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University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HPtO 8HR 77-31,979

SINGLETON, Neil Edward, 1950- VENUS IN THE METAMORPHOSES OF APULEIUS.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1977 Literature, classical

University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48io6

(?) Copyright by

Neil Edward Singleton

1977 VENUS IN THE METAMORPHOSES

OF APULEIUS

DISSERTATION

Presented in P a rtial F u lfillm e n t o f the Requirements for

the Degree Docter of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State U niversity

By

Neil Edward Singleton, A.B., M.A.

*****

The Ohio State University

1977

Reading Committee: Approved by

Carl C. Schlam Charles L, Babcock John T. Davis Adviser Department o f Classics ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to extend special thanks to my adviser. Professor Carl. C.

Schlam, fo r his advice and encouragement during the course o f th is dissertation. I would also like to express my gratitude to Professors

Babcock and Davis for their constructive criticisms and helpful suggestions. F in a lly , I would lik e to thank Messrs. Jeffre y Fox, Peter

P e rs u itti, Peter Veracka fo r th e ir generous assistance and especially

Ms. Connie Dantuono for her patience throughout the typing of this work.

n VITA

November 24, 1950 ...... Born - Cleveland, Ohio

1972 ...... A.B. Classics, John Carroll University, Cleveland, Ohio

1972-1973 ...... U niversity Fellow, Department of Classics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1973 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1973-1975 ...... Teaching Associate, Department of Classics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1975-1976 ...... D issertation Year Fellow, Department of Classics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1976-1977 ...... Teaching Associate, Department of Classics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Latin Literature

Latin Language and Literature: Professors Kenneth M. Abbott, John T. Davis, Dennis M. Kratz, Mark P.O. Morford, Carl C. Schlam, Stephen V. Tracy and John W. Vaughn

Greek Language and Literature: Professors Charles L. Babcock, Angeliki Drachmann, David E. Hahm, Robert J. Lenardon and Jane M. Snyder

m TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... : ...... i i

VITA ...... i i i

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...... v

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 NOTES TO INTRODUCTION...... 17

CHAPTER I - FOTIS AS A VENUS FIGURE...... 20 NOTES TO CHAPTER I ...... 40

CHAPTER I I - VENUS OF THE MIM E ...... 44 NOTES TO CHAPTER I I ...... 58

CHAPTER I I I - VENUS OF THE CUPID AND PSYCHE STORY...... 62 NOTES TO CHAPTER I I I ...... 92

CHAPTER IV - VENUS AND IS IS ...... 95 NOTES TO CHAPTER I V ...... 132

CONCLUSION...... 141

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 147

IV LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Amat - J. Amat. "Sur Quelques Aspects de 1'Esthétique Baroque." REA 74 (1972) 107-152.

Aymard - J. Aymard. "Venus et les Impératrices sous les derniers Antonins." 51 (1934) 178-196.

Beaujeu - Jean Beaujeu. La Religion Romaine a l'Apogée de l'E m pire. Paris, 1955.

Bernhard - Max Bernhard. Der S til des Apuleius von Madaura. S tu ttg a rt, 1927.

Bieber - Margarete Bieber. The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Age. New York (rev. e d .) 1961.

Bieber Theatre - Margarete Bieber. The History of the Greek and Roman Theatre. Princeton, 1961.

Callebat - L. Callebat. Sermo Cotidianus dans les Metamorphoses d'Apulee. Caen, France, 1968.

Carter - Barbara Carter. Horace's Venus: Some Aspects o f Her Role in the Odes. Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1975.

Duckworth - G.E. Duckworth. The Nature o f Roman Comedy. Princeton, 1952.

Duzénil - G. Duzemil. Archaic Roman Religion (trans. Philip Krapp). Chicago, 1970.

Festugiere - A.J. Festugiere. "A Propos des Aretalogies d 'Isis." HThR 42 (1949) 209-234.

Festugiere "Lucius and Is is " - A.J. Festugiere. Personal Religion Among the Greeks. Berkeley, 1954.

Grandjean - Yves Grandjean. Une Nouvelle Arétalogie d 'Is is â Maronee. Leiden, 1975.

Griffiths DIO - J. Gwyn G riffiths. Plutarch's De Iside et Osiride. Cardiff, 1970. Griffiths Isis - J. Gwyn G riffiths, ed. The Isis-Book. Leiden, 1975.

Grimai - Pierre Grimai. Apulei Metamorphoseis IV 28 - VI 24. Paris, 1963.

Heyob - Sharon Kelly Heyob. The Cult o f Is is Among Women in the Graeco- Roman World. Leiden, 1975.

Jonge - B.J. de Jonge. Ad Apulei Metamorphoseon Librum Secundum Com- mentarius Exegeticus. Groningen, 1941.

Junghanns - Paul Junghanns. Die Erzahlunqstechnik von Apuleius' Meta­ morphoses und ih re r Vorlage. Leipzig, 1932.

Morenz - Siegfried Morenz. Egyptian Religion (trans. Ann E. Keep). London, 1973.

Nock - A.D. Nock. "Review of Richard Harder Karpokrates von Chalkis und die memphitische Isis-propaganda. " Gnomon 21 (1949) 221-228.

Paardt - R.T. van der Paardt. L. Apuleius Madaurensis, The Metamorphoses: A Commentary on Book I I I with Text and Introduction. Amsterdam, 1971.

Penwill - J.L. Penwill. "Slavish Pleasures and Profitless Curiosity in Apuleius' Metamorphoses. " Ramus 4 (1975) 49-82.

Perry Ancient Romances - B.E. Perry. The Ancient Romances. Berkeley, 1967.

Perry TAPA 54 - B.E. Perry. "Some Aspects of the Literary Art of Apuleius in the Metamorphoses." TAPA 54 (1923) 196-227.

Plutarch DIO - Plutarch De Iside et Osiride (see G riffiths DIO).

RE - Pauly, Wissowa, Kroll, and Mittelhaus. Real - Encyclopadie der classischen A1tertumswissenschaft. Stuttgart, 1894-

Robertson - M. Robertson. A History o f Greek A rt. Cambridge, 1975.

Roscher, Lexikon - W.H. Roscher. Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der Griechischen und Rbmischen Mythologie. Leipzig, 1884-1937.

Schilling - Robert Schilling. La Religion Romaine de Venus. Paris, 1954.

Schlam Cupid and Psyche - C.C. Schlam. Cupid and Psyche. University Park, Pennsylvania, 1976

Schlam "Platonica" - C.C. Schlam. "Platonica in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius." TAPA 101 (1970) 477-487. Schlam "Scholarship" - C.C. Schlam. "The Scholarship on Apuleius since 1938." ÇW 64 (1971) 285-309.

Scobie - Alexander Scobie. Aspects of the Ancient Romance and its Heritage. Meisenheim am Gian. 1969.

Smith - Warren S. Smith. Lucius of Corinth and Apuleius of Madaura: A Study of the Narrative Technique of the Metamorphoses of Apuleius. Ph.D. D issertation, Yale U niversity, 1968.

Thiel - Helmut van T hiel. Per Eselroman: I. Untersuchungen. I I . Synoptische Ausgabe (Zetemata, 54, 1-2)1 Munich, 1971-72.

Thornton - M.K. Thornton. "Hadrian and His Reign," in Aufstieg und Neidergang der Romischen Welt 2 Part 2,432-465 (H. Temperini and W. Haase, eds.). B e rlin , 1975.

Valletta - Paul Valletta, trans. Apulee: Les Metamorphoses. Paris, 1940.

Walsh - P.G. Walsh. The Roman Novel. Cambridge, 1970.

Witt - R.E. Witt. Isis in the Graeco-Roman World. Ithaca, New York, 1971.

vii INTRODUCTION

The Metamorphoses of Apuleius is a sophisticated creation which

both trumpets and disguises its meaning. The novel provides the

reader with an entertaining and sa tisfyin g story. Through its complex of inserted stories and extraordinary framework there is an essential

unity to the Metamorphoses. Apuleius' subject is change: figuras

fortunasque hominum in alias imagines conversas et in se rursum mutuo

nexu refectas ut mireris (1.1/1.4).^ A world of changing fortunes tra ils Lucius a t every turn. Although his appearance is altered from that of a man to that of an ass, he retains his human perspective.

After his transformation at the close of Book 3, Lucius experiences a diversity of adventures and observes the misfortunes of a lust- driven world. In Book 11 he is restored to his human shape through the intervention of Isis. Despite the changing features of Lucius' story there are recurrent themes and motifs which provide a measure of unity to the work.

Lucius' journey is destined to come to a happy conclusion and is foreseen in the long inserted tale of Psyche. The story of Psyche and her zealous curiosity, wanderings, misfortunes and reconciliation 2 with the divine can be compared with the adventures of Lucius.

Lucius' initiation in Book 11 is prefigured by Psyche's acceptance 2 into the divine world. Book 11 is the climax of Lucius' development; it offers Lucius a stability which overcomes the shifting fortunes he experienced as an ass: Multis et variis exanclatis laboribus maqnisque Fortunae tempestatibus et maximis actus p ro c e llis ad portum

Quietis et aram Misericordiae tandem, Luci, venisti (11.15/277.5).

The Metamorphoses is not merely entertainment, but also a religious journey. Various themes and motifs culminate in Lucius' initiation into the Isis-cult in Book 11.

Recent studies o f the Metamorphoses have discussed several of 3 these themes and motifs, including sex, curiosity, and fortune. I w ill examine the appearances and roles o f Venus in the Metamorphoses and endeavor to show that Venus contributes significantly to the major themes of the work.^ Venus appears in the novel as a goddess herself and is also impersonated by several women. A ll of her appearances and roles have a place in the larger structure of the novel. The goddess makes key appearances both when Lucius is transformed and la te r when he is returned to his human shape. My thesis is that the figure of

Venus is the f i r s t ten books o f the Metamorphoses stands fo r the pleasures of this world. Specifically she is the goddess of lust and jealousy who brings pain and suffering to the world. Even in the ta le of Cupid and Psyche where the destructive power of Venus is not always emphasized, Venus is presented in a mock-divine lig h t. Venus embodies the pursuit of pleasure which brings Lucius hardship before his salvation in Book 11. In the fin a l book Venus is subsumed under a cosmic goddess, Is is . In addition to the appearances and roles o f

Venus the goddess, I w ill also consider the theme of venus. Venus 3 can be considered a d iv in ity as in the Venus calva image and as sexual pleasure. In this second context venus is not limited to any portion of the novel. Of course it is mainly emphasized in the main narrative and inserted stories of Lucius the man and Lucius the ass. In Book 11 sexual pleasure is replaced by religious awe and chastity. This sexual pleasure is characteristic of Venus Vulgaria. Venus and its derivatives color the perception of Venus as a divinity and specif­ ic a lly the Venuses I have chosen to h ig h lig h t. The novel is permeated with the pleasures of sexual activity. Lucius eventually sees how these can be detrimental to one's physical and mental well-being.

Apuleius has made the goddess a significant addition to the ass- story. The importance o f Venus in the Metamorphoses can be contrasted with her absence in the Greek version of the ass-story, A o u m u o s rf

"Ovos, traditionally ascribed to Lucian. This supposed work of

Lucian is an epitome o f a lo s t Greek comic romance probably called the

Metamorphoses (MeTapoptpüîaeus). The patriarch Photius in the ninth century attributed this Greek Metamorphoses to a Lucius of Patrae.

This authorship, however, has been disputed by scholars and among the candidates considered for the author of the lost Greek Metamorphoses is Lucian him self.^ There are many additions to the story which

Apuleius most likely made.^ The most important are the tale of Cupid and Psyche and Book 11. Both episodes contain s ig n ific a n t appearances of Venus. Yet the "Ovos does contain two sexually-explic it sections also found in the Latin Metamorphoses. Though these scenes d e ta il the erotic adventures of Lucius the man with Palaestra the servant g ir l ("Ovos 6-10) and Lucius the ass w ith the noble woman ("Ovos 50-51), there is no reference to Aphrodite and only one use of a cognate word denoting sex.^

In the Metamorphoses, the goddess who stands opposite to the deity of lust and suffering is Isis. In Book 11 Lucius gains a release from the troubles of magic, lust, and blind fortune through the inter­ vention of a beneficent Isis. The saving goddess is presented in syncretic terms which include, as one o f her aspects, Venus in her role as a divine procreative force. This role of Venus is an old one taken from the beginnings of her cult and even from her name.

To understand the role of Venus is this syncretistic portrayal o f Is is , i t would be useful to examine some of the developments in the conception and worship of this goddess down to the second century

A.D. Modern scholarship has suggested several a lte rn a tive s fo r the o rig in of the goddess. The discussion centers on whether she originated as the personification of the charm of spring who controls the fe rtility of vegetable gardens and orchards or as the personifi­ cation of the magical efficacy of prayer. Venus was from early times O associated with the Greek Aphrodite and the Etruscan Turan. The earliest cult of Venus in Rome may be that associated with the epithet calva, though other temples and cults of Venus were historically more prominent and widespread.

That Venus was a significant force in Roman religion is evident from the number of temples and cults established in her honor. The history of Rome at several points coincides with the strengthening of the Venus c u lt. As the Roman Republic expanded and was transformed into the Roman Empire the power and scope o f the Venus c u lt also 5

changed. The cult repertoire of Venus includes her roles as propitia­

tory deity (Obsequens), goddess associated with Jupiter in the Vinalia,

protective goddess of the city imported from the Sicilian Mount Eryx,

Venus Verticordia who encouraged thoughts of purity and chastity,

mother and protectress o f Roman, and the e ro tic goddess sim ila r to

Aphrodite with whom she was associated.

Venus also became prominent as a protectress o f the Roman people

in her cult of Venus Erycina. This cult was imported from Mount Eryx

in Sicily. The associations between Venus and Aphrodite of the original Greek cult were strong because of the similar attributes of

the two goddesses. Aphrodite, the Greek counterpart o f Venus, had an enormous influence on the development o f the goddess Venus fo r the

Romans. Rome inherited the Aphrodite of Mt. Eryx in order to give substance to their own concept of Venus. The slight foundation of

the love goddess in Rome was considerably bolstered by Aphrodite. The chief component o f the association between Venus and Aphrodite gained g from Mt. Eryx was the Aeneas legend. The c u lt of Venus Erycina had a double aspect. The earlier Erycina cult in Rome centered in her temple on the Capitoline Hill in proximity of the other great national gods o f Rome. This temple was erected in response to the crises at the beginning of the second Punic War. On the Capitoline

H ill, Venus served as protectress and goddess of Victory for the city.

The later Erycina cult was situated outside the Colline Gate. This cult commemorated the more erotic side of Aphrodite Erycina and its main devotees were the prostitutes o f Rome. 6

In contrast to this erotic aspect of Venus Erycina, the cult of

Venus Verticordia encouraged women to thoughts of purity in their private lives and respect for their families. This cult seems to balance the more sensual aspects of Venus. She is the goddess o f love and protection and this cult sought to preserve traditional moral standards. The f ir s t century B.C. saw the f u ll emergence of these a ttrib u te s o f Venus. She became the mother o f the Julian gens and the guardian of the city. In addition to her national patronage,

Venus became honored as the guiding deity of an individual. Sulla and Pompey made special dedications to the goddess. Caesar honored

Venus with a temple to Venus Genetrix after his triumph in the civil wars. Augustus continued th is relationship with Venus as the mother of the Roman race and specifically of the Julian family. Venus is here a goddess o f love in th a t she is the mother o f Aeneas and cared for him on his journey to Italy. Through her protection the children of Rome prospered. S p e cifica lly she aided Caesar and Augustus in victories over their enemies. They made her connection with the

Julian family especially close.

The literary testimony exemplifies the Venus of these cults.

The Venus o f Roman lite ra tu re is a lite ra ry complex based on the presentations o f a goddess modeled on the Greek Aphrodite and on

Venus as the nationalized goddess who had evolved from legends. Her roles in literature are mainly her erotic character, genetrix of

Aeneas and Rome, and as a beneficent goddess. These aspects are i l ­ lustrated in the works of Ennius, Plautus, and Catullus. 7

The poem of Lucretius shows Venus in a distinct light. Lucretius combines several aspects of the goddess to create a Venus suitable to

Epicureanism. The goddess "is not a straightforward representation of the Greek Aphrodite, nor is she simply the Venus of the Trojan legend, the ancestress of the Romans.The poem opens Aeneadum genetrix, hominum divumgue voluptas, / alma Venus. Venus is the genetrix of

Aeneas and his line, the Roman people. She too is alma, the

"fostering" (a le re ) goddess, who had protected Rome in times of trouble. These firs t two lines show that Lucretius was familiar with Venus in her role as Genetrix. At the same time the proem portrays Venus as the creative force of nature uninvolved in the af­ fa irs of men. The bulk of the proem shows her as the guiding power in the natural world. In Book 4 Venus becomes synonymous with physical love. Her roles in Lucretius show a complex understanding of the goddess. Lucretius' in te n t is of course to present Epicurean philosophy and his Venus does not contradict this purpose. His amalgam includes the erotic Venus as a powerful love force and

Venus Genetrix.

Venus in Horace is p rim a rily an e ro tic goddess. She is a major inspiration for many of Horace's lyrics in that she guides him to treat simple themes of love, wine, and the passage of time. Yet

Venus' presence as a protective deity is also evident in some of his la te r Odes. The role of Venus in Vergil is best known from her actions as the proective mother of Aeneas. She acts in this role throughout the Aeneid from her complaint to Jupiter in Book 1 that the ordeal of the Trojans must come to an end to her retrieval of 8

Aeneas' spear in Book 12 fo r the continuation of his single combat with Turnus. Venus Genetrix as protectress of Rome earned her the favor of many of Rome's great leaders, including Sulla, Pompey, Caesar, and Augustus. The later two made her connection with the family of the emperor very close. Venus Genetrix is now portrayed on the widest possible scale as the founding divinity of the nation. Through the influençe o f Horace and V ergil, Venus' position as one o f the leading deities in Latin literature was secure.

From c u lt and lite ra tu re we know that Venus was the f ir s t rank o f the Roman pantheon before the coming o f Caesar. Throughout the firs t century B.C. and up to the death of Augustus, Venus continued to be held in highest esteem. But J. Beaujeu notes that after the death of Augustus the goddess seems to have gone through a period o f eel ipse.The literature, imperial honor, and ceremony of Venus was not abandoned under Augustus' immediate successors. The in te n sity of devotion is merely not as strong as evidenced through cults and temples. The Flavians began the renaissance of the adulation of Venus in their coinage. Trajan confirmed this new interest with his re­ construction of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar.

The reawakening of in te re st in Venus was fu rth e r enhanced by

Hadrian's active participation in shaping Roman religion. The coinage of Vespasian and Titus depicted Venus Genetrix and Hadrian follows th e ir example. Yet he went much fu rth e r in his dedication to the goddess. In the second century A.D. two prominent features of Venus-worship e xist. Besides the d e itie s featured on his coinage,

Hadrian's most important achievements in regard to the elevation of 9

the Venus c u lt were the building o f the Temple to Venus and Rome and

his organization of the cult of imperial women in association with

Venus. However, the building of the Temple to Venus and Rome by

Hadrian was but one expression of the religious revival of the

second century A.D. and of his rule. Hadrian's goal as emperor was

the unification of the Roman world, the city of Rome with her vast 12 and extended provinces. Hadrian worked toward u n ific a tio n of the empire through means which at f i r s t seem opposed to each other. In his efforts to carry out his mission he wanted at once to please the

Romans and bring the people of the provinces closer into the empire.

As a model in his task of unification as emperor Hadrian followed 13 the program of Augustus. The traditional elements in Hadrian's administration were his policy of containment of the empire, his

respect for the Senate, his careful selection of honorary title s, and his use of traditional religion.The connection between

Hadrian, Augustus, Venus, and the traditional elements of Roman

re lig io n is made certain by Hadrian's religious program.

Hadrian is responsible for two prominent features of the worship 15 of Venus in the second century. His temple to Venus and Rome and the depiction of imperial women with Venus on his coinage illustrates his attention to the goddess. The temple was bult on the Velian ridge on the north side of the Palatine Hi 11.^^ It was erectedi i in 17 honor of Venus F e lix .and Roma Aeterna and dedicated in 135 A.D.

Hadrian personally drew up the plans for the temple. He was insulted over them by his Greek a rch ite ct Apollodorus who is Said to have been put to death fo r his c ritic is m . The huge temple, 145 meters long and 10

100 wide, contained a separate cella fo r each goddess. The unusual aspect was that the cellae stood not side by side but back to back.

The cella of Roma looked out to the Forum and that of Venus to the

Colosseum. The close connection of these two goddesses is perhpas further strengthened, in a back-to-back way, by the palindrome Amor- 18 Roma. In any case the enormous temple dominated the north side of the Vi a,Sacra and was centered among some o f the major monuments of the city. Its prominent position overlooked the Roman Forum and was central to both the Colosseum and the Palatine H ill. It was con­ sidered the largest and most spectacular temple in Rome and Constantius admired the building when he v is ite d the c ity in 356/7 A.D.

