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After the Arusha Declaration, 1967-1984 Amandina Lihamba

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POLITICS AND THEATRE IN TANZANIA AFTER THE ARUSHA DECLARATION, 1967-1984 AMANDINA LIHAMBA A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS SCHOOL OF ENGLISH 1985 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the practice of theatre in Tanzania after the Arusha Declaration of 1967, The Arusha Declaration as Tanzania's blueprint for socialist transformation ushered in an era in which economic and political attempts were made to direct the country towards Ujamaa and away from capitalist structures and development. The social reality of the period has been dominated by the articulation between the attempts for the socialist transformation and the histor­ ical political factors supporting or undermining the transformation. This thesis discusses contemporary Tanzanian theatre within the frame­ work of the political events and social reality after 1967. There are six chapters in the thesis. Chapter 1 provides the historical back­ ground of contemporary Tanzanian theatre. It includes an examination of traditional theatre performances within and outside the colonial experience as well as the historical role of Kiswahili as a chosen language of theatre communication. Chapter 2 looks into the Arusha Declaration, its tenets, objectives, some aspects of its effects on social practices and the theoretical responses regarding the role of an art form such as theatre within Ujamaa. A discussion on the works of Tanzania's leading playwright, Ebrahim Hussein, is the concern of Chapter 3. Chapter 4 examines plays and performances by the other theatre practitioners of the period. Official policies and the practice of theatre in state institutions are described in Chapter 5 and the last Chapter covers the development of theatre for social development as well as the nature of theatre control and censorship in the period under investigation. What emerges from these discussions is theatre practice which has been greatly informed by the political events, attitudes, policies and available aesthetic vocabulary of the period. The material upon which the discussion in this thesis is based has been obtained from field research, interviews, questionnaires, archival sources, information from theatre practitioners and cultural activists as well as published plays and theatre material. It is hoped that the thesis provides an understanding of the development and practice of theatre within the specific political and social conditions such as Tanzania's since 1967. 11 CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ........................................................ i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................. iv ABBREVIATIONS. .............................................. v LIST OF CHARTS . .................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES................................................... vi MAP 1: Tanzania: Regions and Administrative Centres .......... vii MAP 2: Tanzania: Major Ethnic Groupings ...................... viii INTRODUCTION......... 1 Notes to Introduction.............................. 6 CHAPTER 1 AESTHETICS AND POLITICS IN TRADITIONAL AND COLONIAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION.................................... 7 1. Traditional Forms of Theatre...................... 8 2. Traditional Performances in Colonial Times...........25 3. Western D r a m a .................................... 33 4. Kiswahili Language and Poetry .................... 46 Notes to Chapter 1 ...................................... 52 CHAPTER 2 THE ARUSHA DECLARATION AND CULTURAL CHANGE ............ 58 1. The Arusha Declaration: Policy and Implementation . 59 2. Theatre Response and the Arusha Declaration: Ideological and theoretical considerations.......... 80 Notes to Chapter 2 ...................................... 97 CHAPTER 3 THE THEATRE OF EBRAHIM N. HUSSEIN...................... 104 1. The Writer.................................... .. 104 2. The P l a y s ......................................... 115 Notes to Chapter 3 .....................................170 Ill Page CHAPTER 4 LIBERATION, SOCIETY AND SOCIALISM...................... 175 1. Colonialism, Nationalism and Liberation .......... 176 2. Liberation, Neo-colonialism and Social Aspirations. 213 3. Nationalism and Ujamaa. .......... 235 4. Nationalism and Ujamaa: Ngonjera.................... 264 5. Cultural Troupes and Improvised Plays ............ 280 6. Disillusionment, Protest and a New Revolution . 295 Notes to Chapter 4 ...................................... 334 CHAPTER 5 THEATRE, NATIONAL CULTURAL POLICY AND PRACTICE ........ 348 1. Cultural Policy and the Ministry Responsible for Culture ....... ............................ 349 2. The Cultural Programme. ........................ 366 3. Theatre Development and the National Drama Troupe . 