos centrų 170) Universitetai blaivosi: pagaliau optimizacija 171) Birţoms kraują nuleidţia po 2-4% perdien 172) Euro zonos kredito įstaigų sergėtojai didţiausią rūpestį kelia suliesėję bankų pelnai

173) Bankų vedybos iš išskaičiavimo 174) Pinigai kraustosi į alternatyvas 175) „Facebook― matuojasi ţiniasklaidos marškinius 176) Nedrąsūs pramoninio turizmo ţingsniai 177) Kiaulienos eksportas stojasi ant kojų 178) Į JAV rinka ţengia per barjerus, bet kelią palengvins TTIP 179) Verslas švenčia kartu su klientais 180) Pigi elektronika ruošiasi ţygiui į Europą 181) Birţų flirtas: trečias bandymas gali nemeluoti 182) EK patarinėja, Lietuva neklauso 183) Vilniaus birţoje kyščioja suomiškos ausys 184) Skola gesina miestų ambicijas 185) Rusijos ūkio pulsas – kiek spartesnis 186) Londono viešbučių kainos nusirito ţemyn 187) Po „Brexit― kylančios kainos kanda JK vartotojams 188) Lenkija netenka draugų Europoje 189) Kadagių slėnis rengiasi mesti pirštinę Lajų takui 190) Jaunas verslas roţinius akinius jau nusiėmė 191) Rusija pudruoja verslui matomą fasadą 192) Pasaulinė prekyba siunčia nerimo ţenklus 193) Klaipėdos „Akropolis― atnaujino veidą 194) „Brexit―: Varšuva leidţiasi į Londono bankų medţioklę 195) Danija: buvo britų draugė, o dabar – grieţto „Brexit― šalininkė 196) Pieno kaina jau bando atsiplėšti nuo dugno 197) ―Barclays‖ uţaugo. Imasi optimizuoti veiklą 198) ―Amazon‖ ţengia į realią rinką 199) Pakėlė kainą – pajamas nučiuoţė ţemyn 200) Skęstančioms įmonėms – nemokamas gelbėjimo ratas

APPENDIX 2

Table 1. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in The Economist

Number Metaphor 1. Why too much oil in storage is weighing on prices 2. Beating Apple, Xiaomi and the Gang in China 3. The European Union tries to prevent a wave of migrants from Libya 4. The world economy is picking up 5. Talking the dollar down, or is it up? 6. Cutting immigration will not placate British voters 7. Britain‘s local councils face financial crisis 8. The rise of the Herbal Tea Party 9. Indian outsourcing specialists must reboot their strategies 10. Republican tax-reform plans face many hurdles, including Donald Trump 11. Where smoking is on the rise process 12. The French left faces a grim election year 13. Moscow‘s power players toast President Trump 14. Gambia‘s dictator hangs on even as Senegal‘s army crosses the border 15. The spectre of slavery haunts George Washington‘s house 16. Breitbart News pushes deeper into Europe 17. Japanese golf courses hunt for a new driver 18. Uber is facing the biggest crisis in its short history 19. The changing face of global trade 20. Tearing down the wall before it gets built 21. Barack Obama bows out reflecting on the fragility of democracy 22. Lutherans and Catholics play down their 500-year-old differences 23. Waking up from the American dream 24. The presidential race enters the classroom 25. How governments can nudge informal businesses to leave the grey economy 26. On both the left and right, religious rage in the presidential race is more political than spiritual 27. The rise of Syria‘s White Helmets 28. Samsung‘s meltdown 29. Sterling takes a pounding