The second important feature of the worship of Venus instituted by Hadrian is the identification of the empress and female members of the imperial family with the goddess Venus. A clear indication of this program is found in his coinage. Venus had been depicted on coins since the time of Augustus. Hadrian, continuing the example of Vespasian, depicts Venus Genetrix on coins honoring his wife

Sabina.Venus Genetrix was well-known as the patron goddess of the Roman state and specifically of the imperial family. These coins introduce the empress in association with a goddess of the Roman pantheon. There had been other e a rlie r association of th is type.

Venus had been associated with women of the emperor's family since 20 the age of Augustus. Specifically Julia and Li via were identified with Venus. The identification of imperial women with Venus is con­ sistent from Augustus to Hadrian. These id e n tific a tio n s are less significant than those in Hadrian's age only because they lack the 11

impetus which the Temple o f Venus and Rome gave to the worship and

popularity of Venus at this time. Under Hadrian the coinage depicting

the empress increases in volume and va rie ty as compared to that of

e a rlie r reigns. Coinage o f la te r empresses shows the same increases

in volume and va rie ty.

Hadrian and Sabina lik e Augustus and Li via are depicted in a rt 21 with the attributes of the divine couple. Mars and Venus. While

not emphasizing the adulterous relationship of Mars and Venus at

a ll, this depiction concentrates on other aspects. Mars was the

Roman patron o f war and he is paired w ith Venus who was in part

venerated for the role she played in the founding and extension of

Rome. In her cult Venus united several aspects which could benefit

Hadrian's program. Politically Venus is the protectress of the

imperial family and o f the state. The Aeneas legends attached to her

name confirm her role in the founding of the city. In the coinage

mentioned above, she returns as Venus G enetrix, her role as patron

deity. In a religious sense she is the watchful goddess of the

happily-married imperial family. Their fidelity is strengthened

through Venus' aid. At f ir s t Mars and Venus seem an awkward couple

with which to associate marital fidelity. But they have followed separate paths to th e ir grouping. Venus, the mother o f the imperial fam ily, and Sabina appear together on the coins. Hadrian appears as 22 Mars for several reasons. In Rome, Hadrian was careful about taking on divine honors fo r himself. Mars, however, was another ancient patron of the Roman state and indeed one of its earliest gods.

Moreover, Mars also represents some of the foundations of the Roman 12 state, war and agriculture. Hadrian is twice likened to Mars in literature and in identification with the god of war he expressed his control over the Roman armies. Hadrian becomes the new patron of the arniy and the empire. So in the Mars-Venus couple, Hadrian and Sabina combine two ancient protectors of Rome. Their nationalistic traits are fu lly emphasized.

In the course of the second century the role of imperial women in 23 state religion had increased greatly. The enlargement of their role in religion follows their wider importance and participation in the social and political lives of the era. The imperial coinage reflects their progress in these areas. Imperial women identified on coins with goddesses are part of the wide program of publicity. They begin to have at least three distinct roles in the propaganda of the time: moral, p o litic a l, and re lig io u s. Hadrian and Sabina appear as the embodiment of the perfect married couple. The political role of imperial women is the safeguarding of honor for the ruler. In addition they solidified power through their education. Their religious role has been noted already. They contributed to the sustaining power of the Venus-cult in Rome.

From cult, literature, and philosophy we learn that Venus in the firs t and second centuries A.D. is thought of as a national goddess of

Rome, an erotic force of love, and as the maternal, procreative force.

In the Metamorphoses the national goddess of Rome is fo r the most part ignored. Apuleius undercuts the Olympian figure of Venus (who repre­ sents sexual pleasure)by showing her to be destructive when compared to the cosmic and mystic goddess of salvation, Isis. The novel does 13

not focus on the patriotic side of the cult of Venus at Rome outside

of the reference to Venus calva. Apuleius' purposes do not involve

this aspect of Venus. His Venus is mainly the erotic force of sex.

Venus as the procreative force is subsumed by Is is in Book 11. Is is

is prominent as a mother goddess and as the goddess o f fa te , magic, and salvation. The Venus of Latin literature, despite the extensive

influence of the Trojan legend, is not simply the national patroness of Rome, the mother o f Aeneas and his lin e . The love goddess, from

the origins of Latin literature through Lucretius, Horace, and the elegists, has been transformed under the diverse influence of the

Mediterranean love goddess with her Etruscan, Phoenician, and Greek elements. This goddess has been Romanized especially during the third century B.C. through contact with the Erycina goddess. The

Venus of the Metamorphoses is p rim a rily the love goddess.

The association of Venus and Aphrodite in the temple of Mount

Eryx introduced a fundamental assimilation between these goddesses.

The common noun venus in Latin lite ra tu re has taken the meaning of 24 sexual pleasure from the Greek âtppoôuTn. One question which must be addressed is that o f the relationship between Venus the goddess and venus the common noun. The process o f d e ific a tio n in the case o f

Venus is not entirely clear. R. Schilling has reconstructed the early

Roman concept o f venus as an impersonal relig io u s word used in magical pn incantations to mean a mysterious force. He derives the meaning from venerari, to revere the god, and venia, the god's kindness. The word venus denotes the relationship between these two words, in other words the propitiation of the god and his favorable response. The 14

form of the word venus (g e n itive veneris) suggests neuter gender and

one expects venus also in the accusative. However, the accusative form

venerem indicates feminine gender and marks a change to a personality.

This personification o f venus seems to have occurred under the in ­

fluence o f the Etruscan Turan and the Greek Aphrodite. Next th is

personification was deified into the goddess Venus. Such a process of

deification is not restricted to Venus; it also seems to have occurred

with Spes and Fides. Both Spes and Fides were concepts (with feminine

endings) borrowed by the sacred world from the profane world. The

unique aspect of the deification of Venus is that Venus (retaining the

neuter ending) has been taken over from the irrational world of

mysterious forces. The common noun venus became the goddess Venus

without taking a feminine ending in contrast to the occurrence of the

process with Spes and Fides which retained their endings. Schilling

. attempts to understand the origin of Venus through the double influence

of venus derived from the appeasement o f the gods and the syncretism n/r and local influence of the Greek Aphrodite and the Etruscan Turan.

Since the goddess Venus and venus the common noun e xist side by

side in Latin, there is the problem of distinguishing them in the

Latin text. Clearly the distinction is not so easily made. The advice

of H. Axtell in his discussion of the importance and place of deified

abstracts in Roman religion is that we can hardly decide;

Serious descriptive or didactic prose may be received as positive opinion, but the credibility of poetry and imagi­ native and rhetorical prose is very in - . secure, since usually fact and fiction are confused and blended. A common abstract noun is often confused 15

with personification, and personification with deification, as the boundaries between these theoretically distinct provinces are slight and vague. It is impossible to give an all-inclusive, all-exclusive definition of personification, because it is impossible to define personality.27

It is d iffic u lt in several places in the Metamorphoses to distinguish

Venus the personality from the common noun. I w ill examine a ll the occurrences of venus in the course of discussing the roles of the god­ dess in the novel.

The crucial dichotomy in the novel between the firs t ten books and the eleventh which has caused debate on the unity of the novel carries over into the discussion of the divine forces. Venus remains part of the divine framework in the fin a l book,but her power was a creative force is seen as one aspect of Isis. The contrast between the Venus o f Books 1-10 and Is is in Book 11 is th a t presented by the two Venuses as explained by Apuleius. He spells out the doctrine of opposing Venuses as a Platonic teaching:

mitto enim dicere alta ilia et divina Platonica, rarissimo cuique piorum ignara, ceterum omnibus profanis incognita: geminam esse Venerem deam, proprio quamque amore e t diversis amatoribus pol le n tis; earum alteram vulgariam ,... alteram vero caelitem... (Apology 12).

Venus Vulgaria is the uncontrolled passion of men and animals. Venus

Caelestis is the divine love of an organized, ordered world. Included in the latter category is human sexual love. The distinction between these conceptions is f ir s t developed by Plato in the Svmposium (180D ff.). There Aphrodite Pandemos is contrasted with Aphrodite Urania. 16

The terms Pandems and Urania, however, are not originally philosophical interpretations of the love goddess. Pandemos is a political epithet o f the goddess, while Urania is an Oriental c u lt name o f Aphrodite- 2R Astarte. The fierce passion of Venus Vulgaria is seen in the story of Lucius and in many of the inserted tales of the narrative. This passion is the driving force for the love stories which are based on the inability of someone to control his or her emotions. When Lucius rejects the intended copulation with the condemned woman, he is re­ jecting the love of Venus Vulgaria. In Book 11 Lucius experiences the love of Venus Caelestis in that his religious curiosity is satisfied in the vision of Isis. His salvation is seen as a rejection of the world of unbridled passion in favor of a life of contemplation under the supervision of Isis.

This perception of Venus as a double goddess functions in the

Metamorphoses to organize the appearances of the goddess. The Venus of uncontrolled passion is seen in Fotis and the Venus of the mime.

The Venus is the tale of Cupid and Psyche details a portrait of divine jealousy in mock-epic tradition. In contrast to these, the Venus of divine order and salvation is Isis. NOTES TO INTRODUCTION

A ll references to the Metamorphoses are to the Teubner te x t by R. Helm (Leipzig, 1968), 3rd edition. Numbers in the parentheses before the slash refer to book and chapter of the Metamorphoses; numbers a fte r the slash to page and lin e numbers in the Teubner te x t. References to the Apology and Florida are to the Teubner texts by R. Helm (Leipzig, 1959), 2nd edition of Apology, 1st edition of Florida. Abbreviations for titles of classical texts follow those of the Oxford Classical Dictionary (1970 ) ix - x x ii. Standard abbreviations from L'Année Philologique are used throughout. Authors' names re fe r to name and title in the lis t of abbreviated references. p Walsh 190-192 notes the parallels in the two stories, Penwill 50-59 the contrasts.

^Schlam "Scholarship" 297-298 surveys th is work.

Several commentators have brought attention to the roles of Venus in the novel: Smith 10-11, 39-44, 51-52, 60-63, Penwill 54-57, Schlam "Platonica" 484-485, and Schlam Cupid and Psyche 36-39. But they have not detailed the roles of Venus throughout the novel.

Sn Lucian as the author see Vallette I, xv. Perry Ancient Romances 211; Walsh 145; M.D. Macleod Lucian V III 50; G riffith s Is is 1 believes a Lucianic im ita to r is implied; Thiel 40-42 suggests Flavius Phoinix or Flavius Phylax.

^Perry Ancient Romances 371 note 9; Walsh 147 (with chart) believes the Lucius or the Ass is essentially the same as the lost Greek original, i.e. the same contents; Albin Lesky, "Apuleius von Madaura und Lukios von P a tra i," Hermes 76 (1941) 43-74 and Thiel believe some of the inserted tales in the Apuleian Metamorphoses were in the Greek original.

^The reference to Aphrodite appears in the story of the rich woman's lust for Lucius ("Ovos 51): n 6e yuvnoutws nv âpct ès tù à(ppo6t0ua ÉTOupn Hott t îïS àuo tris cruvouauas hôovfjs àxdpeoTos, woTE ôXnv Tr)v vÛMTa èv èjjoL èôaucxvnoev.An e a rlie r use of a cognate form of Aphrodite appears in the decision to castrate Lucius the ass ("Ovos 33): Ths Y“ P èrtacppoôLTou xaûxns ôpuhs àtpatpedeus. These words are used to denote sexual pleasure or drive. There is no mention o f the

17 18 love goddess in the "Ovos besides those noted above. References to the "Ovos are to the Loeb Classical Library text by Macleod (see note 5 above).

Koch, "Venus," &E 8*Part 1 (1955) 828-887 and S ch illin g . Much information on the cu lts and lite ra tu re o f Venus is summarized by Carter 1-55 and Pierre Grimai, Love in Ancient Rome trans. Arthur Train, Jr. 35-47. g On Venus Erycina and the Romanization of the cult see Schilling 242-266 and Duzémil 422, 471-472.

^^Carter 46.

Beaujeu 137.

^^M.K. Thornton, "Hadrian and His Reign" in Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt I I Part 2, 434.

T^Wilhelm Weber, "Hadrian," CM XI (1936) 306.

^^Thornton 434. 15 In addition to his concern with the traditional Roman religion, Hadrian was also deeply involved with the religions of Greece and the eastern Mediterranean, especially that of Egypt. For Hadrian's policies in regard to Egyptian religion (his travels to Egypt, and Antinous, and his v illa at Tibur) see Beaujeu 221-257 and Heyob 29-30.

^^For a discussion of the temple see S.B. Platner and T. Ashby, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome 552-554; Donald Dudley. Urbs Roma 117-119; and Beaujeu 128-161.

^^There is controversy over the date of the dedication of the temple. Beaujeu 130-131 asserts that the temple was constructed in three stages and dedicated in 136 or 137. Other dedication dates pro­ posed are 128 (W.L. MacDonald, The Architecture o f the Roman Empire 96 note 5) and 135 (Dudley 118 and Platner-Ashby 553). The imprecision of the date o f the dedication w ill not a lte r Hadrian's achievement as the builder of this extraordinary temple. 18 This palindrome has been consistently recognized by art historians.

^^Beaujeu 137-139.

^^Aymard 178-180. 21 For a statuary group in the Louvre depicting the couple see Beaujeu 138; Aymard 183 note 1 dates the piece post-Hadrianic.

Z^Beaujeu 138, 163-164, 208. 19 Z^Beaujeu 419-423. ?4 Carter 39 notes that as early as Plautus (Cist. 313-4 venerem meram haec aedes oient, quia amator e x p o liv it) venus means physical love without the personification of the goddess. Duzémil 422 has suggested that the "mysterious force" meaning of venus is in large measure responsible for the assimilation between these words. Just as the goddess of the Trojan legend was employed by Rome, so also the metonymies of Aphrodite were used. See also G. Wissowa, "Venus," Roscher, Lexicon 6 (1937) 188-191.

Z^Schilling 60.

^^Schilling 59-64; see also Duzémil 421-422. 91 Harold Axtell, The Deification of Abstract Ideas in Roman Literature and Inscriptions 67-68.

Wust, "Urania," ^Z*9 Part I (1961) 935 and "Urania- Pandemos," RE 9'P art 1 (1961f 939-941. CHAPTER I

FOTIS AS A VENUS FIGURE

In the Metamorphoses the f i r s t personto play the role of Venus

is the maid Fotis.^ She is several times referred to as a Venus in

the course of her relationship with Lucius. He comes to love her both

as a sexual partner and as a passport to the magic of Pamphile. The maid is taken over from the Lucianic "Ovos story where she had a d if­

ferent name (Palaestra) and character. Moreover, in the "Ovos the maid is never compared to the love goddess.

In the “Ovos the maid in the house of Hipparchus where Lucius is visiting is called Palaestra. Palaestra's name is a clue to her actions. She is the w restling ground on which the Greek Lucius w ill

struggle ("ovos 6-10). Her name accommodates well to th e ir lovemaking episode and the language used to describe i t ; the e ro tic encounter between Lucius and Palaestra is a w restling match. Palaestra is the supervisor of Lucius' training in wrestling and love: vdpw

ôoôaoxdXou xou èitLaTcxTou ( “Ovos 8). Through her e rro r in mixing up the ointment jar Lucius becomes an ass. The maid Fotis in the

Metamorphoses accomplishes the same thing for Lucius as Palaestra in the “Ovos. In both stories Lucius uses the maid to gain the secrets of the witch's world. But in the Metamorphoses the account of Lucius and Fotis extends over several chapters and episodes and there is more

20 21

than one reference to Fotis as Venus. Apuleius gives Fotis a fuller

portrait in his work than Palaestra receives in the Greek version.

He has transformed the Greek character Palaestra into someone quite different. Following Roman literary tradition he substituted terms 3 drawn from war and gladiatorial combat for those taken from wrestling.

In addition to the change in the source of the metaphors, the maid is given a new name. Without the wrestling metaphors, the name Palaestra

is no longer appropriate.

There is speculation over the derivation of the name Fotis. One etymological explanation comes from Beroaldus (1500): àito toO (poiTo's tamquam esset lucida puella, et ardescens in Venerem.^ Other possible derivations might be from fotus (amplexus venerei) or from foculus, little hearth. The new name Fotis may suggest a burning in love, the embrace of love, and the hot labor in a kitchen. The explanation from Beroaldus is widely accepted since i t connects lig h t çws, f ir e , and love. The name may also be associated with light since the name of the hero, Lucius, incorporates the root lux. However, in the course of the narrative one derivation of the name is not implied to the exclusion of others. Apuleius seems to play on several possible meanings of the name. At various times Fotis is prominent in the kitchen and in the bedroom.

These derivations show a close connection between the name Fotis and Venus through the association of fire and love. Fotis w ill live up to her name by e xcitin g Lucius to ardor and by engaging in sexual intercourse with Lucius. The fire from Fotis extends from the kitchen to the bedroom. The potential derivations of the name show the 22

increased complexity of the Fotis character as compared with Palaestra, who is a one-dimensional figure in the "Ovos. Several of these deriva­

tions w ill be important fo r la te r scenes. The overall e ffe c t of these changes in name and metaphor is to elevate the character of Fotis and remove from her the single dimension of her Greek counterpart. Fotis is elevated to a heightened social position, above that of a mere pros- c titute which the name Palaestra frequently means in Roman comedy.

Her name itse lf aids in the identification. Fotis w ill be more than an illiterate prostitute. Fotis is intelligent and sensual and these qualities lure Lucius on to a deeper involvement in sex and magic.

The story of Lucius and Fotis is an account of love and magic. At the beginning o f the novel Lucius hears the story of Socrates from his fellow travelers on the road. Lucius is intensely interested in the unusual circumstances of the story. This account introduces the themes of love and magic into the narrative. Combined with Lucius' curiosity these w ill lead him to a rendezvous with disaster as the story of

Socrates fo re te lls . From the beginning we learn that Lucius is inquis­ itiv e and open-minded about the supernatural world. Lucius is sympa­ thetic to Aristomenes and believes him because, as Lucius announces, anything can happen to anyone: "Ego vero," inquam, "n ih il impossibile arbitor, sed utcumque fata decreverint, ita cuncta mortalibus provenire: nam et mihi et tib i et cunctis hominibus multa usu venire mire et paene infecta, quae tamen ignaro relata fidem perdant." (1.20/18.22). On the way to Milo's house Lucius stops to ask directions from an old woman

(1.21). She te lls him of Milo's miserliness and the bare house he keeps.

Lucius replies offhandedly that he w ill not then worry about the smoke 23 and smell o f M ilo's kitchen [ in cuius hospitio nec fumi nec nidoris nebulam verererQ .21/20.2)] since the implication is that the room is l i t t l e used. However, th is remark can be seen to anticipate his ad­ ventures in the kitchen with Fotis from whom he w ill learn of the burning in the room.

His interest in magic heightens after he gets himself settled at

Milo's house. It is there that he firsts meets the servant girl Fotis.

She is described as an adulescentula quaedam (1.22/20.5).^ Fotis is brusque and dutiful in her attendance at his knock. Her questions to Lucius concern her master's money business. In fa c t she is businesslike and abrupt in her dealings at the door. At her second appearance Milo gives her order to take care of Lucius and his bags: "Fotis," in q u it,

"sarcinulas hospitis susceptas cum fide conde in illud cubiculum. .."

(1.23/21.18). Lucius counters by saying his only care is for his horse to which Fotis now attends. It is significant that Fotis be named so early in the novel since characters closely attached to the hero are more like ly to be given a name than those who appear only for incidental purposes/ At this point Fotis' role in the story is hinted at because she receives a name. After his return from the marketplace and his epi­ sode with Pythias the magistrate, Fotis instructs him to appear at table for dinner (1.26/23.22). Up to this point there is no emphasis on Fotis; O Lucius is not at once attracted to her by her beauty. She adds l i t t l e g to the story except in her role as servant girl, "a colourless maid" ; however, though a slave, she is a named character. Lucius'reluctance to appear at dinner because of Milo's reputation fo r fru g a lity prompts Milo himself to escort Lucius to the table. Milo takes matters into his own 24

hands when Fotis does not carry out her master's wishes. But Lucius'

hesitation is well justified as he dines only on conversation cenatus

sol is fabulis (1.26/24.14) before going to bed. This contrasts with

the next night when Lucius goes to bed and finds food and Fotis a-

waiting him. Fotis' expertise in the kitchen and in the bedroom are

evident on the next night. However, this firs t night Lucius is

separated from food and love because he does not yet know Fotis.

