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Master Thesis Imagining coherence Local discourses about identities, tradition and religion in Pangani, Tanzania Idunn Lüllau Holthe Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of Master’s degree Department of Social Anthropology University of Bergen Spring 2017 II Imagining coherence Local discourses about identities, tradition and religion in Pangani, Tanzania Idunn Lüllau Holthe Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of Master’s degree Department of Social Anthropology University of Bergen Spring 2017 III IV Contents Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….………...…….VII Glossary…………………………………………………………………..………….……..VIII Map………………………………………………………………………………………...…IX Note on pictures…..…………………………………………………………………………...X Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 Setting the stage ..................................................................................................................... 1 Major arguments .................................................................................................................... 2 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................... 4 How to approach religion? ................................................................................................ 5 History of Tanzania ................................................................................................................ 9 Life in Pangani ..................................................................................................................... 12 Introducing the chapters ....................................................................................................... 14 Chapter 2: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 17 Entering the field .................................................................................................................. 17 Methodological considerations ............................................................................................ 18 Language and interpretation ............................................................................................ 19 On being the Other and finding one’s place .................................................................... 21 Secrecy and the importance of time ................................................................................. 23 Lying and looking for problems ....................................................................................... 24 Ethical considerations .......................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 3: Forming boundaries of social identity. Two views on Pangani ...................... 29 The migrant workers of Pangani: A view from outside ....................................................... 30 Groups, boundaries and stereotypes ................................................................................ 33 Historical memories of difference .................................................................................... 35 Understanding themselves: A view from inside Pangani ..................................................... 37 Underplaying differences and emphasizing togetherness ................................................ 38 Defining oneself in relation to others ............................................................................... 39 Conversions: On leaving a religious discourse .................................................................... 43 The school system as a religious authority ........................................................................... 46 Local frustration with historical marginalization ................................................................. 48 V Imagined communities and spirits of tolerance .................................................................... 51 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................. 53 Chapter 4: Changing ritual practice and destroying holy shrines ..................................... 55 Looking at change through the aspect of religious festivals ................................................ 56 Redefining religious boundaries ........................................................................................... 62 Local and textual understandings of Islam ........................................................................... 63 Coping with new boundaries, violence and change: A culture of secrecy ........................... 65 Towards a radicalization of religion? ................................................................................... 68 Mythological expressions of social distress ......................................................................... 70 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................. 72 Chapter 5: Healing, spirit possession and skepticism: The waganga in Pangani ............. 75 Healing, spirit possession and modernity ............................................................................. 76 Getting to know a mganga and his practices ........................................................................ 78 Meeting Ali ....................................................................................................................... 78 Legitimizing and dealing with skepticism ........................................................................ 80 The mganga and his spirits .............................................................................................. 82 Rituals of synthesis ........................................................................................................... 84 Meeting Rehema, a female mganga ..................................................................................... 85 The possessed women of Pangani ........................................................................................ 86 Skepticism, resistance and defining religious boundaries .................................................... 87 Crossing boundaries of biomedicine and healing ................................................................ 91 Governmental influence and licenses to heal ....................................................................... 94 Traditional healers as flexible and modern symbols ............................................................ 95 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................. 97 Chapter 6: Tuko pamoja. “We are together” ....................................................................... 99 Gazing towards a bigger picture ......................................................................................... 103 Final personal remarks ....................................................................................................... 104 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 106 VI Acknowledgements First and foremost I want to express my deepest gratitude to my friends and acquaintances in Pangani, and to my informants in particular. I consider myself lucky to have known you all, and I am forever grateful for all the assistance and information you have given me, as well as the warmth and kindness you have shown me. Thank you to my dear host family for giving me a place to live and for making me feel comfortable. I would also like to thank my Swahili teacher on Zanzibar, Hamisi; you made grammar fun. I further want to give a special thanks to my supervisor at the Department of Social Anthropology, Leif Manger. Thank you for all your good advice, clever reflections and patience. I also want to thank the University of Bergen and the Department of Social Anthropology for making this thesis possible, as well as the Faculty of Social Sciences for the economic support to help cover my fieldwork expenses. I am grateful to Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI) who provided me with a workplace and included me in an interesting and exciting research environment. Especially thanks to Siri Lange for inspiring and motivating conversations and chats both during fieldwork and in the following process of writing. Thanks to Karin Ask for your genuine interest and good advice. Also, thanks to the Gender Cluster at CMI for your professional inputs and feedback. Lastly, I would like to thank my fellow students at CMI and at the Department of Social Anthropology. You have made the last two years fun and entertaining, and late Saturdays at CMI are not so bad in the right company. Henriette, Kjersti, Tollef, Kaja and Thea, thank you for reading and commenting on my chapters. Thanks to my friends and family who have read parts of my thesis and supported me in the process of writing: Ida, Eirik, Kajsa, Tina, my dear aunt Hege and my boyfriend Magnus. Kwa marafiki zangu wa Pangani: Sitawasahau. Ahsante sana. Thank you. VII Glossary From Swahili to English Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) the Revolutionary Party dawa (pl. madawa) medicine, medicament dini religion jini (pl. majini) spirit, jinn kanga colorful cloth wore by women kitabu book madrasa Quran School maji water Marekani America matatizo problems mganga (pl. waganga) traditional healer mila tradition,
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