30. Donald Trump boasts of groping women 31. China worries subside 32. Why is American football going big in Britain? 33. Visit Osaka, and turn into a fish, in VR 34. China‘s growing clout in international economic affairs 35. A sponge wrung dry 36. Companies are racing to add value to water 37. How athletes can use medical exemptions to beat drug testers 38. Why Colin Kaepernick‘s silent protest is catching on 39. Francis is facing down opposition from traditionalists and Vatican bureaucrats 40. A well-loved monster takes Japan‘s box office by storm once again 41. Crumbling ceasefire 42. Defying prejudice, Islam‘s mystical, musical strain appeals to New Yorkers 43. Feelings-first voters have found a voice in Donald Trump 44. Paralympians face fewer competitors than Olympians do 45. A lukewarm reboot of ―Cold Feet‖ 46. Markets start to face the prospect of a Trump victory 47. Making eyes across the ocean 48. Deaths from heroin overdoses are spiraling in Britain. Many are preventable 49. Hillary Clinton opens up as the presidential race tightens 50. Gary Johnson‘s battle to be a contender 51. Why markets obsess over bond yields 52. Is the language of politics broken? 53. Red ink rising 54. Why former Mormons club together to share their struggles 55. Raising a glass to Britain‘s Indian pubs 56. Donald Trump shakes up his team again 57. Tour operators are down but not out 58. Strong jobs growth will tempt the Fed to make an error 59. Religious leaders grapple with doctor-assisted dying 60. How Clinton and Trump plan to boost wages 61. Harry Potter makes an enchanting transition from page to stage 62. The challenges facing Peru‘s new president

63. Flying on a budget carrier for business is bad for the ego, but necessary 64. How ―Amexit‖ sent shockwaves through the financial markets 65. Diving into the mire 66. Republican tax-reform plans face many hurdles, including Donald Trump 67. The Brexit contagion spreads 68. Britain faces Project Reality 69. The air-leasing sector may soon face harder times 70. In Copeland and Stoke, Labour faces threats from different sources 71. Peace breaks out in currency markets 72. Spain‘s banking clean-up

Table 2. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Process in the Verslo Žinios

Number Metaphor 1. Specialistas pataria: kaip išsipainioti iš finansinių sunkumų 2. „Millenium― karta neturi užuosti reklamos 3. Estų birţoje virė emocijos 4. Grumiasi dėl rinkos dalies 5. Smulkieji drąsiai neria į gilesnius verslo vandenis 6. Apie ateitį Lietuvoje tik puse lūpų 7. Bendrovės Kauno rajone strategija:kol žvejoja investicijas, imasi kitų uţsakymų 8. Turizmo sektorius ţada šokti pagal kliento dūdelę 9. Pasaulio reakcija į Trumpą: vieni ragina prisisegti diržus, kiti juos atsilaisvina 10. Pasisemti pinigų yra kur 11. Lenkijos valdantieji klimpsta gilyn į krizę 12. Pekinas stoja į prekybinį mūšį 13. Algos Lietuvoje šoktelėjo 7,9%, ekonomistai nedţiūgauja 14. Kad salelė nepaskęstų prekybos centro vandenyne 15. Rusija priversta karpyti ir gynybos išlaidas 16. „Note 7― pakirpo „Samsung― pelną 17. Esi prekybos tinkle, ir pajamos šauna aukštyn 18. Ispanijos saulė šildo ne visus 19. Į JAV rinka žengia per barjerus, bet kelią palengvins TTIP

20. Pasiskiepiję nuo valstybinio mąstymo 21. Valanda su „Tez Tour― pardavimų vadove: prekiauti svajonėmis nėra paprasta

22. Butų kainos auga lyg ant mielių, lietuviai dairosi į namus

23. Maţiau nugriebti grietinėlės nuo algos 24. Kai toliau savo barzdos nemato 25. Mugėje mezga verslo ryšius ir uţsitikrina uţsakymų metams 26. Susprogdinti finansų technologijų burbulą 27. Trina rankomis: Lietuvos veţėjai atnaujina parkus 28. Trumpas įpūtė entuziazmo Europos populistams 29. Vis kyšteli šaukštą deguto 30. Politinės skiedros lekia, reikalai stovi 31. Bręsta mūšis dėl VVĮ kapitalogrąţų 32. Namus perkantys britai tampo velnią už ragų 33. Melžė banko akcijas ir gaudė Yellen ţodţius 34. Linkevičius: Rusija plauna smegenis europiečiams 35. Klerkai popierius skaito kilogramais 36. Investavimas 2017 m.: Prisisekite diržus duobėtoms rinkoms 37. „Švyturys― paaiškino, kodėl ištirpo pelnas 38. Liūtys išpūtė kviečių kainą 39. Individualių namų pardavimai ūgtelėjo tik Vilniuje 40. Lūžis „Vilniaus prekybos― akcininkų kare 41. Po bankroto rankų nenuleido: plovyklą iškeitė į naują technlologiją 42. JAV rinkimai: iš Donaldo Trumpo maišo lenda posovietinės ylos