The portrayal of Fotis in Book 2 is dramatically different from

her small role in Book 1. This contrast in her character is emphasized

by the passage of time; the new day brings a new Fotis. The second

book opens with a description of the new sun creating another day.^^

The new day finds Lucius eager to explore the secrets of Hypata, a center o f magic in Thessaly.It also introduces a new conception of Fotis. She w ill soon entice Lucius into these secrets and attempt to satisfy his curiosity about magic and the supernatural. Several passages foreshadow his involvement with Fotis as she impersonates

Venus. First, as Lucius walks through the city he is more than eager to learn about the unusual: anxius alioquin et nimis cupidus coqnoscendi quae rara miraque sunt (2.1/24.18). One element of rara tniraque w ill be F o tis' poses as Venus in the kitchen and bedroom.

Second, Lucius is unsure whether anything in the city is what it seems to be and even expects the statues and images around the c ity to move off their pedestals: iam statuas et imagines incessuras (2.1/25.4).

Fotis fu lfills this expectation by being a living image of the goddess.

The third foreshadowing of his affair with Fotis occurs after Lucius meets his aunt, Byrrhena. Lucius follows her to her house where he 25 admires the statuary of the courtyard. He describes at length the central piece of statuary depicting Diana and Actaeon. It is a 1? warning against prying which Lucius does not heed. “ Just as Lucius observes the statue of the goddess in the act of harassing Actaeon, he himself w ill be a witness to the pose of a goddess. Instead o f the deity being Diana, goddess of chastity, his goddess w ill be Venus, patroness of love.

Lucius hears Byrrhena's warning about the dangerous lu s t and magic of the witch Pamphile: maga primi nominis et omnis carminis sepulchral is magistra creditor, quae surculis et la p illis et id genus frivol is inhalatis omnem istam lucem mundi sidéral is imis Tartari et in vetustum chaos submergere novit (2.5/29.1). She has the power to upset the natural order of the universe and attempts to possess every 13 handsome young man with whom she fa lls in love. Especially note­ worthy is that Pamphile binds her lover v.'ith unbreakable chains: amoris profundi pedicis aeternis a llig a t (2.5/29.8). But fa r from being on his guard, he dismisses the warnings about Pamphile and is anxious to learn of her black arts. As he rushes back to Milo's house he reminds himself th a t he has always been interested in magic and that this is an excellent opportunity for its investigation.

Lucius te lls himself to take heart and proceed boldly.Lucius dismisses any sexual entanglement with Pamphile not as too dangerous, but only as a fa ilu re in good manners: a nexu quidem venerio hospitis tuae tempera et probi M ilonis genialem torum religiosus suscipe (2.6/

30.2).^^ Instead he w ill seek out Fotis whom he describes as forma scitula, moribus ludicra and prorsus argutula (2.6/30.5). The 26

conmentatorson these lines emphasize Fotis' w it and charmApuleius

is careful here in his introduction to Fotis. By these prefatory re­

marks we can expect someone more refined than the Palaestra of the

"Ovos story. Lucius notes too that Fotis was interested in him on the

night before. Fotis had shown her affection for Lucius when she

lingered over her preparations for Lucius' going to bed.

Back in M ilo's house Lucius encounters Fotis [ caram meam Fotidem

(2.7/30.14)] working in the kitchen. The savory smell of cooking^^ and the charms of Fotis' body^^ attract Lucius. He is seduced by the twisting and turning of her body as she prepares the meal: lumbis

sensim vibrantibus spinam mobilem quatiens placide decenter undabat

(2.7/30.22). Lucius stares at her openly and makes an obscene com­ ment. Fotis replies in several lines which reinforce the derivation of her name from cooking and fire and set the stage for their love- making. She tells Lucius to keep his distance or else he w ill be burned by her love. Several words and phrases emphasize the e ro tic nature of her reply: meo foculo, meus igniculus, afflaverit te, 19 ureris intim e, and ardorem tuum. These e ro tic words, the use o f the diminutive in miselle, foculo, igniculus, and lectulum, and the early signpost to the episode, caram meam Fotidem (2.7/30.14) are ex­ pressions of sexual anticipation. Both Lucius and Fotis signal their eventual involvement through actions which w ill be repeated later:

Fotis shakes her hips seductively and Lucius becomes sexually aroused steterunt et membra quae iacebant ante (2.7/30.24). Fotis begins to excite him even before the allusions to Venus. 27

20 After her sly Taught Lucius brings their attraction for one

another to a turning point. As he steps back to admire Fotis from

head to foot, he does not detail every one of her physical attributes,

but concentrates his attention on a single apsect, her hair:

vel quid ego de ceteris aio, cum semper mihi unica cura fuerit caput capillumque sedulo et puplice prius intueri et domi postea p e rfru i. . .vel quod praecipua pars ista corporis in aperto et perspicuo posita prima nostris luminibus occurrit (2.8/31.13).

Lucius' interest in hair is extraordinary and obsessive. For him

beautiful hair is the most striking attribute a woman can possess.

It is Fotis' exceptional locks which evoke his eloquent digression on 21 hair. As an exemplum in this digression, the baldness of a woman

leads to the peculiar image of Venus calva. At firs t reading it seems

a natural enough description which fits neatly into a setpiece on the

marvels of ha ir: At vero - quod nefas dicere, nec quod s it ullum huius rei tarn dirum exemplum! - si cuiuslibet eximiae pulcherrimaeque feminae caput c a p illo spoliaveris et faciem nativa specie nudaveris, licet ilia caelo deiecta, mari édita, fluctibus educata, lic e t inquam Venus ipsa fuerit, lice t omni Gratiarum choro stipata et toto Cupidinum populo comitata et balteo suo cincta, cinnama fraglans et balsama rorans, calva processerit, placere non p o te rit nec Vulcano suo (2.8/31.24).

Lucius explains that a woman could not be truly beautiful if she were bald. Even i f the woman be Venus herself she would not be a ttra ctive to her husband or to any man. The example o f Venus calva is es­ pecially telling because a bald Venus could not please her own 28

29 Vulcan. The desirability of Venus as a lover is here linked with the po beauty o f flowing h a ir, a tra d itio n a l symbol of her beauty.' A ll the accoutrements of Venus' entourage, the accompaniment of the Graces, the court of Cupids, her special girdle with its aspects of cinnamon and balsam, would not sway lovesick Vulcan i f Venus did not have a beautiful head of hair.

The focus of the image is its antithesis to the full head of hair of Fotis. Lucius stares at the back of her head, digresses on the beauty o f women's h a ir, mentions Venus calva as an exemplum, describes the arrangement of Fotis' hair, and kisses the top of her head where the bulk of her hair rests. Hair is used to contrast the two characters. Fotis is hardly bald and her comparison with Venus is not based solely on her hair or lack of it, but on her sensuality. Fotis is beautiful because o f her luscious h a ir, while bald Venus, though extraordinary in every other way, is not. The dirum exemplum of any bald head would be th a t o f Venus. The splendor of Fotis' locks has e lic ite d th is digression on ha ir. The comparison o f Fotis w ith Venus is striking because of the fu ll head of hair of Fotis.

The equation of Fotis with Venus is not so explicitly made here as it w ill be nine chapters later when Fotis w ill appear to Lucius in a pose of Venus. Hair w ill again be an important factor of Lucius' la te r encounters with Fotis. Part o f Apuleius' sexual playfulness involves the meetings of Lucius with Fotis. They w ill make love on several nights. Lucius becomes aware of the physical beauty of Fotis and specifically her hair. He already has in mind a special duty for her to perform since he w ill employ her to investigate Pamphile. At 29 this point in their meeting it is significant to note that a physical aspect of Fotis, her hair, is compared to that of the goddess of love.

The calva epithet is at once both convenient for the discussion of hair and beauty and at the same time offers Apuleius an opportunity to expand the traditional role of Venus in literature. In addition to her many other names, epithets and special provinces Venus in

Apuleius has the attribute of baldness.

The phrase Venus calva has been consistently overlooked by scholars and has yet to be identified with the themes of the novel or its characters. The evidence for the existence of a cult of a

Venus calva is far from overwhelming. L ittle attention was given to

Venus calva until Eitrem initiated scholarly interest in it with a discussion of an IIia d scholium which mentioned an androgynous Venus 24 on horseback. BbVtzler refuted Eitrem's study and, based on the scarcity of evidence, believed that no statue of a bald-headed Venus, 25 Venus calva, existed in ancient times. He concludes that there was no bald-headed Venus in antiquity.

The major piece of evidence used to support the existence of a 2fi Venus calva in the ancient world is Servius on Aeneid 1.720. In this locus classicus for Venus calva Servius writes an extensive note on the gloss Acidaliae noting the various names of the goddess Venus.

Near the end of his listing he discusses Venus calva:

1 Est et Venus Calva ob hanc causam, quod cum G a lli Capitolium obsiderent et deessent funes Romanis ad tormenta facienda, prima Domitia crinem suum, post ceterae matronae im itatae eam 5 exsecuerunt, unde facta tormenta, et post belIum statua Veneri hoc nomine collocata est, licet a l i i Calvam Venerem quasi puram tradant, a l i i 30 Calvam, quod corda amantum c a lv ia t, id est fa lla t atque eludat. Quidam dicunt porrigine dim capillos 10 cecidisse feminis et Ancum regem suae uxori statuam calvam posuisse, quod constitit piaculo; nam post omnibus feminis capilli renati sunt, unde institutum, ut Calva Venus coleretur. Apud Cyprios Venus in modum umbilici, vel ut quidam volunt, metae colitur.

Here four discussions are given for the name Calva as an epithet for

Venus. The firs t concerns the siege of the Capitoline H ill in 382

B.C. by the Gauls and the heroism of the women defenders who cut their

hair in order to make ropes fo r weapons. The second and th ird ex­

planations equate Calva with purity and deception. The fourth ex­ planation is the story of King Ancus and the statuam calvam he set up as an offering for the return of the hair to his wife and the women of the kingdom. In the firs t explanation of the scholium ["est et

Venus ... collocata est" (lines 1-6)] Venus is called Calva not be­ cause she herse lf had a bald head — she might have been beautiful with a fu ll head o f hair — but because the statue was an endowment or honor of baldness. This patriotic version of the goddess of bald­ ness (the siege by the Gauls) is the real core to the calva legend.

Venus calva is a Venus of baldness, erected and revered by bald-headed

Roman women. Venus calva f i r s t came to be in the phrase statua hoc 71 nomine collocata est (line 6). The evidence of authors after the time 28 of Apuleius concurs with this version. These writers mention Venus calva in connection with the purposeful cutting of hair for its use in weaponry.

The calva image does not re fle c t is p a trio tic background but is used ironically by Apuleius as part of his sexual themes. The importance of the Venus calva image is that it introduces several 31 motifs which w ill be prominent in other sections of the novel. Among the most s ig n ific a n t m otifs touched on here are h a ir, sex, and of 29 course the figure Venus. Venus calva is also instructive as the f ir s t appearance of Venus in the novel and the in it ia l comparison of Fotis with Venus. The calva reference is a playful reminder that this scene with Fotis makes sex delightful and appealing. The epithet has comic force since it details a ludicrous picture of a bald Venus.

The f i r s t appearance of Venus in the novel is as the unconventional bald goddess. Just as the tra d itio n a l role o f Venus as a patroness of

Rome is ignored by Apuleius in his treatment o f the goddess, so also the patriotic associations of the epithet are used for purposes other than national re fle c tio n . Venus calva is an unusual exemplum in th is description of hair since it pairs the bald head of the love goddess with the bountiful locks of the servant g irl.

One other important aspect of the Venus calva image is that it details a picture of Venus and her court. This ekphrasis briefly 30 depicts the Graces and Cupids in attendance on the girdled Venus.

There are a number of such word-pictures in the Metamorphoses and several of these depict Venus. This scene is the firs t instance of 31 an ekphrasis involving Venus. So in addition to the motifs which the Venus calva image introduces it also initiates a series of ekphrases on Venus. The picture of Venus calva is not the dominant note of this episode in the kitchen. Fotis' beauty, especially that of her hair, has the overriding emphasis in this section. The Venus calva image, however, by its various associations with other m otifs 32 and ekphrases in the novel is nonetheless an important and intere stin g piece of Apuleius' narration.

After his digression on hair Lucius makes advances on the g irl.

Unable to restrain himself at Fotis' beauty, Lucius kisses the knot of her tied-up hair. His kiss is described as a mellitissimum savium

(2.10/33.5). L. Callebat notes that mellitissimum is a long, multi- 32 syllabled word plainly used for its erotic sense. Fotis' hair is beautifully arranged in a haphazard way: in mea Fotide non operosus, sed inordinatus ornatus addebat gratiam (2.9/32.21). This oxymoron

(inordinatus ornatus) describing the arrangement of her hair is soon followed by another when Fotis responds to Lucius' kiss w ith a con­ tra d ictio n of her own making: "heus tu , scolastice," a it , "dulce et 33 amarum gustulum carpis" (2.10/33.7). She reminds him of the con­ sequences of the bitter and the sweet side of love. Lucius recognizes only the sweet side of love and magic and sees his relationship with

Fotis only as a means to his desired ends. The long hair of Fotis recalls the Venus calva image in that there the most superficial aspect o f the goddess was emphasized. The long hair o f Fotis emphasizes th is feature of bodily adornment. Fotis' kiss is variously described with food similes: mellis dulcedine (2.10/33.8) and patentis oris inhalatu 34 cinnameo et occursantis linguae inlisu.nectareo (2.10/33.14).

The mood fo r th e ir meeting is enhanced by a delivered g if t . Among the presents which arrive from Byrrhena is a jar of vintage wine.

Lucius describes the wine as Veneris hortator et armiger Liber (2.11/

34.2). The wine w ill be part of the provisions for their night cruise on the ship of love: hac enim sitarchia navigium Veneris indiget sola. 33 ut in nocte pervigiTi et oleo lucerna et vino c a lix abundet (2.11/34.5).

Lucius and Fotis w ill spend the night on a voyage of lovemaking.

These two mentions of Venus (and the ones to follow ) show the second aspect of venus in the novel: venus as sexual pleasure. The Venus calva image and the la te r pose of Fotis as Venus in the bedroom must be understood in the context of the wider meaning of venus which surrounds them and indeed the f i r s t ten books of the novel. This other meaning of venus colors our perception of Fotis as the goddess. Fotis is extremely adept at lovemaking and is a physical embodiment of love; hence she is seen by Lucius as the love goddess. The contexts of

Fotis' poses in the kitchen and bedroom are fille d with sexual over­ tones. There are occurrences of venus and its derivatives earlier than these ju s t cite d . The opening story o f the novel introduces venus. Aristomenes speaks indignantly when he condemns Socrates for his misadventures, among them moral dissipation: "qui voluptatem

Veneriam et scortum scorteum Lari et liberis praetulisti" (1.8/8.1).

Voluptas Veneria is the key motif for the adventures in the firs t ten 37 books. This condemnation is followed immediately by another use of venus fo r sexual pleasure. Socrates explains to Aristomenes the reason fo r Meroe's punishment of a former lover: quod venerem habuit in aliam (1.9/8.23). Both contexts show venus in association with physical love. Just before Lucius' episode with Fotis he promised to abstain from a relationship with the wife of the host: a nexu quidam venerio hospitis tuae tempera (2.6/30.2). It is clear then that venus and its derivatives surround the firs t mention of Venus as a goddess.

It matters little whether the letters are capitalized since this point 34 was irrelevant to the Romans. The important issue here is the pervasiveness of venus and Venus in the novel. Here the ship of Venus means a night of sexual pleasure for Lucius.

Lucius makes an excuse to go o ff to bed. He is tire d o f the story of Diophanes and is eager to resume his relationship with Fotis.

On his way o ff to bed he notices that his slaves have been discreetly moved away from his bedroom. Inside Fotis has prepared the leftovers: gladiatoriae Veneris antecenia (2.15/37.17). The gladiatoriae is a return to the m ilita ry imagery of the fo r tite r et ex animo proeliabor

(2.10/33.21). The antecenia recalls F o tis' handiwork at the stove and the earlier scene in the kitchen. Fotis' ability as a cook is high­ lighted by her name, her wiggling at the stove, the preparations and the serving of the dinner, and now another meal. The antecenia w ill be a love banquet. Veneris here is not used to signify a banquet of the goddess, but rather the food consumed (as part of a ll the other preparations) before going o ff to bed. Fotis is p a rtic u la rly con­ cerned with food and sex.

Fotis soon a rrive s, adorned with the very flowers which Lucius w ill need to escape from his appointed asshood. The d e ta ils o f the scene emphasize the sensuality of Fotis and her enticement of Lucius.

Yet he is a very willing participant in their encounter. Lucius can bear no more of this tortured waiting: inguinum fine lacinia remota inpatientiam veneris Fotidi meae monstrans: "Miserere," inquam, "et 38 subveni maturius. Nam, ut vides, proelio" (2.16/38.6). He demands of Fotis to embrace him. This is another example of venus meaning sex, in this instance sexual anticipation. One of his instructions 35

specifically asks her to loosen her hair; seci ut mihi moretn plenius

gesseris, in effusum laxa crinem et capillo fluenter undanter ede

complexus amabiles (2.16/38.12). Lucius' in te re st remains on F otis'

hair. Fotis immediately complies and takes off her clothes and lets

down her hair. By doing so she becomes transformed into a living

statue, posing as Venus Anadyomene:

Nec mora, cum omnibus i l l is c ib a riis vasculis raptim remotis laciniis cunctis suis renudata crinibusque dissolutis ad hilarem lasciviam in speciem Veneris, quae marines fluctus subit, pulchre reformata, paulisper etiam glabellum feminal rosea palmula potius obumbrans de industrie quam tegens verecundia (2.17/38.15).

Fotis' hand covers her genitalia not through any show of modesty but

because she was well aware o f the resemblance between herself and the

love goddess ris in g from the sea. The comparison o f Fotis with Venus

suggested in the Venus calva image is here made e x p lic it.

This figure of the love goddess born of the sea is well-known in 39 myth and art. There are two well-known artistic representations which Apuleius has brought together in his description of the pose of

Fotis in speciem Veneris, quae marinos fluctos subit. The firs t is

Aphrodite of Cnidos by Praxiteles. This statue was one of the most popular of a ll works in antiquity.The copies of this lost work show either Venus with no drapery at hand or holding a covering. In those copies closest in design to the Praxitelean original the right hand is brought in front to cover the groin. In later reproductions the le ft hand is placed in front.If drapery is present the attitude of Venus is one o f modesty surprised. The goddess did not wish- to be seen naked. Yet the hand in front is so delicately positioned that the 36 least movement would reveal a ll that lie s hidden. The second famous representation is implied in the clause, quae marinos fluctus subit.

Here Venus is associated with the sea, her birthplace as described by

Hesiod. The painting o f Aphrodite Anadvomene bv Apelles depicts the goddess rising from the water while eliminating the foam of the sea 42 from her hair. In the painting Aphrodite is attending to her hair.

The two a r tis tic works combine to show the love goddess with her hand in front in a show of modesty and with her body and hair wet from her sea voyage.

A further allusion to the sculpture of Venus is found in the

Apology o f Apuleius. There Apuleius cite s a description of a statue of Venus which Tannonius, his accuser in the tria l over magic, had quoted out of context as part o f the indictment:

ad mea scripta confugit et quodam libro meo legit: "interfeminium tegat et femoris obiectu et palmae velamento" (Apology 33).

Apuleius replies to his accuser:

cedo enim, si ego de Veneris statua nihil dixissem neque interfeminium nominassem, quibus tandem verbis accusasses crimen illud tam stultitiae quam linguae tuae congruens? (Apology 34).

This pose o f Venus has a s ig n ific a n t use in the Metamorphoses since

Fotis poses as this Venus before making love to Lucius. Fotis covers herself purposefully, de industrie, because she wishes to evoke this particular representation of Venus. Fotis' hand is set out in front of her to mock the artistic representations. Since she has ripped away her clothing she has not assumed the guise of modesty surprised.

The other major deviation from the artwork is long, flowing hair of 37

Fotis. In the artwork the hair is short or bound up tightly in an

elaborate hairdo, except in those instances when the hands attend it.

In Lucius' eyes Fotis is deliberate in her pre-sexual activity. She

becomes more than a maid in Milo's kitchen through her involvement with

Lucius and her impersonation o f Venus. Both Venus calva and Venus

Anadyomene are part of the sophisticated literary refinement in the

novel.

A fte r F o tis' pose of Venus, she and Lucius do lo ve -ba ttle in bed:

proeliare...fortiter proeliare (2.17/39.1). Fotis shakes her spine

again mobilem spinam quatiens (2,17/39.7) re ca llin g the e a rlie r scene

in the kitchen spinam mobilem quatiens (2.7/30.23). Fotis enthralls

Lucius w ith the delights o f her sexual play: pendulae Veneris fructu

(2.17/39.7). Fotis is good in the kitchen and in the bed as she had

promised she would be: et ollam et lectulum suave quatere novi (2.7/

31.10).^^ The pleasures of sex w ith Fotis are evident since Lucius

spends many nights in such a c tiv itie s : ad cuius noctis exemplar

similes adstruximus alias plusculas (2.17/39.13), and Ad hunc modum

transactis voluptarie paucis noctibus (3.21/67.19). The length of the

a ffa ir and the number o f references to venus emphasize the sexual

pleasure to be derived from Fotis. Fotis offers Lucius exquisite sexual

delight. After this wonderful evening the story of Thelyphron and

Lucius' entanglement in the Risus Festival in te rru p t his sexual activity with Fotis.