377 4. Radio Theatre . ................................. 396 5. Theatre and Education ............................... 406 Notes to Chapter 5 ......... 430 CHAPTER 6 POPULAR THEATRE, DEVELOPMENT AND THEATRE CONTROL .... 441 1. Development and Popular Theatre . ................. 442 2. Taking Theatre to the People...................... 448 3. Theatre for Social Development: Case Studies. 475 Notes to Chapter 6 ............. 490 APPENDICES: A ................ 495 B ................. 498 C .................................................. 503 D .................................................. 504 E .................................................. 506 F . .......................... 509 G .................................................. 511 H .................................................. 513 I ................................................517 J ........................... 520 BIBLIOGRAPHY............ 523 Acknowledgements I am indebted to many people and institutions whose generosity, material and moral support have contributed much to the development and completion of this work. I owe much gratitude to my supervisor, Martin Banham, without whose academic guidance, valuable suggestions, criticisms, encourage­ ment, moral and material support this thesis would not have been possible. My grateful thanks to the British Council for financing this study and to the University of Leeds and the University of Dar-es-Salaam for the research grants which allowed me to do field work for this thesis. My thanks also to the Workshop Theatre, University of Leeds; the Department of Art, Music and Theatre, University of Dar-es-Salaam, and the staff and students of these departments for their help and support throughout the period of study. I owe much to the institutions, villages and individuals who agreed to be interviewed, provide information and material; amongst these are the Ministry of Information and Culture, the Ministry of National Education, Butimba College of National Education, the Party Headquarters, Radio Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam, the villagers of Malya and Mtego wa Simba and the following individuals: Abdilatif Abdalla, E. Chambulikazi, S. Ishemo, Bruce and Jamila King, Mzee D. Kombani, Agnes Mandanda, Dr P.0. Mlama and M. Chikawe who held my hand even across the seas. I am also grateful to Mrs A. Torode for typing this thesis and for her professional advice. Abbreviations Commonly Used AD , Arusha - The Arusha Declaration ASP - The Afro Shirazi Party CCM - Chama cha Mapinduzi CT - Cultural Troupe CUP - Cambridge University Press DSM - Dar-es-Salaam DUP - Dar-es-Salaam University Press EALB - East African Literature Bureau EAPH - East African Publishing House GP - Government Press NDT - National Drama Troupe OUP - Oxford University Press Paukwa - Paukwa Theatre Group/Association RTD - Radio Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam TANU - Tanganyika African National Union TG - Theatre Group TNA - Tanzania National Archives TPH - Tanzania Publishing House TSD - Theatre for Social Development UDSM - University of Dar-es-Salaam vi LIST OF CHARTS Between pages Chart 1: Organization of the Ministry of National Culture and Youth, 1980 ........................ 355/356 Chart 2: Cultural Organization and Administration at the District level, 1980........................ 362/363 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Traditional dancing in Colonial times .......... 27/28 Figure 2: Traditional performance in village-like setting .......................... ..............27/28 Figures 3&4: Traditional performance on stage................. 29/30 Figures 5&6: Western Drama and Aesthetics. .............. 35/36 Figures 7&8: Ebrahim Hussein's Kinjeketile.................. 126/127 Figure 9: Edwin Semzaba's Tendehogo....................... 196/197 Figure 10: John Ruganda's The Burdens....................... 196/197 Figure 11: Penina Muhando's Pambo.................. 220/221 Figure 12: Godwin Kaduma's Mabatini........................ 220/221 Figure 13: Franklin Mziray's Walivyokuwa Wamelala.......... 258/259 Figure 14: Mukotani Rugyendo's The Contest . .258/259 Figures 15&16: Ngonjera performances.......................... 275/276 Figure 17: Muungano's The Bank, Vichekesho performance . .285/286 Figure 18: Dramatized Poetry by Sayari Cultural Troupe . .285/286 Figures 19&20: Paukwa's Ayubu.................................. 302/303 Figures 21-24: Plays from the Cultural Programme ........... .367/368 Figures 25&26: The National Drama Troupe's The Challenge and The Gap , and Tunda.............................. 390/391 Figures 27&28: Bagamoyo College of the Arts' Nani Alaumiwe and Chakatu ........................ ..... .394/395 Figures 29&30: Children's performances........................ 412/413 Figure 31: University of Dar-es-Salaam's Praising the Sun. .429/430 Figure 32: Athol Fugard's
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