43. Teo― ir „Omnitel― visas paslaugas parduos iš vienų rankų 44. Gazprom ―taikys į nuvažiuojantį rinkos tarukinį― 45. Pastangos apeiti „Latvijas Gaze― monopolį atsimušė į teismo sieną 46. Einantis visad aplenks stovintį 47. Tuštėjantys bankų pelno aruodai 48. Pasaulio ekonomika dreifuoja į sąstingio spąstus 49. Trumpas žiba stipriau už auksą 50. Su graţia striuke lengviau čiuožti nebus 51. Komandiruotės į visuomenę, arba stalčius atsidaro 52. Investuotojai jau šluoja ir B klasės turtą

53. Kinijos sandoriai uţsienyje: įmonės šluojamos bet kokia kaina 54. Kas sėdi ant kirsti uţdraustų šakų? 55. Ţvilgsniai nukrypo į Pekiną: kaip ramstys ekonomiką? 56. Balansuoja tarp kainų karų ir sveiko skonio 57. Didelės įmonių grupės turės atskleisti kortas 58. Pienininkai nukraujavo, bet išlieka optimistiški 59. Naktinis 5% naftos kainos šuolis 60. Investuotojams audžia konfidencialumo skraistę 61. Biodyzelino gamintojams koją pakišo brangusi ţaliava 62. Oportunistai šoko į išjudantį „Latvijas Gaze― traukinį 63. Pro nykius debesis lenda verslumo spindulys 64. Purvini šokiai aplink koldūnus 65. Alkūnėmis rikiuojami prioritetai 66. Theresa May nori užvesti naujus JK ūkio variklius 67. Iš snaudulio pažadintas Alijansas 68. Investuotojai persisotino pokemonais: „Nintendo― akcijos pinga 12,5% 69. Permainų vėjai Lotynų Amerikos valstybių politikoje 70. Turkijoje turistų skaičius nudardėjo ţemumon 71. Per reformą šoliuojama uţsimerkus 72. Uţsienio verslui Kinijoje nesaldu 73. Į paslaugų centrus veržiasi robotai 74. Mokestis stumia į šešėlį 75. Ukrainos kelias grįţo į augimo kelią 76. Valdantieji neatsispyrė pagundai: skolų kupra toliau auga 77. Kad švediško burbulo sprogimas neaptaškytų 78. Rusijoje kvailių laivas kelia naujas bures 79. Didţiosios grąţos laikas tirpsta 80. Užžėlusi viešųjų pirkimų reforma 81. JK gyventojai sprendţia ar atsišvartuoti nuo ES 82. Į akis pučiama reformų migla 83. EBPO bado pirštu į Lietuvos inovacijų spragos 84. Microsoft― žemyn tempia kompiuteriai, o kelia debesys 85. Kaip nuleisti darbuotojus ant ţemės 86. Gintaro birţa: perka katę maiše

87. Tarp bėgių įstrigusi atmintis 88. „Studentų naktys― biržos neišjudino 89. Kobe Bryantas velkasi rizikos kapitalo marškinėlius 90. Ar nespaudţia rožiniai akiniai?

Table 3. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in The Economist

Number Metaphor 1. Britain’s war on seagulls 2. Norway‘s deal with the EU still holds lessons for Britain 3. A scandal throws France‘s presidential race wide open 4. Digital immortality for the Holocaust‘s last survivors 5. How necessary is Donald Trump’s wall? 6. McDonald‘s is going for healthier fare and greater digitisation 7. Understanding the spike in China‘s birth rate 8. The war on baby girls winds down 9. In their presidential primary, France‘s Socialists tack to the left 10. The curious case of high blood pressure around the world 11. War of the words 12. Remittances to Mexico spike in anticipation of Donald Trump‘s wall 13. The manufacturing jobs delusion 14. Why President Trump might be a boon for autonomous vehicles 15. The most profitable time of the year 16. The fall of Sirte 17. The hole at the heart of economics 18. You may be higher up the global wealth pyramid than you think 19. Why Africa‘s borders are a mess 20. On the brink of the abyss 21. Night and day in a vital swing state 22. Trump and the political economy of liquidity traps 23. A tale of two rallies 24. The Iraqi army is on the brink of defeating Islamic State 25. Battle of ideas 26. Crunch time for Obamacare