When he fin a lly settles down with Fotis again, she promises to

show him the magic act of her mistress Pamphile. Since they can no

longer control their passions, Fotis and Lucius again engage in sexual 38

activity: nudati bacchamur in Venerem (3.20/67.14). This reference

probably means that they made love with even more heightened passions

than before. This intemperance can be compared to that o f the Phaedra-

figure later in Book 10: at ubi completis igne vaesano totis 44 praecordis inmodice bacchatus Amor exaestuabat (10.2/237.17). This

night Lucius is again treated to the delights of lovemaking with Fotis.

Since he has discovered her, he is never alone at night. A further

explanation of th is passage is that Lucius and Fotis had reached the

peak of their sexual acitivty. After this interlude Lucius is ready

to be transformed.

Lucius compares Fotis again to Venus for a final time just before

the transformation scene. Through the aid of the magic ointment

Lucius wishes to be able to f ly so th a t he could hover around Fotis

lik e a winged Cupid attending his goddess: ut meae Veneri Cupido

pinnatus adsistam tib i (3.22/68.28). Unfortunately for Lucius he does

not fly at a ll, but he instead becomes an ass through Fotis' mistake over the ointment jars. After his transformation Fotis is never again compared to Venus. She is remembered unhappily only fo r gigantic AC blunder.

The pose of Fotis as the goddess Venus is centered on two detailed

scenes. The Venus calva shows the playful tone of this digression on

hair. It introduces a ludicrous picture of Venus and is the firs t comparison of Fotis with Venus. The ironic tenor of the Venus calva

image follows through the novel in several o f the appearances o f the goddess. The image is also important for its amplification of themes and a r tis tic devices which appear before i t . The Venus Anadyomene 39 pose of Fotis is significant because it recalls the standard artwork.

Her hand placement, de industrie, is a subtle feature which underlines her taunting sensuality. Fotis unleashes her long hair on Lucius and battles him in lovemaking. This deep involvement with Fotis enables

Lucius to s a tis fy his sexual desires and to approach the magic of

Pamphile. The la s t time he sees Fotis as Venus is only wishful thinking on Lucius' part. He does not become a flying Cupid, and so

Fotis never again is seen by him as a Venus fig u re . NOTES TO CHAPTER I

It is possible to call Meroe of the story of Aristomenes a Venus figure but she is not so named in the novel. Later Psyche and the mime actress in different ways w ill also play the role of Venus.

^Walsh 152. 3 This transformation of Palaestra to Fotis is outlined by Scobie 56-62. Walsh 61 and note 3 declares th is as an interesting m odifi­ cation o f the metaphor made by Apuleius; la te r he (152) ca lls Fotis "romanticized." An example of m ilitary metaphor is tecum fo rtite r et ex animo proeliabor (2.10/33.21).

^Paardt 101-102 and Scobie 63-64. See Schlam Cupid and Psyche 55 note 233 for manuscript variations in the spelling of the name (Fotis and Photis).

^Scobie 60 note 8.

^Fotis is earlier pointed out as the unicum ancillulam (1.21/ 19.23) by the old woman who gives the stranger Lucius directions. Fotis is also called ancillula (1.23/21.18) by Milo. Callebat 372 explains that this diminutive shows both youth and spiritual grace.

^Blanche Brotherton, "The Introduction of Characters by Name in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius," CP 29 (1934) 46, 50. Fotis attains more thematic importance from being given a name and from the name itself. Brotherton, 50: "The characters closely attached to the hero are more lik e ly to be named than those in narrated ta le s ... People of higher rank are more likely to have names than those of low degree."

^Penwill 70.

\a ls h 151.

^ ^ It is interesting to note that temporal words dominate the openings o f the books of the Metamorphoses: 2: dawn; 3: dawn; 4: noon; 7: dawn; 8: dawn; 10: the follow ing day; 11: around the f ir s t watch of the night. See also Jonge 16 note to 24.17 ut primum. Here the new day enables Lucius to concentrate on his pursuit of magic and conclude his traveling.

40 41

11 The story o f Aristomenes in Book 1 emphasized the magical nature of Hypata. 1 ? Walsh 178 discusses the warnings of Byrrhena and the statuary; see also Penwill 69 note 56. 1 o These powers of Pamphile are the same as those o f the witch Meroe in the story of Aristomenes (1.8/8.9).

^^Lucius uses procedural and sacral formulae in the narrative of his encounter with Fotis: Walsh 62. Although these are part of Apuleius' technique they are used iro n ic a lly since Lucius is marching to his downfall.

^^Jonge 36 explains suscipe as "venerare et cole tamquam inviolabilem."

^^Margaretha Molt, Ad Apulei Madaurensis Metamorphoseon Librum Primum Commentarius Exegeticus 60 s c itu la : "venusta, blanda;" Jonge 37 moribus lu d ic ra : "dedita ludis am atoriis" and argutula: "dicacula, venustula;" at 2.7/31.6 Fotis is called "ilia lepida alioquin et dicacula puella."

L ilja , "Odour Sensations in the Roman Novel" Arctos n.s. 7 (1972) 36-37. She compares the descriptions of odors in Apuleius with those of the "Ovos story and concludes (44) that "since Apuleius attaches special importance to the erotic significance of fragrance in the ta le of Cupid and Psyche, which is independent of the Greek original, it seems that the sweet scents characterizing Photis...reflect his own personal liking — this tra it is lacking at least in the abridged Greek version." 18 Each Venus of the novel is given a physical description when she f ir s t makes a lengthy appearance. The description here of Fotis emphasizes the bodily features and not her dress.

^^Jonge 37, 43 notes the e ro tic sense of these passages (2.6/ 30.6 and 2.7/31.8). 20 F. Abate, Laughter, Comedy, and Joy in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, M.A. Thesis, The Ohio State U niversity, 1975, 25-26 com­ ments on laughter in the novel: "Perhaps a more usual context of laughter is brought out through its association with feminine sexual coyness." 21 I agree with Scobie 65 th a t the hair section is relevant against Perry TAPA 54, 209: "The essay on human hair in II, 3-9 is stuffed clumsily into the midst of a lively flirtation." John Englert and Timothy Long, "Functions of Hair in Apuleius' Metamorphoses," CJ 68 (1973) 236-239 survey hair as a m otif in the novel. 42

?? 'Vallette 36 note 3 comments on this line: "Vulcain, mari trompd%mais très ^p ris , est en général sans defense devant les charmes de sa femme." 23 Smith 9 lis ts several examples showing the importance o f hair as an a ttrib u te o f Venus.

Eitrem, "Venus Calva and Venus Cloacina," CR 37 (1923) 14- 16. Eitrem believes the scholium presupposes a statue of an androgy­ nous Venus on horseback, wearing a beard and holding a comb. He sug­ gests that this Venus is bald-headed on the evidence of the accompa­ nying aetium, that Roman women once shaved th e ir heads in order to get rid of scurfiness or some such disease of the hair. The scholium implies i c u lt of an androgynous Venus (-Aphrodite) at some place, in which h a ir and combs were dedicated to the goddess of love. The beard as well as the double sex probably further implies that Venus here is the deity of sexual union. Eitrem concludes his discussion of the scholium by stating that there is no evidence of a Roman custom in which brides sacrificed their hair to Venus and dedicated their combs in her honor. He is then forced to presume that such a statue and cult of Venus should be referred to Greek origins. He does not discuss the Greek origins other than this scholium.

B ortzler, "Venus Calva," RhM 87 (1928) 188-198 discusses several problems confronting both the scholium and Eitrem.

^^G. Thilo and H. Hagen, Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergi1i i Carmina Commentari i 1, 199-201.

^^This is the conclusion o f B ortzler 191-198 and S ch illin g 65-67.

^^S.H.A. Max. Duo 33; Lactant. Div. Inst. 1.20; August. E^. 17; Cyprian Liber de Idolorum Vanitate 4; Vegetius Epitoma Rei M ilitaris (Lang 1967, 134-135); Frontin StrT 1.7.3-4; Florus 1.31.10 Caes. BCiv 3.9.3. One other testimony ought to be mentioned. Among other evidence for the legend, an inscription from Germany was thought to contain a reference to Venus calva in the words calvae deae. The inscription is recorded in J. Orelli-G. Henzen, Inscriptionum Latinarum Selectarum Amplissima C ollectio I I I , 139, no. 5681. The text was later corrected by M. Ihm, "caiva dea," ^ 3'(1899) 1324. 29 Calva and its derivatives are ra re ly used in the Metamorphoses. The motifs of hair and sex are continued by the husband of Psyche's sister [cucurbita calviorem (5.9/110.15)], the eunuch priest [cinaedum calvum (8.24/196.1)] and Lucius at the end of the novel [obtecto calvitio (11.30/291.19)]. on For discussion o f ekphrasis (ÊMcppaous) see E. Norden Die antike Kunstprosa I , 285; Bernhard 280-283; Callebat 441. 43

31 In many of Venus' appearances p a rtic u la r physical apsects or sensations abound. The ekphrases on Venus are replete with these associations,

S^Callebat 523. 33 Penwill 66 comments on Lucius' false judgment of the b itte r and the sweet.

^^ompare Fotis' kiss with that of Venus (6.8/133.22). OC Jonge 55 lists other occurrences of this famous proverb from Terence, Euripides and Ovid.

Jonge 55 believes navigium Veneris is not used in the obscene sense. He notes the ambiguity o f the phrase here in Apuleius unlike the two examples from Plaut. (Rud. II, 3.24 and Men. II 3.51) where, "nulla ambiguitas assumi potest." R.G.M. Nisbet and Margaret Hubbard A Commentary on Horace Odes I 79-80 comment on the usual associations of Venus-sea-love in a note to Horace Odes I. 5.16 deae. 37 It is interesting to note that Apuleius in his naming of several celestial bodies calls the planet Venus pleasure-giving: Veneris voluptifica (Florida 10).

O p Miserere: See Callebat 455 on the love language; proelio: the language of warfare. 39 For stories of her birth see Homer IIiad 5.370 and Hesiod Theogony 188 ff. Aphrodite in art is discussed by A. Furtwangler, "Aphrodite ," Roscher, Lexikon I (1886) 415-419.

^*^Robertson I , 390 and Bieber 18.

^^Robertson I , 392, 549 and Bieber 19-21. 4? Robertson I 493-494 and Bieber 21. See also 0. Jessen, "Anadyomene," RE I (1894) 2019-2021.

^^See Callebat 455-456 on the language here and in 2.7 and 2.16.

^^This reference to Book 10 is noted by Paardt, 153.

^^Lucius recalls Fotis three times after his transformation (and return): 1) 7.14/164.18 Fotis is cursed by Lucius at the sight of Charité's dogs feasting on the leftovers; 2) 9.15/214.16 Lucius never forgives Fotis but at least he has ears to hear the story of Philesitherus; and 3) 11.20/282.4 the two slaves who stayed with Lucius at Milo's house return to him. CHAPTER I I

VENUS OF THE MIME

The next group of references to Venus as a goddess after the

scenes with Fotis in Book 2 occurs in the ta le of Cupid and Psyche.

I have postponed th a t discussion fo r two reasons. Although the Cupid and Psyche tale occurs before the mime, I wish to treat the Venus of the mime firs t because the actress plays the role of Venus in a way similar to that of Fotis. Both Fotis and the actress impersonate the goddess in a physical dramatization. Fotis' performance is a private entertainment for Lucius, while the actress of the mime becomes Venus for her theatrical performance. Moreover, the tale of Cupid and

Psyche offers d iffe re n t conceptions o f Venus. There the goddess is active on two levels, as a divine power herself and in a disruptive usurpation of her name by Psyche. It is true that the juxtaposition of the mime and the relevation of Isis is startling and I hope to focus on this point in the discussion of Book 11 later. The contrast between the Venus o f the Cupid and Psyche ta le and Is is is also im­ posing and suggests a picture of the celestial goddess which is only hinted at with the former goddess and brought into fu ll re lie f with the latter one.

In Book 10 Venus is again important in the narrative at the close of Lucius' career as an ass. The final adventures of,Lucius the ass

44 45 concern his l i f e under the slave brothers, the baker and the cook.

Through their inadvertent help Lucius regains his health, but this reacquired lustre of his coat gives him away. They discover that

Lucius has been feasting on human food: liberalibus cenis inescatus et humanis adfatim cibis saqinatus (10.15/248.7). Their rich

Corinthian master Thiasus is amused at the sight of Lucius becoming more human and less asinine when the ass indulges himself with food and drink at Thiasus' table. Again food (just as with Fotis) w ill fill him and bring him into contact with an unhealthy situation. Although his glossy sheen signifies a renewed vigor, it is only a prelude to a destructive event scheduled fo r Lucius. The theme of spectaculum culminates in Book 10. Lucius' appearance at the dinner table intro­ duces the theme of the pursuit of spectaculum into Book 10. Curiositas has been established as a central theme of the Metamorphoses.^ From the outset Lucius is curious for the unusual and the marvelous: nimis cupidus cognoscendi quae rara miraque s in t (2.1/24.18). One object of curiosity is spectaculum. a public show for entertainment. There are earlier occurrences of spectacula in the novel, but the largest group 2 of references is here in Book 10. The firs t group of references is in the story of Aristomenes when Socrates is lured away to a gladia­ torial display. This display is the beginning of his downfall (1.7/

7.2,6) and shows the power of spectaculum in enticing men. Psyche is also called a spectaculum by the world (4.28/96.23). Thiasus is in charge of putting on games: munus gladiatorium triduani spectaculi pollicitus latius munificentiam suam porrigebat (10.18/250.23). Be­ cause of Lucius' ability at table (novitate spectaculi 10.16/248.30) 46 and in bed with the rich woman (novum spectaculum 10.23/254.14),

Thiasus assigns him to a part in his munus: i l l e . . .destinât me spectaculo publico (10.23/254.16). Thiasus' name suggests the O character of his plans for Lucius. The name {BCaaog) means a revelry in honor of Dionysus, and ithyphallic asses were often pic­ tured in the proceedings to honor the god. The munus planned by

Thiasus w ill be a spectacle o f re lig io u s debasement. Lucius shrinks from the shame of acting in the show: scelerosae mulieris contagio macularer vel imfamia publici spectaculi depudescerem (10.29/260.4) and fears for his life , since the woman with whom he is to copulate has been condemned to be killed by wild beasts (10.34/265.14). Yet at the outset of the festivities Lucius is placed just outside the theater entrance and from there he is an interested spectator: subinde curiosos oculos patente porta spectaculi prospectu gratissimo reficiens (10.29/260.18). His curiosity is as acute now as in the e a rlie r books.

The theme of spectaculum in Book 10 culminates in the show of

Thiasus. The curiosity of the crowd w ill be satisfied by the three- act performance. The mime of the Judgment of Paris is to be the middle part of these festive proceedings. The firs t act of the day is a

Greek pyrrhic dance: Graecanicam s a lta tu ri pyrricam (10.29/260.21).^

The pyrrhic or armed dance developed in its long history from a noise- making ritual into a "rhythmic series of movements and postures useful in war."^ Boys in Athens and Sparta were trained in the pyrrhic dance as a preparation for m ilitary duty. The dance also takes on Dionysiac characteristics and dancers carry torches and thyrsi in their portrayal 47 of stories o f Dionysus. Professional dancing g irls also performed solo pyrrhic dances with at times graceful and at times lewd gestures.^ In

Rome the pyrrhic dance was given a dramatic content. The dance in

Apuleius anticipates the mime of the Judgment of Paris in three ways.

First, the essential warlike quality of the dance fits well with the result of Paris' decision which began the Trojan War. The coming to­ gether and separation of the groups of dancers are similar to attaching and retreating actions in battle. Second, the Dionysiac influence reinforces the religious aspect revealed in Thiasus' name. Finally, the h isto ry o f the pyrrhic dance shows that i t was capable of sensual delight as well. In addition to preparing for the second act, the dance its e lf shows the evil doings present in the later books of the

Metamorphoses. I t has been called "a subtle metaphor fo r the b a ttle between the sexes with a ll the misunderstanding and hostility that war breeds."^ The grim stories of lust with its accompanying violence pre­ pared us for the ultimate pleasures to be derived from the munus of

Thiasus. The three scenes of the games which conclude Lucius' life as an ass summarize the qualities of lust dominant in the course of the adventures and in the experience of the hero. This firs t scene, the pyrrhic dance, portrays symbolically, through its intricate patterns of movement described, the attraction, cooperation, and revulsion of the sexes.

The second act of the show is the mime o f the Judgment of Paris.

This theme is an old one in lite ra tu re and theater. I t is mentioned O by Lucian as a t i t l e o f a pantomime and was one o f the most popular themes in the mimic arts. An indication of its popularity is the fact 48 g that many actors took up the name Paris for themselves. After the trumpet signals the adjustment of the stage equipment, a complicated scene appears. The mythological setting recalls the tale of Cupid and

Psyche.Both narratives contain the goddess Venus in prominent roles and open with general descriptions which set the scenes.After the players have been introduced, an enticing Venus comes on stage. The description of Venus in the mime highlights her sensuality. She is almost nude. The one piece of clothing worn draws attention to that part which is covered:

nudo et intecto corpore perfectam formonsitatem professa, nisi quod tenui pallio bombycino inumbrabat spectabilem pubem. Quam quidem laciniam curiosulus ventus sa tis amanter nunc lasciviens reflabat, ut dimota pateret flos aetatulae, nunc luxurians aspirabat, ut adhaerens pressule membrorum voluptatem grafice liciniaret (10.31/261.27).

The rich colors describing the actress befit the goddess. She has an ambrosial complexion which proclaims her as Venus: gratia coloris ambrosei designans Venerem, qualis f u it Venus, cum f u it virgo (10.31/

261.25). The color o f her body and o f her gauze s ilk apron emphasize her d iv in ity : ipse autem color deae diversus in speciem, corpus candidum, quod caelo demeat, amictus caerulus, quod mari remeat (10.31/

262.4). Lucius had earlier commented on the importance of a rosy com­ plexion as opposed to beautiful clothes as an attribute of beauty

(2.8/31.22). These clothes and colors recall the earlier depiction of Fotis as Venus. Lucius' remark on the beauty o f the skin precedes his use of the Venus calva image. The beauty of the actress can be compared with that of the Venus described earlier, only here the 49

actress has a fu ll head of hair and all the other attributes of Venus.

Fotis' hand d e lica te ly covered her loins. Here the actress playing

Venus wears a nearly transparent apron which takes the place of the

hand. Another verbal echo is that the covering by the hand and apron

is accomplished with the cognate verb; obumbrans (2.17/38.19) and 1 7 inumbrabat (10.31/261.28). Both hand and apron h ig h lig h t the sexual

organs o f the woman playing Venus. The blue color and the s ilk apron

[ amictus caerulus, quod mari remeat (10.31/262.6)]adds to th is re co l­

lection o f the e a rlie r Venus [ in speciem Veneris, quae marines flu cto s

subit &.17/38.17)]. The association of Venus and the sea is present in 13 a ll o f the appearances o f Venus in the novel.

The second performance has commonly been called a mime though

Apuleius does not use the term.^^ The usual definition of the mime is

that it is an imitative performace composed of dancing, gesticulation, 15 facial expression and speech. During the Roman Empire the entertain­ ment of the theater had to become more sensational in order to compete

with the attractions of the gladiators and the circuses.Mimes

attained great followings and were a very popular form of entertainment^

This popularity derived from the farcical and often indecent situations which mimes presented. Adultery was among the preferred themes.

Mimes were probably played without masks; the facial expressions of the acting troupe made possible by the absence o f masks would be 18 pleasing to the onlooker. Women firs t played in the theater in the production of mimes. Their mimetic art is especially expressive.M.

Bieber notes the close connection in this narrative from Apuleius be­ tween the b a lle t and the mime. In combining the elements of the 50 mythological characters and the dance, she calls the scene a "mytho- 20 logical b a lle t." I t would perhaps be best to term i t a dance mime without speech. The three essential features of this performance are

dance, music and gesture. These features clearly distinguish the

three goddesses and emphasize the b rillia n c e o f Venus' appearance.

The display of Juno and her escort is brief. Her dance is calm and

unaffected with becoming gestures to sounds in various harmonies.

Juno's music (varios modulos 10.31/262.11) is called lastian, which 21 Apuleius describes elsewhere as complex. Minerva's time on stage

is slightly longer than that of Juno. Her dance is frenzied and war­

like with menacing gestures. The sh rill music of the Dorian piper accompanying her dance agrees with her m ilita ry appearance.

The third and final performer in the mime receives the most de­ tailed account. At once we learn that Venus is the favorite of the crowd because o f its tremendous applause when she steps forward: cum 23 magno favore caveae in ipso meditullio scaenae (10.32/263.1). The tone of Venus' act is bright sensuality. With the roar of welcome in her ears, Venus pleases them even more with her laughter and stance: dulce subridens constitit amoene (10.32/263.3). This laughter and smile is an expression of sexual anticipation in the same way that

Fotis' sly laugh (2.8) preceded her lovemaking with Lucius. Her 24 smile and laughter add to her sexual charms. The milk-skinned

Cupids add to the e ffe c t since they too seem to have come from heaven or the sea. The torches they carry would lig h t the way fo r Venus to go to a wedding reception: velut nuptial is epulas obiturae dominaè coruscis praelucebant facibus (10.32/263.6). This supposed nuptial 51 feast looks both backward and forward to other events in the novel.

First, Fotis prepared a love feast for Lucius just before posing as

Venus (2.17). Second, the outcome of the Judgment w ill be Helen's elopement to Troy with Paris. Third, Venus dances at the wedding feast of Cupid and Psyche. F in a lly , Venus' dance immediately precedes the planned "marriage" of Lucius and the condemned woman. The super­ lative adjectives describing the Graces and the Hours (hinc Gratiae gratissimae, inde Horae pulcherrimae 10.32/263.9) emphasize their 25 precious comeliness and enhance the act o f Venus. These choruses prepare the way fo r Venus by scattering flowers before her path.

These flowers are the signs of spring (veris coma blanaientes 10.32/

263.12) which Lucius realizes is at hand (10.29/260.7). The coming of spring and the new growth in that season also signify the creative power of Venus. This w ill be especially evident at the outset of the tale of Cupid and Psyche with its Lucretian echoes. In Book 11 th is creative power o f power w ill be seen as one aspect o f Is is .

The Lydian music fo r Venus' dance comes from a group of flu te s played in harmony. This music is appropriate to the deliberate 27 steps of Venus. The dance and gestures of Venus are more provocative than those o f the other goddesses. Apuleius builds a picture of a highly sensual dancer. Her sophisticated movements entice the audience even more than the charming music (10.32/263.14). She bends her body 28 sinuously and her movements are orchestrated with the music. We already saw that Fotis moved her body seductively while stirring the pots in the kitchen (2.7/30.20). In the mime Venus also twists gently.

Especially attractive are her eyes which seem to dance by themselves: 52 nonnunquam sal tare sol is oculis (10.32/263.19). Her promise to obtain for Paris the most beautiful woman in the world easily gains her the golden apple. The rewards o f Juno and Minerva pall before the a t­ traction of a beautiful woman, especially one who is the human counter­ part of Venus: daturam se nuptam Paridi forma praecipuam suique consimilem (10.32/263.21). After Juno and Minerva leave the stage in dismay, Venus' happiness (gaudens et h ila ris 10.34/264.23), re callin g her laughter and smile (10.32/263.3), is obvious because she has won 29 the beauty contest. Her joy stems from pleasing the crowd.

A fittin g climax to the proceedings is the spray of wine mixed with saffron which showers the a rtific ia l mountain and the flocks grazing on it. The fragrant odor fills the theater. It is as if the lure and fragrance o f Venus encompass Paris and then the whole 30 audience. Lucius is outraged at the decision of Paris. In a diatribe against the judicial profession the ass declares that justice has been perverted from the beginning of time and now is d iffic u lt to 31 obtain. This Judgment of Paris set a destructive precedent since

Paris was selected by Jupiter to render a decision. The simple shepherd gave away his verdict for a bribe of the love of a beautiful woman who w ill destroy his nation: iudex rusticanus et opilio lucro libidinis vendiderit cum totius etiam suae stirpis exitio (10.33/

264.6). His judgment was won over by Venus' sensual dance and the lure o f the reward,much to the chagrin and rid ic u le of Lucius.

It is appropriate that the firs t ten books of Metamorphoses cul­ minate in this mime because it shows the triumph of voluptas in an extravagant spectaculum. Venus is called the queen of pleasures: 53

dominae voluptatum (10.32/263.11). Physical pleasure is the main aim

of lif e in Books 1-10. Paris chooses Venus because he values her re­ ward as the one which w ill please him the most. The debasement of

love which destroys man and society in the firs t ten books of the

novel culminates in Paris' decision. He was influenced both by Venus' charms and the reward o f Helen. Venus' dance is a dance of debased

love since she is flaunting herself and w ill offer a lawless love to

Paris. The destructive force of uncontrolled passion in the Meta­ morphoses results in numerous crimes. The tragedy of Paris' decision is th a t i t has consequences fo r his whole race. The mime raises the 32 problem o f debased love from individual sto ries to a national le v e l.

The lack of justice involved is particularly annoying to Lucius. The mime is intended to be followed by the display of bestiality with

Lucius and the condemned woman. Since Lucius flees in te rro r at the thought of copulating with a woman like that through horror of shame

(contaqium 10.34/265.15) and fear of death, there is no third act. 33 Theirs would be a travesty of marriage. The mime which precedes his event solidifies his intention not to get involved with the con­ demned woman. Lucius sees Venus winning in the mime. Up to th is point Venus has dominated the novel because men have fa lle n vic tim to 34 uncontrolled lust which brings evil and suffering to the world.

Lucius' harangue on justice and his decision to leave the scene offer his own judgment which is adverse to Venus. He judges her harshly and wishes to separate himself from the goddess of love. Earlier (3.22) he hoped by being anointed he might stand winged, like Cupid, beside his Venus. Now that his life is threatened and he has witnessed the 54 terrors of unregenerate mankind in a world dominated by magic and fortuna (which combined with sexual pleasure to lead him into asshood), 35 Lucius seeks exclusion from the world of Venus. Lucius rejects the earthly Venus and thus is able to receive the celestial one. His wish to stand next to Venus has a t la s t come true. He has been anointed by the wine and saffron flowing from the mountain top. Lucius, however, has an altered perception of the world and has his mind on other things. He wants release from the troubles of his asshood.

The mime functions as a prelude to the revelation of the goddess

Isis at the beginning o f Book 11. Two goddesses appear in opposition to each other. Venus of the mime contrasts sharply with Isis. In­ stead of the third act of the festival, the exhibition of bestiality, the final part of the day's activities for Lucius w ill be his escape from the theater. In th is sense his dash to freedom and eventual retransformation, in other words Book 11, replace the final scene on 37 Thiasus' program.

The mime exhibits a slightly different mode of impersonation of the goddess than previously seen in the episode with Fotis. Lucius used Venus as an image to describe F o tis' hair (2 .8 ). Then Fotis posed as Venus in the bedroom (2.17). F in a lly Lucius verbalizes what he had previously only imagined (3.22). The actress in the mime embodies Venus for her whole time on stage. Earlier Fotis had acted like Venus; the actress impersonates Venus. The actress' portrayal is amusing to the audience. The excitement and intrigue of watching the gods on stage pleases the curiosity of the crowd.- The dances and gestures o f the mime are lascivious by themselves and are supposed to 55

38 be a prelude to an even more obscene th ird act. The d e itie s are 39 degraded by th e ir actions on stage. The mimes were free to present

these actions on stage and they used mythology to interpret life .^^

The goddess' appearance is a spectaculum which t h r ills the audience but she does not evoke the adoration which the appearance of a true goddess would e lic it . The mime s a tis fie s the craving of the crowd.

This satisfaction of the crowd's desires is well attested by

Venus' performance in the Apuleian mime. Her fa c ia l expressions and body movements are wondrous. There is also evidence that animals took part in the mimes.This is important for Apuleius since Lucius is intended to be a part of the final act in the show. What that final act could be called other than a novel display of public bestiality

[novum spectaculum (10.23/254.14); spectaculo publico (10.23/254.17)] is uncertain. The role of the condemned woman in the third act reveals something of the mime's h isto ry. The poor reputation of female mimes 42 caused them to be classed with prostitutes and criminals. The criminal life of the condemned woman is given at length. Yet half- naked women might be essential to mimes in order to make them more provocative. This rotation of hips and abdomen has been noted in the 43 movements of courtesan dancers.

The munus of Thiasus reaches a crescendo in the presentation of spectacula. The pyrrhic dance and the mime have two functions in

Book 10. F irs t, they delay what is immediately expected a fte r Lucius hears the story o f the condemned woman. The day o f the performance is at hand and we are eager to find out what Lucius does. Instead we are treated to these other entertainments. Second, by th is unexpected 56

order of events, the tension over Lucius' fate slowly increases. The 44 excitement builds with each act. Far from being unncessary in tru - 45 sions in no way connected with the p lo t, these acts are relevant

to Lucius' life story.

Venus in the mime summarizes the debauched people who populate

the f i r s t ten books. The display of such an o ve rtly sensual Venus is a corruption of love in that it takes physical qualities to the ex­ treme. The Venus of the mime introduces us to a different impersona­ tion of the goddess. Through the comparison w ith Fotis, Lucius' earlier involvement with the love goddess is recalled. Many of the qualities of Venus from the previous Venus scenes are repeated. Here the actress embodies Venus fo r as long as she appears on stage.

The actress of the mime closes the sequence of adventures for

Lucius. The mime and the scenes with Fotis act as a frame for Lucius' involvement with Venus. Venus in the ta le o f Cupid and Psyche is not directly part of Lucius' adventures. Throughout the novel up to the mime, Lucius has been a plaything in the grip of cruel fortune. In the firs t ten books sexual pleasure is an end in itse lf and proves to be debased and destructive when part of unbridled passion. When

Lucius rejects the Venus of the mime he is casting aside his pursuit of sexual pleasure. The spectaculum of the mime is in the vivid contrast to the religious nature of the activities in Book 11. Isis follows closely upon the appearance o f the actress playing Venus.

For Lucius a new divinity is now in charge.

I t remains to be seen in what other ways Venus can appear and especially how she acts in her longest portrayal in the novel. The 57 love goddess of the Cupid and Psyche story continues the mythological appearances o f Venus. The Venus o f the mime is the patroness of sensuality. We need to examine the story in which this sensuality is transformed into petty jealousy. NOTES TO CHAPTER I I

Schlam Scholarship 297-298 surveys recent work on the theme of c u rio)S s ity . 2. "There are seventeen references to spectaculum: 7 from Book 10.16-35. The other sections with multiple spectaculum references are the story of Aristomenes (3 in 1.6-7) and Cupid and Psyche (4 in 4.28, 5.26).

^Schlam "Platonica" 483.

^The prelude of the performance (and not specifically one of the main acts) is professional dancing: dum ludicris scaenicorum choreis primitiae spectaculi dedicantur (10,29/260.15). L. Lawler, The Dance of the Ancient Greek Theatre 101 calls them " 'funny dances' by pro­ fessionals."

5 L. Lawler, The Dance in Ancient Greece 106; see also Dance of the Ancient Greek Theatre 101-102.

^Lawler Dance in Ancient Greece 103, 133 and Bieber Theatre 237.

7 6. Drake, "Lucius' 'Business' in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius," PLL 5 (1969) 350. Vallette III, 131 note 1 simply calls this dance "une sorte de farandole" and compares the dance in Ilia d 18.590ff. Penwill 73 notes "the barren mathematical precision of the Pyrrhic dancing."

^De Saltatione 45: n éicu uriAw xpuots. The Judgment o f Paris is noted among the long l i s t o f tit le s in E. Wiist, "Pantomimus," ^ i s ' part 3 (1949) 847-849.

^E. Wust, "P a ris," RE 18*part 4 (1949) 1496-1497: "Im ganzen darf man sagen, dass kein Thema der alten Sage auf der BCihne und in der Kunst so haufig behandelt wurde wie das Paris-Urteil." See A. Nicoll, Masks, Mimes, and Miracles: Studies in the Popular Theatre 94, 134 for actors with the name of Paris. Actors took the name Paris from the popularity of the theme in the mimic arts. Ultimately the theme goes back to its foundation in Homer. See also G. Turk, "Paris," Roscher, Lexikon 3 (1902 ) 1586-1592.

58 59 TOpenwill 65.

^^Compare Erant in quadam Civitate rex et regina (4.28/96.16) and Erat mons ligneus, ad in s ta r in c lit i montis, quern vates Homerus Idaeum cecinit ( IU.8Ü/261.3). I he three sisters, each with her outstanding beauty, may be compared to the three goddesses o f the mime. 12 S im ilar language is also evident in 1 acini is (2.17/38.16) and laciniam (10.31/262.1) and lasciviam (2.17/38.I/) and lasciviens (10.31/262.2). 13 W. Nethercut, "Apuleius' Literary Art: Resonance and Depth in the Metamorphoses," CJ 64 (1968) 112-113 discusses the water imagery in the mime.

^^Walsh 173.

^^Duckworth 14-15 and Bieber Theatre 106.

^^Bieber Theatre 226, 237.

^^Duckworth 14 and Bieber Theatre 107, 165-166. 18 Duckworth 15 and Bieber Theatre 159.

^^Bieber Theatre 86, 159. 20 Bieber Theatre 237. Lawler Dance of the Ancient Greek Theatre 101-102 vaguely terms i t "an elaborate orchestic version". R. Auguet Cruelty and C ivilization: The Roman Games 166-167: "Tragedy, a dying art, had given place to a very speical type of 'pantomime' in which specialized actors, using only gesture and mime, 'played' dramatic episodes from the liv e s o f the heroes and the gods. Every­ thing in this art, therefore, depended on suggestion. The subjects dealt p a rtic u la rly with the scabrous adventures which the Greeks a ttrib u te d to the inhabitants o f Olympus. I t may be imagined to what degree of erotic intensity refinement of gesture could bring this mute and subtle evocation of the loves of Jupiter or of Venus." See further Auguet 101-102. 21 Florida 4 lastium varium; these references to the Florida are noted by R. Helm Metamorphosen Oder der qoldene Esel 418. The readings lastia (10.31/262.11) and lastium (Florida 4) both have textual problems. 22 FIorida 4: Dorium bellicosum. 23 The locale of the performance is not entirely clear. Lawler Dance of the Ancient Greek Theatre 102 states the performance probably took place in a theater: "Some features of the account suggest a performance in an amphitheatre rather than in a theatre... However, the author makes use in the passage o f such words as cavea. scaena, scaenici, aulaeum, si parium. which are usually associated with the theatre." 24 60 F. Abate Laughter, Comedy, and Joy in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius 25-26. 25 Callebat 399.

Callebat 443 states that this sentence iam. ..consonant (10.32/ 263.12) is one example of Apuleius' "brièveté a rtis te : phrase courte choisie pour évoquer avec densité et relief un tra it pittoresque." 27 Florida 4 c a lls Lydian music p la in tiv e : Lydium querulum. 28 Leniter fluctuante spinula (10.32/263.15) recalls spinam mobilem quatiens (2.7/30.23) and m'^lem spinam quatiens (2.17/39.7).

^^Lawler Dance in Ancient Greece 50 notes that "Aphrodite, [Odyssey 18.193-194) a fte r anointing herself w ith ambrosial balm, jo in s in 'the lovely dance of the Graces.'" sn L ilja , "Odour Sensations in the Roman Novel," 41. 31 See G. Drake, "Candidus: A Unifying Theme in Apuleius' Metamor­ phoses," CJ (1968) 106 on the perversion o f ju s tic e . 32 Drake, "Lucius' 'Business' in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius," 347-350 emphasizes th is monstrous love.

^^Penwill 72.

^^Schlam "Platonica" 484. 35 Nethercut, "Apuleius' Literary Art: Resonance and Depth in the Metamorphoses," 112-113.

^^Schlam Cupid and Psyche 37.

^^Schlam "C u rio sity" 124.

^^Penwill 70 note 57. 39 Plato condemns stories which present the gods as corrupt; see Schlam "Platonica" 485. 40 Nicoll, Masks, Mimes and Miracles; Studies in the Popular Theatre 126 discusses the fa n ta stic and r e a lis tic elements o f the mime.

^^Bieber Theatre 238. 42 Bieber Theatre 238; J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Roman Women 229: "Yet the th e a trica l profession never appeared to A uthority at Rome to belong anywhere but to the world of the underprivileged, even the criminal, classes...A t the very highest, an actress ranked as high as a freedwoman; at the lowest she was classed with the prostitutes." 61 Lawler Dance in Ancient Greece 130-133 and note 11 c a lls the twisting motions of Fotis in 2.17 a movement found in the dances of courtesans. On the prostitutes of Corinth see Schilling 238 and Drake, "Lucius' 'Business' in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius," 349. The mime is set in the theater at Corinth and it is appropriate that the Judgment of Paris mime be played in that city because of the temple of Aphrodite and the slave-prostitutes found there.

^^Junghanns 178-179.

^^Bernhard 282 considers the mime an ekphrasis which intrudes sharply on the plot. CHAPTER I I I

VENUS OF THE CUPID AND PSYCHE STORY

In following the appearances of Venus through the novel, the role of the goddess in the ta le of Cupid and Psyche would come before the

Venus o f the mime. The discussion o f the Venus o f the ta le has been postponed until after that of the mime since the descriptions of the two human impersonations o f the goddess can be compared with the de­ tails surrounding Psyche and Venus in the inserted tale.

The e a rlie s t mention of Venus in the Metamorphoses is the re fe r­ ence to Socrates' falling into the grip of Meroe. Several references to Venus occur before the goddess is fin a lly mentioned. The Venus calva image discussed earlier begins the sequence of references to

Venus which culminate in Lucius' transformation. It is significant that such an image o f Venus be the f i r s t introduction to the goddess within his adventures with Fotis. It should influence our understanding o f the other appearances of Venus in the novel. The calva epithet can be considered a comic designation for Venus and is a small clue to the comic role of Venus in the Cupid and Psyche story. Venus calva (2.8/

32.3,6) introduces several other mentions of the goddess before her appearance in the ta le o f Cupid and Psyche. These are in the story of the maid Fotis and emphasize the sexuality of Fotis in the relationship between Lucius and Fotis. Likewise a fte r the ta le o f Cupid and Psyche,

62 63

Venus is portrayed in the mime. There the actress played the ro le o f

the goddess in a sordid theater production which underlines the debase­

ment o f love in the novel. The Venus o f the Cupid and Psyche story carries forward the active role in the narrative. First, Psyche is compared to Venus as Fotis had been. Psyche is taken by others to be a new Venus. The comparison o f Fotis to Venus is made by Lucius alone.

Fotis is sexually seductive and develops a relationship with Lucius, while Psyche inspires only adoration and not affection. Second, Venus herself appears as a p a rtic ip a n t in the ta le and is sim ila r to the actress of the mime and Fotis in that they are all described with elaborate pictures. The present concern is twofold: 1) to discuss

Psyche in the role of Venus, and 2) to detail the individual words, actions, and motives of Venus in order to ascertain her overall role in the Cupid and Psyche story. These roles can then be compared to earlier and later references to her in the novel and a range of kinds of appearances may be established. This larger perception w ill enable the reader to understand Venus in the whole structure of the Meta­ morphoses and perceive how the goddess is an aspect o f Is is in Book 11.

This range o f appearances in the novel also helps us to recognize Venus as a unifying figure. Apuleius' excellent character portrayals include a goddess, one of the chief divine forces in the novel.^

Venus as an active character in the Cupid and Psyche story is firs t introduced as she reacts to the upheaval caused by Psyche. The young g irl, a princess of outstanding beauty, has usurped Venus' place on earth. The jealousy of the goddess stems from the neglect of her worship on earth. The opening of this included story, longest in the 64

Metamorphoses, focuses on beauty of the royal couple's three daughters.

Beauty is the key to the story. Cupid's infatuation with beauty and

Venus' outrage over the diversion of the worship due her motivates the

action. The elder two daughters could be praised through the power of

human speech, but the exaltation o f the youngest was impossible in

human language: ne sufficienter quidem laudari sermonis humani penuria

poterat (4.28/96.21). Psyche is praised with a reverence due to Venus 2 alone. Already Psyche is elevated above the human world and into the

realm of deity. Not only do citizens of the realm come forward to gaze

at her, but her beauty has attracted foreigners as well. The attention

given Psyche by her admirers is all-consuming:

multi denique civium et advenae copiosi, quos eximii spectaculi rumor studiosa celebritate congregabat, inaccessae formonsitatis admiratione stupidi et admoventes oribus suis dexteram primore digito in erectum pollicem re sidente eam ut ipsam prorsus deam Venerem religiosis venerabantur adorationibus (4.28/96.22).

Psyche is a spectaculum whose beauty is fascinating. She is the same

sort of wonder as the public games of Thiasus and the intended display

of bestiality: she is a public spectacle and those who view her are

stupidi admiratione. This admiratio is misdirected; Psyche has a very

strong emotional appeal on the audience because the public (multi

civium) associate her with the goddess Venus. This search for wonder

(rara miraque) leads to the description of Psyche as a spectaculum

ju s t as the mime had been so designated. The people are so overwhelmed

by the spectacle that they ignore the established worship of Venus.