27. An earthquake in European banking 28. Should we turn our understanding of the Middle East on its head? 29. Hillary Clinton, trail-blazer 30. The power of comics journalism 31. There is more than one kind of economic mess to be in 32. The global burden of disease 33. The justices puzzle over the right to an impartial jury 34. Brexit stage right 35. Keeping it under your hat 36. More hat than cattle 37. The state of the race 38. Lessons from the debates of the past 39. A dreadful week for British sport 40. The 2016 election: No happy ending 41. The cockroaches of finance 42. Grab battles Uber in South-East Asia 43. Globalization backlash revisited 44. Bridget Jones: woman of substance, top news producer, millennial 45. Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton, the unlikely muses 46. The FARC agree to hand in their weapons and become a normal political party 47. Growing competition between universities is changing student life 48. Can Donald Trump turn Texas blue? 49. The global shipping industry’s woes 50. Prosecutors drop corruption case against former Virginia governor 51. The glass harmonica’s unlikely comeback 52. Ireland‘s forbidden fruit 53. The Countess of Computers 54. What is Africa‘s ―Great Green Wall”? 55. Clinton says Trump has based his campaign on prejudice and paranoia 56. “Spiritual blackmail” in politics may be undesirable, but outlawing it is hard 57. How to get poor countries out of low-trust ruts 58. Now that anyone can be a DJ, is the art form dead? 59. Vladimir Putin‘s powerful right-hand man steps down

60. Duterte‘s dirty war 61. Public space in Turkey is central to the government’s power grab 62. Politics hogs the Olympic spotlight in the Middle East 63. Hillary Clinton opens up a sizeable lead 64. Mahasweta Devi: a writer of blood, protest and grief 65. Everything under the sun 66. The Olympics as a kind of religion 67. A controversial transaction sits at the heart of Liberty Media‘s takeover of Formula One 68. European carriers are in for a bumpy ride 69. Donald Trump‘s disastrous fortnight 70. The cost of political limbo in Spain 71. The Guardian‘s losses mount 72. Abbas Kiarostami‘s long shadow 73. Scientists pave the way for large-scale storage at the atomic level 74. Melania Trump‘s excruciating blunder 75. No Oscar fodder at this year‘s Karlovy Vary film festival 76. Invasion of the bottle snatchers 77. When life gives you lemons 78. The wrong trousers: To what extent should travelers adjust their dress when abroad? 79. China‘s tyranny of characters 80. Their eyes on Albion 81. Brexit: markets in shock 82. Banks v investors. Of snowballs and red ink 83. Buffett, Apple and DidiChuxing: $1 billion stakes on the menu 84. French manufacturers in Morocco: Factories in the sun 85. Apple in India: Forbidden fruit 86. The eye of the storm 87. A recipe for Parliamentary chaos 88. A pensions chicken comes home to roost 89. The elephants in the stats 90. Keeping it under your hand 91. Follow the sun

92. Putin‘s right-hand woman 93. A battle over Euro Disney 94. Money from heaven 95. Donald Trump is poised to paint America’s judiciary red 96. A flood of false headlines probably did not swing America‘s election 97. Crises in its main industries have set Scotland on a poorer path than the rest of Britain 98. Sub-national currencies struggle to survive

Table 4 . Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity of Quality in the Verslo Žinios