Their stupor reflects on the worship of Venus since even the adoration 65 of a goddess must be stimulated by a spectaculum. This adulation is quite different from that given by Lucius to Fotis since he never used the word veneror to describe this emotion. Here the verb venerabantur also seems to recall the derivation of the name Venus from veneror- 3 venia-venus as described in the opening chapter. The crowd adores

Psyche as Venus with a word (veneror) ideally suited to their purpose; they also use a gesture (admoventes.. .residente) which seems to indi­ cate their full rapture with the g irl.^ The wonder of Psyche is a public spectacle of the whole world. The glamour of Fotis was confined to the kitchen and the bedroom in the presence of Lucius alone.

The message of Psyche's beauty travels from her own land to ter­ rito rie s more d ista n t. There are three kinds of communication involved in spreading the news about the spectaculum. At firs t the story of

Psyche is rumor, eximii spectaculi rumor (4.28/96.23); this is followed by the story that reaches other lands, iamque proximas c iv ita te s et attiquas regiones fama pervaserat ... (4.28/97.3) and a belief which grows stronger every day, sic immensum procedit in dies opinio (4.28/

97.10). In these d iffe re n t phrases Apuleius seems to show how the publicity of the spectaculum increases and how Psyche is accepted as a goddess.

The description of the birth of the people's new goddess is fu ll of details from the earlier accounts of Fotis and the actress of the mime in th e ir roles as Venus. This new goddess was e ith e r born from the sea — the usual birthplace of Venus — or more su rp risin g ly from the land: quam caerulum profundum pelaqi peperit...vel certe.. . terras

Venerem aliam.. .pullulasse (4.28/97.5). The birth from the sea 66

recalls the other descriptions of the impersonations of Venus in the

novel. Fotis was likened by Lucius to Venus when she appeared from

the waves, in speciem Veneris, quae marines flu cto s subit (2.17/38.17).

The Venus of the mime also is described as having two possible origins,

from heaven or the sea. The sea which spawned th is new goddess Psyche

is termed caerulum profundum pelaqi (4.28/97.5); the adjective

caerulus is also used to denote the color of the girdle of the Venus ' 5 of the mime: amictus caerulus, quod mari remeat (10.31/262.6). The

sea as the usual home of Venus is confirmed later in the story when

Venus returns to the sea after speaking to Cupid and later s till when

she bathes there. It is also important to note that another goddess

will rise from the sea later in the novel. In Book 11 Isis appears •

out of the sea. But instead of being like the figures of Venus in

the earlier books this last "figure" of Venus is a spectaculum but

not one which arouses the sensuality o f the common crowd. The more

surprising place of birth for the new goddess would be the land: vel

certe rursum novo caelestium s t i l l arum germine non maria, sed terras

Venerem aliam virginali flore praeditam pullulasse (4.28/97.7). . This

is the second comparison o f Psyche to the goddess Venus w ithin seven

lines o f te x t (4.28/97.3,9). These two comparisons and the repeated

emphasis on the sweeping popularity of Psyche c le a rly show how

Apuleius emphasizes the usurpation of the position of the true Venus

on earth. Psyche's beauty is also reaffirmed by referring to her as

a Venus endowed w ith the flower o f youth which makes her even more

appealing. Another impersonation of Venus in the nov.el is also dis­

tinguished by her v irg in ity . The Venus o f the mime was termed a g ir l. 67

quail's fu it Venus, cum fu it virgo (10.31/261.26). In the mime the

virginity of Venus seemed out of place because of the sensuality of her

dance which greatly influences P aris' decision. Here the beauty, aided

by her virginity, of the new Venus is a curse since Psyche w ill be

persecuted on account of the very qualities which bring her so much worldwide attention and adoration. The long-established Venus w ill

persecute this new Venus for attaining a position which she never

sought, but which was thrust upon her by b irth .

The fame o f Psyche races around the world and brings more wor­

shippers to her.^ The publicity afforded her leaves the shrines of

Venus at Paphos, Cnidos, and Cythera, all traditional places of wor­ ship for the goddess, empty and neglected.^ The disarray of the

shrines, sacra.. .foedatae (4.29/97.16), is a physical sign that the worship of Venus is in trouble on earth. It also may be contrasted with the well-ordered temple of Isis in Book 11. Psyche in her wanderings even takes an opportunity to clean up a shrine, however not one of Venus, in order to try and set things right with the divine world.

Psyche in the inserted story and Fotis and the mime actress in the main narrative have diverted the attention and honor due the goddess to themselves. Lucius and the multi civium of the Cupid and

Psyche story have embodied their conception of the divine force of love in human women. Psyche has taken over the worshippers o f Venus, in humanis vultibus deae tantae numina placantur (4.29/97.19). The end of the description of Psyche as another Venus concludes with a detail which solidifies the connection among the figures of Venus 68 discussed so far. The outstanding beauty of Psyche can be profitably

considered with the corresponding excellences of Fotis and the actress

of the mime. The beauty of Fotis has a purely physical attraction for

Lucius: is to aspectu defixus obstupui et mirabundus s te ti, steterunt

et membra quae iacebant ante (2.7/30.23). The beauty of the actress

in the mime, visendo decore praepollens (10.31/261.25), is also purely

physical since the emphasis of her dance is on the enticing and

alluring qualities which she exhibits. In the case of Psyche her worshippers adore her as a statue and honor her every step.

Although the outcome of their beautiful natures is different,

they all are associated with flowers. Psyche is treated royally by

the masses: in matutino progressu virginis victimis et epulis

Veneris absentis nomen propitiatur, iamque per plateas commeantem

populi frequenter floribus sertis et solutis adprecantur (4.29/97.20).

The detail which links her to Fotis and the actress of the mime is

the scattering of the flowers: floribus sertis et solutis. Fotis

is pictured with roses in her dress: rosa serta et rosa soluta in sinu tuberante(2.16/37.19). As part of her preparations for Lucius

she scatters flowers: ac me pressim deosculato et coroll is revincto ac flore persperso (2.16/37.20). The incident with the flowers is repeated in the mime with the exact words of the scene with Psyche: hinc Gratiae gratissimae, inde Horae pulcherrimae, quae iaculis floris serti et soluti deam suam propitiantes (10.32/263.9). The beauty of the three impersonations of Venus is enhanced by the flowers. Flowers are a standard attribute of Venus and particularly 8 the rose is her flow er. Flowers w ill be prominent in la te r sections 69

of the Cupid and Psyche story and w ill be a distinguishing feature of

the worship of Isis in Book 11. Of course the rose remains throughout

the novel the antidote to Lucius' asshood.

Venus responds to the usurpation of her divine standing by

promising revenge on the g ir l. Cupid is assigned the task o f des­

troying the girl by marrying her to the vilest creature on earth.

When the,scene moves back to Psyche from Venus, we fin a lly learn of

Psyche's reaction to all the attention given her. The tragedy of her

great beauty is that it has isolated her from the rest of humanity.

Since she cannot be praised by human speech, she is beyond human a ffection. Psyche is adored lik e a goddess and worshipped as i f she were a statue, not a living person: mirantur quidem divinam speciem,

sed ut simulacrum fabre politum mirantur omnes (4.32/100.7). Fotis was also termed a divine form, in speciem Veneris, but she derived considerable pleasure from the comparison. Psyche on the other hand is deserted by men and laments her beauty which gives so much pleasure to others: sed Psyche virgo vidua domi residens d e fle t desertam suam solitudinem aeqra corporis, animi saucia et quamvis gentibus totis complacitam odit in se suam formonsitatem (4.32/100.11). Psyche unw illin g ly takes on the role o f Venus. The unspeakable beauty does not benefit her a t a ll; i t only brings the wrath o f Venus and a promise of revenge on Venus' human riv a l. The outstanding beauty has made

Psyche an ill-omened g irl, infortunatissimae filia e (4.32/100.14), and brought her to the point of death. After the oracle has been received, the marriage preparations are turned into appropriate funeral pro­ ceedings: 70

sed dirae sortis iam urget taeter effectus. lam feralium nuptiarum miserrimae virgini choragium struitur, iam taedae lumen atrae fu lig in is cinere marcescit, et sonus tib ia e zygiae mutatur in querulum Ludii modum cantusque laetus hymenaei lugubri fin itu r ululatu et puella nuptura deterget lacrimas ipso suo flammeo (4.33/101.8).

The intended marriage of Psyche which becomes her funeral is a

reminder of the similar turn of events which happen to Dido at the

end o f Aeneid 4. This scene begins a series o f references to the

epic tradition. The idea of mock-epic is essential to the goddess in

the tale since the Venus shown here is outdated and w ill be replaced by the majestic actions of Isis in Book 11.

To emphasize the connection between the Venus o f the mime and

Psyche as a second Venus several details of this description of a bereft Psyche recur in the mime. The Cupids o f the mime lead the way fo r Venus with b rig h t torches as i f she were going to a wedding feast: velut nuptial is epulas obiturae dominae coruscis praelucebant facibus

(10.32/263.6). The Graces and the Hours are lovely maidens who wor­ ship Venus: et in flu u n t innuptarum puellarum decorae suboles (10.32/

263.8). The critical detail is the music for the festivities. The

Lydian strains for Venus in the mime are delightful rhythms, while they s ig n ify mourning fo r the doomed Psyche. The deliberate Lydian music was fittin g for the slow, measured steps of Venus in her provocative dance; here th e ir deliberate harmonies are ideal fo r the funeral march of Psyche and her family.^ The flutes which played so wonderfully for the dance, iam tibiae multiforabiles cantus Lydios dulciter consonant (10.32/263.12), are here confined to a single mournful melody. In summary the whole spectacle o f each scene is 71 different. The Venus of the mime delights by her sensuality and alluring beauty. It capitvates the audience and especially Paris.

The beauty of Psyche is destructive and causes misery for herself and her family. The beauty of Fotis functioned to entice Lucius into a deeper relationship with her which was ultimately degrading for Lucius since he became an ass. Her beauty did not at all cause her suf­ fering in the way Psyche was so afflicted. The three impersonations of the goddess Venus a ll have outstanding beauty, but they experience quite different reactions from it. Psyche claims that the beauty, which she possessed through no desire o f her own, caused herself to be elevated to the status of a goddess and that was the beginning of her troubles. The name Venus proves destructive in Psyche's case:

haec erunt vobis egregiae formonsitatis meae praeclara praemia. Invidiae nefariae letali plaga percussi sero sentitis. Cum gentes et populi celebrarent nos d iv in is honoribus, cum novam me Venerem ore consono nuncuparent, tunc dolere, tunc fle re , tunc me iam quasi peremptam lugere debuistis. Iam sentio, iam video solo me nomine Veneris perisse (4.34/102.4).

Earlier she was worshipped like a statue with no human contact because her beauty was ineffable. When the procession and her parents have le ft her on the mountain she is once again alone and deserted by human companionship. Lucius' worship of Fotis as a Venus led him to hardship. For Psyche the impersonation of the goddess Venus means only adversity.

The comparison o f Psyche to Venus comprises the f i r s t part o f the discussion o f Venus in the Cupid and Psyche story. The second portion involves Venus as she appears as an active participant in the story. 72

Venus is disturbed about the weakening of her status as a d iv in ity .

The mention o f Psyche as a second goddess, Venerem aliam (4.28/97.9),

prepares the way fo r the appearance o f the real goddess. The crowds

worship Psyche with honors reserved fo r Venus. The absent goddess.

Veneris absentis (4.29/98.1), must assert her ro le as a divine power.

It is as if the sacrificial fires in honor of Psyche rise to heaven

and a le rt Venus to the dangers on earth. The movement from earth and

the worship o f Psyche to heaven and the reaction o f Venus is accom­

plished in the introductory sentence o f Venus' f i r s t appearance: Haec

honorum caelestium ad puellae mortal is cultum inmodica translatio

verae Veneris vehementer incendit animos et inpatiens indignationis capite quassanti fremens altius sic secum disserit (4.29/98.4). The

key words here are honorum caelestium, puella mortal is and verae

Veneris. Apuleius motivates the belligerent entrance of Venus by stating that Venus in heaven deserves the divine honors which are

given to a mortal g irl. Venus is called vera Venus in order to dis­ tinguish her from her rival. Psyche has not actively sought the publicity given her; through an accident of birth which endowed her with outstanding beauty she becomes the victim of Venus' anger.

The f i r s t appearance of Venus in the story reveals her shaking her head in a violent rage. Both Psyche's beauty and the resulting trans­ fe r of divine honors to a mortal inflame her. Venus is highly enraged at the insult. The firs t words of her soliloquy are an assertion of her essential dignity and importance. The tricolon appositives with their probable Lucretian echoes build from prisca parens and origo

in itia l is to orbis totius alma Venus (4.30/98.7).^^ Each part of this 73 la st phrase is especially s ig n ific a n t. Psyche's fame spread from the

kingdom of her father to neighboring areas and fin a lly to more distant

lands. Venus too asserts that she is mistress of the whole world

(orbis totius). Alma is a familiar epithet of Venus (as it is of

Ceres later in this tale) denoting her function of nourishing the

world.But here alma foreshadows actions o f Venus which c e rta in ly

belie this epithet. The Venus which comes after orbis totius alma

proclaims th a t she is s t i l l the Venus of Olympian majesty and power.

This Venus follows closely on the verae Veneris of the introduction.

This opening speech w ill be the stance of Venus in the story. She

w ill attempt to regain her supreme d ig n ity by smashing Psyche's

importance. In her anger Venus is similar to Juno of the Aeneid.

Juno's soliloquy emphasizes the lack of respect for her divinity:

cum Juno aeternum servans sub pectore vulnus / haec secum... "et

quisquam numen Junonis adorat / praeterea aut supplex aris imponet

honorem?" (Aeneid 1.36,48). The speech o f Venus is a parody o f epic

poetry. The anger of Juno is recalled several times at the opening

of the epic (Aeneid 1.4,11,25). It is used by Apuleius as a model

for his conception of god's wrath, ira del. The suspicions of

Psyche's father about the anger and hatred of the gods led him to con­

sult the oracle: pater suspectatis caelestibus odiis et irae superum metuens (4.32/100.15).

The resentful Venus is determined to humiliate her upstart rival.

The reasons fo r her anger are e x p lic it (4.30/98.9-13). She does not wish to share her sovereignty or the sacrifices of her worshippers with anyone. The Lucretian echoes at the beginning set the tenor of 74

her speech. Her soliloquy w ill be seemingly dignified and legalistic.

The continuing elevated tone of this section is evidenced in the phrase

p a rtia rio honore. P artiarius and its forms are legal words employed is rent and property statements and is found only three times in the Meta- 12 morphoses. The sharing o f her name and honor seems to have legal sanction. Psyche is again called a mortal is puella just after Venus has named herself orbis totius alma Venus. Psyche's mortality w ill again echo in the very next lin e where Venus' divine name has been usurped and is now attached to Psyche, a puella moritura (4.30/98.13).

In th is b rie f space the goddess repeatedly rid icu le s Psyche fo r her transiency as compared to the eternal reign of Venus. Apuleius is ironic in the juxtaposition of numinis with puella moritura since numen implies divine power. The reference to numen re ca lls the anger of Juno in the Aeneid (1.8 numine laeso; 1.48 numen Junonis). Venus then s h ifts to the core of the question. Psyche's phenomenal beauty.

Venus reminds h e rse lf that she was awarded the apple o f beauty in her contest with Juno and Minerva. Venus spits out the decision of Paris which Jupiter him self confirmed and emphasizes its f u t i l i t y : fru stra me pastor ille , cuius iustitiam fidemque maqnus comprobavit luppiter, ob eximiam speciem ta n tis p ra e tu lit deabus (4.30/98.13). The mention here of Jupiter and Paris, pastor ille , refers to the subject of the mime which w ill close the adventures (10.30). There Paris selects

Venus as the winner of the beauty contest based on her outstanding beauty and exquisite dance. Venus c a lls that judgment meaningless since Psyche has made the world forget about the worship of Venus. The decision in the mime was criticized by Lucius because it lacked honest 75 judicial principles. In each instance the Judgment of Paris elevates

Venus to an exalted position of beauty, but that decision is later down­ graded. The judgment is also part o f the epic parody since Juno re ca lls

Paris' decision before her soliloquy: manet alta mente repostum / iudicium Paridis spretaeque in iu ria formae / (Aeneid 1.26). Paris' verdict in choosing the love goddess makes the language of Venus ironic: frustra me pastor ille (4.30/98.13). She promises that

Psyche w ill not enjoy her beauty.

Her opponent in the struggle fo r the honors o f Venus is not given 13 a name, but is merely shrugged o ff: quaecumque est (4.30/98.16).

The concluding line of this opening soliloquy, "iam faxo earn huius etiam ipsius inlicitae formonsitatis paeniteat (4.30/98.17)," presages Venus' punishment of Psyche which w ill u ltim a te ly be the im­ possible tasks set by Venus in Book 6. The final word, paeniteat, echoes the threat o f whole speech. Psyche w ill be made to pay fo r what she done to Venus. Paeniteat as the la s t word o f the speech is in the most e ffe ctive and emphatic position. Venus began with an announcement of divine majesty and ends with a promise of revenge. In her attack she employs a phrase fa m ilia r in the Metamorphoses, iam faxo. .. paeniteat, to convey her threat. Faxo is frequent in the Metamorphoses as an introduction to a threat.Three times faxo appears in a sentence pattern with iam and paeniteat. The three sentences are spoken by angry women. In the firs t story which Lucius hears, the tale of Aristomenes, the witch Meroe tells Panthia that Aristomenes w ill pay for his curiosity: "faxo eum sero, immo statim, immo vero iam nunc, ut et praecedentis dicacitatis et instantis curiositatis paeniteat" 76

(1.12/11.21). Psyche's future is onimous because of Venus' jealousy and promise of revenge as stated in the faxo phrase. The curse of a goddess is not to be dismissed lig h tly. The second faxo phrase is noted above. The th ird use o f the phrase is la te r in the Psyche ta le when

Venus uses similar words in warning Cupid about being involved with

Psyche: "sed iam faxo te lusus huius paeniteat'(5.30/127.9). Venus' employment of the phrase seems to reinforce, in a verbal way, the notion that Venus w ill assume the ro le of a witch lik e Meroe in her 15 pursuit o f Psyche. The re la tiv e success o f the curses o f Meroe and

Venus is instructive about the role of Venus in the novel. Venus' two threats in the paeniteat phrases are not completely f u lf ille d while that of the witch Meroe on Aristomenes is because his friend

Socrates dies. The goddess Venus fails to vanquish her riva l, while the human witch gains the death of her enemy.

Up to this point in the tale. Psyche is the center of attention and affection of all who see her. Her ini icita formonsitas has given her great acclaim, yet this same beauty w ill nearly bring her destruction. Venus terms Psyche's beauty " ille g a l" because in her mind i t is not proper fo r a human being to be so endowed. To Venus the divine order has been upset and must be put right. The motivation of all the other actions of the tale hinges on the jealous Venus.

Earlier it was suggested that the calva epithet may be a comic name which might signal Venus' character in the rest o f the novel. Here in her f ir s t appearance as a p a rticip a n t in the action, a true dramatis persona, she appears comically indignant. The elevated tone and language o f her legal words and phrases work to comic effect.Walsh 77 notes that "the legal threats of Venus are one of the consistently

comic motifs which Apuleius has himself introduced into the story.

The legal language includes partiarius, maiestas, iustitia, fides, 18 usurpo, in lic itu s and paeniteat. She parodies legal language in

that she seems to be pleading her case before an absent Jupiter. The

legal language works on two levels. I t is a parody of the legal

profession in that she overuses the words needed fo r her case. There

is re a lly no case at a ll as no t r ia l has been convened. A fte r a ll i t

is a soliloquy and the words are le ft in the air. They give the

speech a certain tone which w ill recur in her later speeches. However,

the things said in this legal jargon are true. The order of beauty in

the world has been upset and the worship o f a goddess has been

neglected. The grand touches (Lucretian opening and the faxo formula

common in comedy) combine with these legalisms to produce a d is ­

tinguished but s illy character. Venus here appears as a helpless god­

dess who needs the aid o f her son to punish a mortal. The method of revenge is indirect yet appropriate. Surely Venus has the ability to make Psyche fa ll in love with anyone. Yet she chooses to employ Cupid

to carry out her wishes. The power of Venus as a goddess is brought

into question. People worshipped Psyche as Venus incarnate, Venerem aliam (4.28/97.9), and offered homage to her and not to Venus. Psyche

is given the drawing power of the goddess. Venus' employment of Cupid has a psychological motive as well. It would be beneath her dignity to harm Psyche herself and she would lose face i f she even acknowledged her rival. The love goddess also needs the aid of her son in Apollonius and Vergil. However, in this instance Venus' use of Cupid is a parody of 78 epic while his mission in the two epic poems is essential and serious.

Venus in her firs t speaking part reveals characteristics which w ill recur in the rest o f her appearances in the ta le . She w ill be the jealous mother-in-law who acts selfishly for herself and her son. After her opening soliloquy the course of her jealousy moves directly to action. She summons her son Cupid to be her instrument of her revenge.

Venus wishes Cupid to d ire c t some of his wanton actions at Psyche.

Cupid's occupation is mischief-making: per aliénas domos nocte discurrens et omnium matrimonia corrumpens impune committit tanta flaqitia et nihil prorsus boni facit (4.30/98.21). He is ideally suited to wreck the new Venus since he is experienced in these matters.

To insure that he does the job easily, Venus directs him to the city where the princess lives. To make sure he does the job thoroughly, she tells him the whole story of the rival and begs him for help. The earnestness o f her plea is emphasized by her tears: gemens ac fremens

(4.30/99.2). The opening of her entreaty to Cupid is prayerful and formulaic.The strong Per ego te is frequently used in adjurations.^*^

The s im ila r structure o f each o f the three per phrases emphasizes the 21 urgency o f her request. Her f i r s t two speeches begin with re co l­ lections of the earlier epics. The tone of each speech is marked at the outset. It is fitting that the divine level of the story, the appearance o f Venus, be noted by two special signposts, the Lucretian and Vergilian reminiscences. Just as in her firs t speech where comic and legal phrases followed the epic opening, here in her shorter second speech Venus moves from an urgent s ta rt to a fa r less dramatic command to her son. The per phrases contain the vocabulary o f the love 79 22 a ffa ir. Venus' appeal to Cupid is based on his love fo r his mother

and her respect fo r his power. Again she returns to Psyche's beauty

as the cause of her distress: et in pulchritudinem contumacem severiter

vindica (4.31/99.5). Psyche w ill suffer because her beauty is an in­

s u lt to Venus. The struggle between Venus and Psyche over the honor

of being Venus is similar to the beauty contest of the mime. Venus'

single-minded appeal, unum.. .unicum (4.31/99.6), to Cupid is that

Psyche love the basest man on earth. As a seal on the petition for

her son's aid, Venus kisses Cupid long and tenderly: osculis hiantibus

filium diu ac pressule saviata (4.31/99.12). This is an especially significant kiss since hio is used of kissing only here and of Fotis

(3.19/67.1) where the same expression, hiantibus osculis, is em­ ployed.

The jealousy o f Venus and appeal to her son as an agent fo r 24 carrying out her desires are also found in other myths. The story of Cinyras and Myrrha is a typical example o f the revenge o f the love goddess. King Cinyras had once boasted th a t his daughter Myrrha was even more beautiful than Aphrodite. In contrast Psyche's father did not taunt Venus, yet his daughter's beauty resulted in the neglect of the worship of Venus. The goddess avenged th is in s u lt by making Myrrha fall in love with her father. This is similar to Venus' intent to have

Psyche fa ll in love with the basest man on earth. A second story in­ volves the love goddess and an errand of her son. In the third book of the Argonautica of Apollonius Aphrodite uses her son Eros to make 25 Medea f a ll in love w ith Jason. Aphrodite promises Eros a lo ve ly toy fo r his help and while holding him close kisses him. Venus' appeal to 80

Cupid is based on the respect of a son for his mother. The parting kiss of Venus is long and tender. Finally, the son of the love god­ dess w ill be the agent of the enemies' destruction. In Apollonius th is

Olympic scene gives an ornamental q u a lity to the love of Medea fo r

Jason. Eros' mission succeed and Medea is inflamed with love for

Jason. But the divine machinery is not absolutely essential to the continued development o f the story lin e . In contrast Apuleius makes the intervention of Cupid vital to the tale. Cupid fails to carry out Venus' d ire ctive because he becomes enchanted with Psyche. In the Argonautica the ornamental mission o f the love goddess' son succeeds while in the tale of Cupid and Psyche, with the same divine machinery, the v ita l assignment o f Cupid is not carried out. Even Venus' long and hearty kisses w ill not insure her satisfaction. In the comic s p ir it of the appearance o f Venus the assignment is bound to f a il.

The departure of Venus (4.31/99.1) is quite different from her entrance. A fte r kissing Cupid as a sign o f farewell and encouragement she travels to the nearby seashore: proximas oras reflui lito ris petit (4.31/99.13). It is a natural place for her retirement as she is a goddess o f the sea.^^ A fter the strong language and proud tone of her two speeches Venus seeks the comfort o f the ocean to soothe her distraught mind. She has uttered her dismay and jealousy toward the princess and has agitated her son Cupid to carry out her vengeance.

Throughout the novel ekphrases are c h a ra cte ristic o f the appearances o f Venus. The purpose o f her grand e x it is threefold. F irs t, her direction is toward the water in order for her to escape the turbu­ lence in itia te d by Psyche on the land. Her domain seems decreased 81 since the land has given b irth to a new Venus: sed terras Venerem

aliam virginali flore praeditam pullulasse (4.28/97.9). She flees

the territory ruled over by another. Second, in addition to leaving

the scene clear fo r Psyche's punishment, Venus must also be unaware

of the subsequent actions between Psyche and her son Cupid. I f she

watched the ruin of Psyche she would defeat her purpose in using

Cupid. Finally, the narrative must return to Psyche and the earth

since we must witness the effects of the soliloquy and adjuration of

Venus. The events on land brought Venus only anger. In the ocean she

can rest and regain her peace of mind comforted by her marine retinue

and the knowledge that Cupid w ill handle Psyche.

Although Venus seems to appear out of nowhere at her entrance

into the tale, she now moves in a definite direction. It is not

crucial fo r the development o f the ta le that places and directions be

specified. The fairytale quality of the Psyche allegory precludes

such precision. Apuleius need not give us all the details to complete

the picture. He is content to relate what is necessary for the

progress o f the ta le . But here the d ire ction of her e x it is c ru c ia l.

She flees the land which no longer adores her and heads fo r the sea.

The narration of her entrance into the sea is quite extended. The

ekphrasis shows the power and majesty of the goddess. This is a far d iffe re n t scene than her opening remarks. Here Venus is a divine

force who commands respect and devotion. She plants her rosy feet on

the tops o f the waves and the water is becalmed. She w ill c e rta in ly be nwre welcome in the sea than anywhere on land. Her various shrines at Paphos, Cnidos and Cythera are wholly neglected. The complete 82 opposite is true of her status in the sea. The water kingdom w ill

comfort and reassure her. She is in s ta n tly obeyed and pampered by

her f u ll marine complement. The sea w ill again prove Venus' stature

as a divinity. The retinue is an impressive collection of marine

deities. The catalogue of Venus' ocë^Stainers includes singing

Nereids, bluebeard Portunus, Salacia and Palaemon. Masses of Tritons

leap out of the water and form part of her personal service. In

addition individual Tritons set to their appointed tasks of music- 27 making, umbrella-carrying and m irror-holding. Other Tritons w ill

provide the locomotion for her car: curru biiuges a lii subnatant 28 (4.31/100.1). This is the firs t mention of Venus' mode of transport.

The intervening actions of her retinue seem to take place as she

boards the chariot. The final sentence of her extensive departure

scene is a b rie f summary: Talis ad Oceanum pergentem Venerem comitatur exercitus (4.31/100.1).

In retrospect it is evident that the presentation of Venus in the

firs t part of the tale of Cupid and Psyche is constructed of three blocks of speech and narration. First, there is her soliloquy on

Psyche's insolent stealing o f her honors. Second, Venus d ire cts Cupid to Psyche's city and she exhorts Cupid to humble the princess. Finally, her f i r s t appearance concludes with the departure tableau. The middle section is the shortest and concerns Cupid. Since he w ill become a major character later in the tale, his role is only hinted at. The fin a l section, the departure scene, delays the scheduled marriage of

Psyche with the beast for a short while. This heightens our antici­ pation for her future. The return to glory of Venus and the measure 83 of her marine cortege are also in sharp contrast to the fate of the human g ir l.

The departure scene is also important as a detailed ekphrasis of 29 a well-known iconographie motif. The mention of Salacia, a sea god- 30 dess rarely named, is a clue to the artistry of this section. The desorption of her with a bosom full of fishes, gravis piscoso sinu

Salacia (4.31/99.18), is highly picturesque. The other members of the 31 departure group are similarly graphic. The ekphrasis is a special feature of the Metamorphoses. M. Bernhard lis ts several types of ekphrases in the novel; among these is the description of a god or 32 goddess found here at 4.31. Apuleius devotes considerable attention to the s k illf u l rendering o f these scenes. The action o f the sea deities and the Tritons surrounds Venus in a watery embrace. Our at­ tention moves from the feet of Venus to the other parts of the picture.

The mirror held up by the Triton returns us to the origin of the ekphrasis and its centerpiece, the figure Venus. Apuleius directs our attention around the tableau and back again to its starting point. We are drawn away from the central figure only for a brief moment. The

Tritons group themselves around Venus' car as i f in the fin a l movement of a carefully-choreographed ballet. No figure is out of place in the line and nothing detracts from the program's star.

This scene recalls other elaborations involving Venus. The reference to Venus calva (2.8) occurred in an earlier ekphrasis. There too details of Venus' cortege added to the reader's appreciation. In fa ct throughout the novel ekphrases are ch a ra cte ristic o f the appear­ ances o f Venus. The Venus o f the mime was also surrounded by a group 84

of attendants. The precision of the dance of the mime is matched by

the careful pose of the marine cortege of Venus. Venus and the sea

are associated throughout the novel and are related to the events of

Book 11: Is is ' appearance from the sea, her protection of men on the

sea, her rule over its waves and the launching of the boat. It is

important here to note that the f i r s t appearance o f Venus in the Cupid

and Psyche tale is enhanced by an ekphrasis of considerable s k ill.

This ekphrasis emphasizes the power o f the goddess in the sea.

The return to the actions of Psyche follows Venus' exit. The

departure scene took us away to the ocean, while Psyche's name,

Interea Psyche (4.32/100.3), brings the reader back to the doings on

earth. After the long interlude of Venus' reaction to Psyche's

beauty. Psyche is again the main character. Just as the sacrificial

fire s o f Psyche as a second Venus seemed to a le rt the true goddess in

heaven so now the lapping waves where Venus enters the water touch and break on the land and return us to Psyche. The curse of Venus on

Psyche seems to take effect immediately. Psyche, virgo vidua domi

residens (4.32/100.11), is in sharp contrast to Venus who is surrounded

by her loving crowd of marine retainers. At last Psyche's reaction to

the adoration of her followers is revealed. She realizes that being called the new Venus was the start of her downfall. The wonderful

homage given her has not brought Psyche happiness or a husband. In

truth the curse of Venus had already begun before her angry pronounce­ ment. From the opening of the ta le Psyche is worshipped but not loved as her sisters were. It is ironic that the new love goddess has no lovers. Psyche w ill waste away as the perfect statue. Venus supplies 85

what Psyche has been missing, but the lover is called a serpent: sed

saevum atque ferum vipereumque malum (4.33/100.24).

The lover of Psyche turns out not to be a monster, but Cupid, the

agent of Venus. The story continues without the intervention of Venus

u n til the goddess is informed of the happenings between Cupid and

Psyche. In this intervening period there are passing mentions of 33 Venus. One notice deserves atte n tion . When Cupid and Psyche make

love on the night Psyche plans to k ill her lover, their time together

is described in the language of love battles: nox aderat et maritus advenerat primusgue Veneris p ro e liis v e lita tu s altum soporem descenderat

(5.21/119.17). Venus is here used to mean lovemaking just as it did

in the narrative depicting the sexual activity of Lucius and Fotis.

A tern^^ dives down into the water and meets the goddess who is s t i l l enjoying her re tre a t in the sea: Venerem lavantem natantemque (5.28/

125.11). One rumor the tern reports is th a t Venus has abandoned her­ self to living in the sea: tu vero marino natatu secesseritis (5,28/

125.16). The bulk o f the report is that Cupid has taken up with a g irl, namely Psyche. Without Venus on earth the world is in squalor: non voluptas u lla , non g ra tia , non lepos, sed incompta et agrestia et horrida cuncta sint (5.28/125.16). At firs t Venus is merely angered at Cupid's falling in love at his age: at Venus irata solidum exclamat repente (5.28/125.22). After learning that Psyche is the one, Venus

is fille d with anger: Tunc indiqnata Venus exclamavit vel maxime

(5.28/126.7). The greater indignity for Venus is that Psyche is the rival for her own name and title . 86

When Venus meets Cupid in her chamber she berates him fo r his im­ pertinent behavior. So great is her anger that she is yelling at him before she is even through the door: reperto, sicut audierat, aegroto puere iam inde a foribus quam maxime boans (5.29/126.12). The cata­ logue of his errors is quite extended. The main thrust of Venus' abuse is the she is not so old as to be past the age of childbearing.

She w ill not be a procuress fo r her son. Instead she w ill disown him for his neglect of his mother's orders and adopt a slave to take his place. The legal references and petty insults betray any dignity of the goddess in th is scene. These comments and her threat to Cupid, sed iam faxo te lusus huius paeniteat (5.30/127.9), which w ill not be entirely fulfilled, recall the first appearance of Venus in this story.

Both sections show the detailed burlesque of the goddess. As part of her punishment of Cupid Venus threatens to cut away his golden ha ir.

This contrasts with the cutting of hair in the final book. In Book 11 when Lucius and the priests appear with cut hair and shaven heads i t is not fo r atonement o f any in ju ry to Venus, but rather as a sign o f service to Isis. Hair and Venus are linked at all times.

On her way out after this long tirade Venus, s till seething in her anger infesta et stomachata biles Venerias (5.31/127.25), meets Ceres 35 and Juno. They try to placate Venus by pointing out that Cupid is coming o f age, but th is is e n tire ly the wrong argument at th is time since Venus is distressed over her age. They do little to comfort Venus in her persistent anger: Veneris iram saevientem (5.31/128.6) and

Venus indiqnata ridicule tractari suas iniurias (5.31/128.21). Venus returns to the sea s till planning revenge on Psyche but now for a second 87

reason. Earlier it was Psyche's beauty which distressed her so; now

th is formidable beauty has charmed Cupid and made Venus an object of

derision. Ceres and Juno do not wish to persecute Psyche. Venus is

entirely obsessed with that notion alone.

A fte r Cupid has abandoned Psyche she is alone again in the world.

Psyche is rejected in her wanderings f i r s t by Ceres (Ceres alma 6.2/

129.19) whose temple she cleans and then by Juno. Psyche's prayers to

these goddesses illuminate the other prayers of the novel. Specifically

her prayer to Ceres begins in the same manner as that of Venus to Cupid

4.31/99.2): per ego te ...deprecor (6.2/130.6). In her petition to

Juno Psyche foreshadows the sive clauses o f Lucius' prayer to the

goddess (11.2/267.4). Psyche now decides to give herself up to Venus.

She has received no help from the Olympian goddesses. In the meantime

Venus w ill seek help from Jupiter in heaven and travels there on her

special chariot which Vulcan had given her. The chariot is described at

length as is the flig h t into the upper air. The ekphrasis emphasizes again the attendants of Venus; here her retinue consists of doves and

sparrows, those fa ir, swift birds associated with the love goddess in a

gesture of divine majesty. This picture of Venus and the earlier sea

retinue may be the only examples in the story of Cupid and Psyche where

Venus is depicted in the style b e fittin g a c e le stia l goddess. Her en­

trance into heaven is truly majestic and accords well with the goddess.

However, her mission there seems to debase the grandeur of her ride and arrival. Venus obtains the use of Mercury in her search for the lost g irl.

Mercury announces that the reward of Venus fo r helpful.inform ation w ill be 88

seven sweet kisses and one honeyed th ru st: ab ipsa Venere septem savia

suavia et unum blandientis adpulsu linguae longe mellitum (6.8/133.22).

Venus had earlier offered her kiss to Cupid to induce him to dispose

of Psyche properly; her kiss did not guarantee her success in this matter. The kisses of Venus and the allusion to a place in Rome famous for prostitutes, metas Murcias (6.8/133.20), undercut the 37 reverence fo r a ce le stia l goddess. In th is passage the reward o f the kisses only hastens Psyche on to do what she had already intended.

She surrenders at once to Venus and submits to her w ill.

During the period of Psyche's mistreatment and the imposition of the four tasks Venus appears consistently as an enraged mother-in-law figure who constantly berates her rival. Apuleius parodies earlier 38 presentations of the wrath of a god against a human. This parody begins with her opening speech (as noted e a rlie r) and continues throughout the tale. Her laughter is malicious and actions frenzied against the poor g irl. Venus even believes that Cupid has helped

Psyche in performing some o f the impossible tasks Venus demanded of her. Venus is blind to the fact that the natural world offers the help to Psyche; Juno and Ceres were unavailable. At la s t Cupid rescues Psyche from the overwhelming sleep and rushes to Jupiter to finally settle the matter. The king of the gods legitimizes the union o f Cupid and Psyche by making the g ir l immortal. This solves the legal questions posed by the goddesses over Psyche's status as a runaway slave. Venus is s a tis fie d because Psyche w ill be a proper match fo r her son. 89

The child born from the union o f Cupid and Psyche is named

Voluptas, the concept of pleasure which is presented throughout Books

1-10 as the main goal in life . The offspring was to be mortal if

Psyche revealed the secret about her husband, si texeris nostra secreta s ile n tio , divinum, si profanaveris, mortalem (5.11/112.15), and this condition is never retracted. J.L. Penwill, in his discussion of voluptas, notes "the voluptas th a t is born to them must therefore 39 be the mortal kind, that which results from appetite gratification."

The birth of Voluptas can also be seen "as an expression of the joyous­ ness of religious experience.For Lucius the pursuit of voluptas is synonymous with his search fo r magical experience and sensual pleasure. The firs t occurrence of venus or its derivative in the novel is in combination with voluptas: voluptatem Veneriam (1.8/8.1).

The blessing by Jupiter of the marriage of Cupid and Psyche and the dance of Venus at their wedding banquet gives voluptas divine sanction in the tale. The only occurrence of voluptas in Book 11 is Lucius' description of his emotions as he views the statue of Isis: paucis dehinc ibidem commoratus diebus inexplicabili voluptate simulacri divini perfruebar (11.24/286.11). This reference is to the spiritual joy which he receives from his contemplation of the image of goddess.

His e a rlie r delight in sensual pleasure has now become a re lig io u s experience fille d with reverence.

The fin a l appearance of Venus in the story of Cupid and Psyche is at the wedding feast celebrating the marriage of Cupid and Psyche. A ll the deities present in heaven take part in the conventional roles tra d itio n a lly assigned to them: Ganymede and Bacchus serve the wine; 90 Apollo makes music; the Hours, Graces, and Muses decorate the palace by their presence. The culmination of the description of the wedding feast is a dance of Venus: Venus suavi musicae superingressa formonsa saltavit (6.24/146.21). The dance of Venus here at the celebration foreshadows the la te r dance o f Venus in the mime. The representations are nearly the same. The Graces and Hours provide accompaniment to the goddess. The music is the sweet sound of a wedding feast ju s t as in the mime it is enchanting music appropriate for a slow and sensuous dance. Finally the dance in each instance is the highlight of the entertainment. The dances show th a t Venus, whether played by an actress or being herself, is essentially the goddess of enjoyment.

The dance and the frequent association of Fotis, the mime actress,

Venus, and Psyche w ith sex and f r iv o lit y portray Venus as a goddess of sensuality.

The ta le o f Cupid and Psyche reveals two d iffe re n t appearances of

Venus. Psyche appeared as a second Venus who was persecuted because of her outstanding beauty. Beauty is closely associated with Venus in the person o f Psyche. She is compared to Venus over a long stretch o f narrative. Psyche, unlike Fotis who was called Venus, has the name

Venus cast upon her and does not seek i t through a deliberate pose. In

Fotis' case the name Venus did not mean cruel punishment at the hands o f the real goddess. The second appearance o f Venus (discounting the reference to the battles of love which is a frequent metonymy from the narrative of Fotis and Lucius; there is only one such reference in th is story) is as the goddess and mother of Cupid. This appearance is unique in the novel since nowhere else does Venus herself appear in an 91

extended ro le . The Venus o f th is story is portrayed as an aging woman

who does not wish her son to grow up. She is cruel and petty in her

dealings with Psyche. In th is ta le the Olympian framework is part o f

the elaborate burlesque of traditional mythology. The double threat

to Venus' position comes from Psyche's beauty which causes so much

distress to Venus on earth and the effect that Psyche's beauty has on

Cupid. When Cupid matures in his love a ffa ir , Venus in her opinion

is growing older. The wedding banquet fo r Cupid and Psyche completes

th is p o rtra it of a thoroughly human goddess. Venus dances a t the

wedding of her son and is content to know that the boy is not marrying

below his status. Yet Venus has elements o f a Venus Caelestis who w ill be seen in the final book as an aspect of the saving goddess

Isis. Venus' opening words, the sea thiasos with its impressive col­

lection of the world of nature and myth, and especially the opening up

of heaven to receive the chariot a ll b e fit the ce le stia l goddess. Yet

this aspect o f Venus in the ta le is greatly outweighed by the elements o f parody. This Venus is concerned only w ith beauty and le g a lity and

is in sharp contrast to the saving goddess of the final book. The

impersonations and appearances of Venus through the f ir s t ten books o f

the novel have emphasized this worldly character either in the form of sex or the concern with outward signs. A more pervasive view of

love is possible only from a more beneficent goddess. NOTES TO CHAPTER I I I

Hhe other divine forces of the novel, Isis who subsumes Venus and Fortune, also receive extensive portrayals, 2 Walsh 55 and Grimai 35 recall the openings of Chariton and Xenophon where characters are worshipped as d e itie s . The phrase has a similar religious connotation when Lucius speaks of the wonder of Isis (11.25/287.6). 3 Venia is also used in the description of the worship of Psyche (4.28/97.7). There are serious textual difficulties with venerabantur (which is also written in the Budé text).