Number Metaphors 1. Draudikų ašaros: lietuviui automobilis svarbiau uţ gyvybę, esame kone Afrika 2. Dolerių atsargas Putinas saugo it aukso puodą 3. Rio 2016‖ didţiulė olimpinės šlovės kaina 4. Sparnuotos Irano ambicijos 5. Naftos milžinas ieško dugno 6. Donaldas Trumpas, Vladimiras Putinas ir stiprios rankos trauka 7. Maţų parduotuvių genocido vaisiai 8. Verslininkai vėl tampa baubu 9. Brexit― derybos: ES lyderiai nori visus pamokyti, kad skyrybos – bloga išeitis 10. Lietuviškas „vienaragis― slenksčio dar neperţengė 11. Azijos tigrą stabdo įmonių nesėkmės 12. Saudo Arabija ir „SoftBank― kuria investicijų fondą milžiną 13. Besijungiantiems DNB ir „Nordea― – komunikacijos minų laukas 14. Pasiklydę vokelių labirintuose 15. Klaipėdos baseino statyboms – žalia šviesa 16. Stebuklų nebūna bet receptų yra 17. Valdininkų „saulėlydis― – deja vu? 18. Girgţdantys gamybos ratai? 19. Politikos viražai skurdo ekonomikoje 20. Slaptas politikų planas: „šventas karas― su ES? 21. Švediška bambagyslė apie kaklą dar nesivinioja 22. Eksportuotojai augina raumenis 23. Pirštu – į įsisenėjusias problemas 91

24. Rusijos ekonomika: audros akyje 25. Privačių miškininkų uţdirbti pinigai – į valdišką kišenę 26. „Verslas 2017―: dairytis ne tik po savo kiemą 27. Kokie stipriausi darbdavio ginklai kovoje dėl talentų? 28. Spaudos industrija: uţ posūkio šviesa nepasirodė 29. Verslo valdymo pokyčių vėjai: kokią svarbu suformuoti valdybą 30. Bankų chuliganas „Revolut― sustabdė veiklą uţ Europos ribų 31. Laisvė su atsakomybės prieskoniu 32. Vilytė apie juodųjų sąrašų botagą: tai gali virsti šantaţu

33. Viešojo sektoriaus IT projektai: pasaka be galo 34. Premjero vaikų darželis 35. Stojimo į aukštąsias mokyklas vaisiai kartesni nei visi tikėjosi 36. Pavasario darbus rikiuos rudens rinkimų karštinė 37. Gimsta Baltijos šalių bankas milžinas: DNB + „Nordea― 38. Ginčių liūnas be elektrinės 39. Angela Merkel: vieniša pabėgelių fronto lauke 40. Birţoje investuotojams rūpėjo liemenėlės 41. Nusibodę Seimo šlageriai 42. Keitimosi informacija apie sąskaitas banga pasiekė Monaką 43. Meniu vadovui: „Mercedes-Benz―, „Jaguar― ar BMW 44. Skandinavai praranda karūną, bet ţaidimų rinka auga 45. Iš rūko – į kreivų veidrodžių karalystę 46. Prognozė: kova dėl valdţios liepsnos tarp trijų partijų 47. Tobulas ―Lidl‖ šūvis – kaip į savo pusę palenkti pirkėją 48. Didieji duomenys – smulkiųjų kozeris prieš milžinus 49. ―Lados‖ gamintojai jau nuostolių liūne 50. Lenkijos ekonomikos inkaras – populizmas 51. Valstybei nuostolinga bičiulystė 52. Į Mačiulo karūną kesinasi kiti lyderiai 53. ―Google‖ nuodėmės ir kozeriai „Android― byloje 54. Nepakanka palikti atviras duris 55. Trys miestai, trys skirtingos siuvimo kišenės 56. ―Brexit‖ ir juodųjų gulbių scenarijai 57. Dviguba pilietybė – pasaka be galo 92

58. Baltijos šalyse kuriamas komunalinių paslaugų milžinas 59. ―Brexit‖ politinės ir ekonominės pagirios 60. Vien su reinvestuoto pelno lengvata maratono pries estus nelaimėsime 61. ES piktžaizde tapęs ilgalaikis nedarbas maţėja 62. Kam rūpi Lietuvos Žaliasis auksas 63. Europa – kryžkelėje. Šįkart iš tiesų 64. Politikų žaidimai tarp stadiono vaduoklių 65. Darbo rankų stoka – balastas pramonė 66. Pasaulinio nerimo fone – išskirtinis Lietuvių optimizmas 67. Austrijos prezidento rinkimai: per plauką nuo kraštutinių dešniųjų 68. Ant padėklo – ne vien britų likimas 69. Po paslapties skraiste – manupuliacijos 70. Britai iš ratų? Ratams lengviau 71. Irano verslo labirintus įveikia atkakliausieji 72. Europos biržose – liūdesys, Baltijos – ramybė 73. Darbo kodeksas – be pažangos

Table 5. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being in The Economist

Number Metaphors 1. OPEC’s talks on curbing oil production come to nothing 2. System says slow 3. Cash is still king in Britain 4. Nuclear power play 5. A well-loved monster takes Japan’s box office by storm once again 6. Japanese banks grapple with ultra-low interest rates 7. The state steps in to rescue Monte dei Paschi di Siena 8. The markets have second thoughts on Donald Trump 9. Businesses can and will adapt to the age of populism 10. Inflation is on the way back in the rich world, and that is good news 11. A controversial transaction sits at the heart of Liberty Media‘s takeover of Formula One 12. Wage growth surges, just in time for the Trump presidency 13. China’s currency upsets forecasts by beginning the new year stronger

14. Why a top university runs a London state school on Soviet lines 15. Asia is still just saying no to drugs 16. Death of a Brazilian justice 17. As America and Russia talk, Ukraine fights 18. India floats the idea of a universal basic income 19. India flirts with a UBI 20. Can cities sue banks for predatory lending? 21. As Britain and Russia spar, their spiritual leaders confer 22. As Egypt quarrels with Saudi Arabia, it is finding new friends 23. America leaves foreign firms out in the cold 24. Inflation is on the way back in the rich world, and that is good news 25. Singapore tries to become a fintech hub 26. Europe gets ready for Donald Trump 27. McDonald‘s is going for healthier fare and greater digitisation 28. ESPN is losing subscribers but it is still Disney‘s cash machine 29. Neste uses animal waste to make a cleaner form of diesel 30. Religious charities are stepping in as welfare is cut

Table 6. Metaphorical Expressions Based on Similarity to Human Being in the Verslo Žinios

Number Metaphors 1. Batutų parkas jau išaugo marškinėlius 2. Pensijų fondų pusmetis: „Brexit― visos grąžos nesuvalgė 3. Paskutiniai naftos atodūsiai 4. „Mediapark― suvalgė „App Camp― 5. Po „Brexit― kylančios kainos kanda JK vartotojams 6. Rinka alkana sandėlių ir logistikos centrų 7. Universitetai blaivosi: pagaliau optimizacija 8. Birţoms kraują nuleidžia po 2-4% perdien 9. Euro zonos kredito įstaigų sergėtojai didţiausią rūpestį kelia suliesėję bankų pelnai 10. Bankų vedybos iš išskaičiavimo 11. Pinigai kraustosi į alternatyvas 12. „Facebook― matuojasi žiniasklaidos marškinius

13. Nedrąsūs pramoninio turizmo žingsniai 14. Kiaulienos eksportas stojasi ant kojų 15. Į JAV rinka žengia per barjerus, bet kelią palengvins TTIP 16. Verslas švenčia kartu su klientais 17. Pigi elektronika ruošiasi žygiui į Europą 18. Biržų flirtas: trečias bandymas gali nemeluoti 19. EK patarinėja, Lietuva neklauso 20. Vilniaus birţoje kyščioja suomiškos ausys 21. Skola gesina miestų ambicijas 22. Rusijos ūkio pulsas – kiek spartesnis 23. Londono viešbučių kainos nusirito žemyn 24. Po „Brexit― kylančios kainos kanda JK vartotojams 25. Lenkija netenka draugų Europoje 26. Kadagių slėnis rengiasi mesti pirštinę Lajų takui 27. Jaunas verslas rožinius akinius jau nusiėmė 28. Rusija pudruoja verslui matomą fasadą 29. Pasaulinė prekyba siunčia nerimo ţenklus 30. Klaipėdos „Akropolis― atnaujino veidą 31. „Brexit―: Varšuva leidžiasi į Londono bankų medžioklę 32. Danija: buvo britų draugė, o dabar – grieţto „Brexit― šalininkė 33. Pieno kaina jau bando atsiplėšti nuo dugno 34. ―Barclays‖ užaugo. Imasi optimizuoti veiklą 35. ―Amazon‖ žengia į realią rinką 36. Pakėlė kainą – pajamas nučiuožė ţemyn 37. Skęstančioms įmonėms – nemokamas gelbėjimo ratas