^Grimai 36 calls it a "geste d'adoration" and lists other refer­ ences to gestures of adoration. Compare Apology 56, 4 for another act of reverence. 5 Caerulus also describes the beard of one of Venus' marine cortege: Portunus caerulis barbis hispidus (4.31/99.18).

^Fama (4.29/97.4, 12) is repeated to indicate the spread o f the report of Psyche's beauty.

^Grimai 37 describes these places as the three great sanctuaries of Aphrodite; they were places of pilgrimage where the goddess was thought to reside. O The rose is a symbol of Is is , Aphrodite, and Venus. See also Barbara Seward, The Symbolic Rose 10-12. 9 Grimai 44: Lydian music "u tilis é e pour la musique pathétique."

T^Walsh 55 and 201 point out the Lucretian echoes which Grimai 38 hardly perceives.

^^The epithet phrase Alma Ceres is found at 6.2/129.19 and 11.2/ 267.4. Alma Venus is from Lucretius D.R.N. 1.2; C. Bailey, Lucretius 591-592 notes that alma implies creation and nourishment and is not a mere conventional epithet of a deity; alma governs orbis totius. 12 The other uses of partiarius by Apuleius are in the story of the young slave who is held in common by the eunuch priests (8.26/198.4) and the story of the baker (9.27/223.27).

92 93 13 This device is a form of insult as in Prop. 1.8.3.

^^Faxo appears eight times in the Metamorphoses. See Callebat 504, 15 Venus as a w itch: Erich Neumann Amor and Psyche 91, Walsh' 193, 199, J.R.G. Wriqht, "Folktale and L ite ra ry Technique in Cupid and Psyche," 21 (1971) 277-279.

^^Walsh 55, 200-201; Grimai 39: "le discours de Vénus est de ton comique."

^^Walsh 62; see also R.G. Summers, "A Note on the Date o f the Golden Ass," AJPh (1973) 382. 18 The opening tric o lo n , the echo of p u e lla , n imi rum, and Jupiter and Paris acting as Judges all add to the legal effects. F. Norden Apuleius von Madaura und das romische Privatrecht 89 discusses partiarius as a legal term.

^^This is sim ila r to Venus' request in the Aeneid to Cupid where she begs his aid in helping Aeneas: nate, meae vires...ad te confugio et supplex tua numina posco (1.664).

^^A.S. Pease, Aeneid IV 288 c a lls the per ego has (Aeneid 4.314) "A word-order frequent in adjurations. These illogical but natural collocations express strong emotion which causes the speaker to u tte r his words regardless of logical order or of grammatical rules." He cites Kiihner-Stegniann 2,1 (1912) 2nd e d itio n , 584-585 fo r other ex­ amples of this phrase. PI In each phrase per and its plural object surround a genitive and its modifier. 22 Grimai 40: "Foedera...dulcia vulnera...mellitas uredines: vocabulaire de la galanterie." 23 Grimai 40 notes the similar wording of hiantibus osculis.

^^Smith 39-40 calls the jealousy of Venus proverbial in Latin elegy and cite s Propertius 2.28.9-10 and Tibullus 1.2.39 as examples. Propertius 2.28.9-10: Non s ib i collatam d o lu it Venus? i l i a peraeque prae se formosis invidiosa dea est. Tibullus 1.2.39: Nam fu e rit quicumque loquax, is sanguine natam, is Venerem e rapido sentiat esse mari. The story o f Cinyras and Myrrha is from Ovid Met 10. 306 f f . Other stories about Aphrodite's jealousy include Hippolytus,the Lemnian Women, Glaucus and his horses, Atalanta, Pasiphae, Tyndareus and the women of Astypalaea. 94

^^Ann M. M iller, Studies in the Arqonautica of Apollonius 119-127 discusses the comic and serious aspects of this scene.

^^Walsh 201 and note 4 rejects Grimai's (41) mystical interpretation of the sea as the home of love. 27 Mirrors are also held before the image of Isis in the procession (11.9/272.27), as noted by Grimai 41 and G riffiths Isis 182 note to nitentibus speculis. 28 Amat 125 notes that the car is the usual form of transportation for Amphitrite, not Venus. on Amat 125-216 and Grimai 41; fo r the marine iconography from Africa see J. Lassus, "Venus Marine" in La Mosaique gréco-romaine 175- 195 and R.B. Bandinel1i, Rome: The Late Empire, Roman A rt A.D. 200-400 100, 102, 225-226. 30 Grimai 41: "Salacia: déesse marine, archaique rarement nommée."

^^Bernhard 281, Grimai 41, and Amat 25-126.

S^Bernhard 280-283. 33 There are three references to Venus in th is section: 1) 5.22/120.21 Psyche in her admiration of Cupid's body notes that Venus would not be ashamed to have mothered him: ceterum corpus glabellum atque luculentum et quale peperisse Venerem non paeniteret. Ironically Psyche, re callin g Venus' use of paeniteat, uses paeniteret of Venus. Venus in fact w ill regret the birth of Cupid. 2) 5.24/122.1 Cupid te lls Psyche before leaving her that he disobeyed his mother's orders: parentis meae Veneris praeceptorum immemor. 3) 5.26/123.24 Psyche tells one of her sisters that the serpent of the oracle was Cupid: ipsum ilium deae Veneris filium .

^^See Walsh 209 and notes 1-2 fo r gavia meaning "tern" and the legal references.

Grimai 95 notes the double meaning o f venerias: 1) o f Venus; 2) of love, of a passionate nature.

See Sappho no. 191 in D.L. Page Lyrica Graeca Selecta 98.

^^Schlam Cupid and Psyche 36; Grimai 108; Walsh 211. 38 other examples are: Juno and Aeneas, Juno and Heracles, Poseidon and Odysseus, Priapus and Eumolpus, and Hera and Pelias.

39penwill 52-54.

^^Schlam Cupid and Psyche 38-40. CHAPTER IV

VENUS AND ISIS

The eleventh book o f the Metamorphoses brings the novel to a culmination through the intervention o f Is is . The appearance o f Is is is prepared for by the events of the previous book. The close of

Book 10 features the end of an eventful day for Lucius. As the third act of the show Lucius is scheduled to copulate with a condemned woman who w ill be devoured by a w ild beast. Lucius remains there only long enough to see the f i r s t two acts, the pyrrhic dance and the mime of the Judgment of Paris. When the time comes for his part in the show Lucius bolts and gallops headlong to Cenchreae. Lucius is very disturbed about his participation in the show because of both the shame involved in performing such a deed in public and the fear for his safety:

at ego praeter pudorem obeundi publice concubitus, praeter contagium scelestae pollutaeque feminae, metu etiam mortis maxime cruciabar sic ipse mecum reputans, quod in amplexu Venerio scilicet nobis cohaerentibus, quaecumque ad exitium mulieris bestia fu isse t immisa, non adeo vel prudentia sollers vel artificio docta vel abstinentia frugi posset provenire, ut adiacentem lateri meo laceraret mulierem, mihi vero quasi indemnato et innoxio parceret. ergo ig itu r non de pudore iam, sed de salute ipsa sollicitus (10.34/265.13).

He flees in fear of his life because he thinks he too might be eaten by the wild beast whose job it is to execute the condemned woman.

95 96

Lucius did not shrink from an earlier sexual encounter with the rich woman because i t was held in private and his partner was no criminal

(10.19/251.20). His only fear there was the injury he might cause his partner. This time his lovemaking [ in amplexu Venerio (10.34/

265.16)] w ill c le a rly be dangerous. These two emotions, shame and fear, strengthen Lucius' resolve to avoid the show.

At Cenchreae Lucius rests at a secluded beach and his last fu ll day as an ass comes to a close. The end o f th is day is marked by a metaphor used to indicate the passage o f time: ultimam d ie i metam curriculum sol is deflexerat (10.35/266.7). The phrase ultima diei meta is significant since it recalls two similar phrases used earlier.

In both contexts ultima meta is used to indicate the final stage be­ fore a change in status.^ Often in the novel Lucius believes he is on the brink of destruction only to be brought back to safety. This final sunset indicates more than the passage of another day. For

Lucius this day is the time when he separates himself from the misery and degradation of the previous books. Here at the end of Book 10 the ultima diei meta means not only that the sun has run its course for the day and gives way to night, but also that a change in status w ill occur for Lucius. But instead of being sold and transferred from one owner to another, he w ill enjoy the transformation from ass to man. There is also a formula for Lucius falling asleep which is found in earlier books: vespertinae me quieti traditum dulcis somnus oppresserat (10.35/266.8). The close of Book 10 contains elements which signal a definite conclusion to the book and to*the firs t part of the novel. The temporal words bring the day to an end and Lucius' 97 , falling asleep on the beach concludes his life as a tortured ass. The next day Lucius w ill lose his asshood during the procession to the sea.

This lite r a l closing of Book 10 is matched by a thematic summary of the firs t ten books. Lucius' rejection of the scheduled perform­ ance in Thiasus' show is symbolic of a wider change in the novel.

His reaction to the evil of Book 10 can be seen in light of the dis­ crediting of voluptas through both the inserted stories and the frame narrative. The events and stories of Book 10 indicate a heightened perception of voluptas at work. The tableau of figures and expressions of Venus also culminates in this book. Lucius at the beginning of this book is owned by a soldier who travels to another town. There

Lucius hears the story o f the wicked mother who, while p lo ttin g the murder of her stepson, accidentally poisons her natural son (10.2/

237.1). The mother is a Phaedra-figure, driven by an uncontrolled love fo r her stepson. The language used to describe her passion re­ calls the affair of Lucius and Fotis:

sed mulier ilia , quamdiu primis elementis Cupido parvulus nutriebatur, inbecillis adhuc eius virib u s fa c ile ruborem tenuem deprimens s ile n tio resistebat. At ubi completis igne vaesano totis praecordiis inmodice bacchatus Amor exaestuabat, saevienti deo iam succubuit, et languore simulate vulnus animi mentitur in corporis valetudine (10.2/237.14).

The phrase bacchatus Amor can be compared to the lovemaking o f Fotis and Lucius: nudati bacchamur in Venerem (3.20/67.14). In both cases a love which has run wild consumes the lovers. The lovq sickness of the mother w ill not be diagnosed by an ordinary doctor: quam facilis 98 licet non a rtific i medico, cuivis tamen docto Veneriae cupidinis com­

prehension cum videas aliquem sine. corporis caTore flagrantem (10.2/

238.1). The Veneriae cupidinis is the desire for sexual pleasure.

This use of a derivative of venus is typical of the employment of venus in the novel. This phrase recalls the firs t use of venus or a word in the family of venus: voluptatem Veneriam (1.8/8.1). The

student of love can recognize when another person is afflicted. The disease of love has taken over th is woman's mind and body. The story ends with the execution of the slave who served her goals and with the mother in exile. However, it magnifies the preoccupation with lust that is prominent in the tales of adultery and illic it sex of the previous books. The bacchatus Amor in te n s ifie s the passion of the mother. This story can be compared with another story, the love a ffa ir of Tlepolemus and C harité, which exemplifies the destructive force of the sexual drive. After the marriage of Charité and

Tlepolemus the rejected su ito r Thrasyllus connives to make love with

Charité. Thrasyllus is a debauched young man, luxuriae popinalis scortisque et diurnis potationibus exercitatus (8.1/177.7), whose

illic it love for Charité is described with a derivative of venus: adulterinae Veneris (8.3/178.11). The story turns out savagely for the three people since they a ll died h o rrib le deaths: Tlepolemus

(murder). Charité (suicide) and Thrasyllus (starvation).

After Lucius gains the attention of Thiasus he becomes a celeb­ rity with his human tricks. His sexual encounter with the rich woman

is fully elaborated (10.19-22). The details of their night together include white candles, a feather bed, balsam o il, a lingering kiss 99

from her red lips, and the extensive love language. Although not

s p e c ific a lly called Venus, the ric h woman can be compared to Fotis O (2.15-17) through the details o f the scenes. Both meetings are described at length with realistic and pornographic detail. Just as

Fotis was Lucius' firs t sexual experience in the novel, the rich woman is his la s t. In the meantime Lucius has been changed into an ass and this animalism is appropriate to the comparisons of the woman to Pasiphae: ad instar asinariae Pasiphaae (10.19/251.24) and nec Minotauri matrem fru s tra delectatam putarem adultero muqiente

(10.22/254.8). The lu s t of the woman knows no bounds and she is the aggressive partner in the lovemaking.

After this pleasant interlude for Lucius, his owner Thiasus plans fo r Lucius' appearance in the show. Instead o f the rich woman his new partner w ill be a condemned woman. She is characterized f i r s t by jealousy for a supposed rival, her husband's sister, by ruthless­ ness in her murderous machinations, and fin a lly by greed fo r her husband's legacy. This story e n ta ils fiv e deaths and exhibits one of the most debased women in the Metamorphoses. Lucius rig h tly c a lls his scheduled lovemaking with her a contagium. The jealousy and evil of th is woman suggests something o f Venus of the ta le of Cupid and

Psyche because Venus was jealous of a riv a l and devised impossible tasks for Psyche to perform. His intended copulation would be the second instance o f making love w ith a woman in Book 10. But th is woman debases Lucius' delight which he experienced with the rich woman.

This story o f the crimes of the condemned woman precedes the mime.

The Venus o f the mime offers a picture of sensual pleasure which has 100 already been described. With the mime we come to the end of the ad­ ventures and the culmination of the figures of Venus.

The Venus portrayed by Fotis embodies physical sensuality at its height. Psyche in the role of Venus shows outstanding beauty which nearly brings her own destruction and leads to the death of her two sisters. Venus in the tale of Cupid and Psyche is jealous of her rival and seeks a cruel revenge. The divinities of the tale are sharply caricatured and Venus is seen as a spoiled mother-in-law. The Venus of the mime again displays a stunning sensuality which overwhelms

Paris. From her appearance and performance Venus is rig h tly named: dominae voluptatum veris coma blandientes (10.32/263.11). Throughout the novel Venus is associated with the physical aspect of lovemaking.

A ll of these appearances of Venus are hinted a t or a ctu a lly displayed in Book 10. The firs t ten books offer entertaining tales which serve a didactic purpose: "to portray the characteristics of the sort of world in which physical voluptas is viewed as the main goal in l i f e , the necessary condition for living well — indeed the only happiness man can hope for."^ All of this is rejected by Lucius at the end of

Book 10. The condemned woman and the Venus o f the mime c ry s ta lliz e in Lucius the horror of a world dominated by lu s t and sexual pleasure.

Lucius needs salvation from th is world and hopes fo r something beyond 5 sensual voluptas.

The opening of the eleventh book o f the Metamorphoses is marked by a time expression similar to ones used at the outset of several other books: Circa primam ferme noctis v ig ilia m (11.3/266.11).^ But instead of signalling the end of night and the coming of the new day 101 as in other books, i t remains nighttim e. Lucius' vision w ill appear

in the darkened sky. Lucius is awakened by a sudden frig h t [ exper- rectus pavore subito (11.1/266.11)] and sees the fu ll moon rising from the sea. The powerful moon-goddess, summatem deam.. .augustum

specimem deae praesentis.. .deam praepotentem (11.1/266.15, 22; 267.2), appears before Lucius in a bright light. His sudden terror changes to eagerness in expectation o f a hope o f deliverance. A fte r his prayer opens with Regina caeli (11.2/267.4), which defines somewhat who the goddess is , Lucius addresses the goddess under many names.

Regina caeli is an appropriate name for the moon rising in the night sky. He invokes her as Ceres, Venus, Artemis, Proserpina, and finally under whatever name is fittin g : guoguo nomine, guoguo ritu , guagua facie te fas est invocare (11.2/267.18). Lucius does not know the identity of the deity invoked so he names four goddesses who are id e n tifie d as moon-goddesses.^ Lucius is unaware that his savior w ill be Isis. The prayer does not refer to or name Isis.

Lucius is uncertain what form o f the moon-goddess is present.

He uses the typical prayer formula in his petition. It is important to call the god by his right name in order to make him listen.

Lucius' prayer shows the techniques used by the Romans to safeguard themselves against employing the incorrect name. The ideal formulation of a prayer listed as fu lly as possible all the names of the god and then added a summary statement to cover all the possibilities. His prayer includes the names of the four goddesses and the closing re­ mark which embraces any item he has forgotten. The guoguo nomine 102 expresses his uncertainty over the proper name to use in addressing

the deity.®

The prayers of Lucius and Psyche are instructive about the

salvific actions of Isis and the Olympians. The prayers of Psyche to

Ceres and Juno contain elements found in Lucius' prayer to the moon-

goddess. In her appeal to Ceres, Psyche lis ts in consecutive per

phrases many things associated with the c u lt o f the goddess (6 .2 /

130.6). Psyche concludes her request with two alternatives: for a

few days' recovery or at least a short rest. Lucius lists goddesses

associated with the moon-goddess and closes with an either-or petition:

to be turned back into Lucius the man or to die. Psyche's prayer to

Juno has the same formula as that of Lucius' to the moon-goddess.

Psyche enumerates several cult title s and places for Juno with sive

and seu clauses (6.4/131.6). The prayers also have similar vocabu­

lary. Psyche asks Ceres for aid and relief from her labors: subsiste

...deae tantae saeviens ira ...meae vires diutino labore fessae (6.2/

130.14). From Juno she requests the same: sis meis extremis

casibus.. .meque in tantis exanclatis laboribus defessam imminentis

periculi metu libera (6.4/131.13). Lucius' address singles out his

troubles and labors: tu meis iam nunc extremis aerumnis su b siste ...

tu saevis exanclatis casibus pausam pacemque tribue; s it satis laborum,

s it satis periculorum.. .offensum numen inexorabili me saevitia premit

(11.2/267.19). Both Psyche and Lucius preface their prayers with

tears: Tunc Psyche...uberi fletu rigans.. .veniam postulabat (6.2/

130.4) and (Lucius) lacrimoso vultu sic adprecabar (11.1/267.3).

Although these prayers contain these sim ilarities, the results of the 103 g petitions are completely different. The replies of Ceres and Juno offer no hope to Psyche. They dare not help her through fear of of­ fending Venus. Psyche receives her help from the ants, the reed, the eagle, and the talking tower. When Psyche surrenders herself to

Venus she receives terrible treatment at the hands of the goddess.

On the contrary Isis offers Lucius salvation from his asshood and a new lif e . The tra d itio n a l Olympian goddesses are cast in a dispar­ aging light by Isis' attitude of care for her subject. Lucius rejects the world o f hazardous sexual relationships (represented by Venus

Pandemos) and is accepted into the loving favor of Isis. The re­ actions o f Ceres, Juno and Venus to Psyche show the indifference and punishment one receives from the tra d itio n a l gods.

In Lucius' prayer Venus is included in the l i s t of goddesses, but is not emphasized there. She is but one name in a group of several names. The firs t goddess of Lucius' prayer is bountiful Ceres:

Regina caeli, sive tu Ceres alma (11.2/267.4). Earlier both Venus

(4.30/98.8) and Ceres (6.2/129.19) had been called alma, but in both cases the epithet was ironic. Venus is content to destroy the rival for her name. Ceres receives this adjective just before Psyche prays to her for temporary protection. Ceres rejects Psyche's petition and is no benefactor for her at a ll. In Book 11 Lucius recalls Ceres' traditional role as nourisher of the world. Venus follows Ceres in the lis t : seu tu caelestis Venus, quae primis rerum exordiis sexuum diversitatem generate Amore sociasti e t aeterna subole humano genere propagate nunc circumfluo Paphi sacrario coleris (11.2/267.7). The power of Venus here is "the cosmic force of love which fecundates the 104 world and perpetuates mankind through generation.This celestial

Venus is explicitly sexual, but her actions are part of the ordered universe.The Venus of Book 11 contrasts with those of the firs t

10 books of adventures because they show the force of love as a de­ based and purely pleasure-seeking experience. Venus caelestis is suggested in the ta le o f Cupid and Psyche in her majestic entrances into the sea (4.31) and into heaven (6.6). In these scenes nature 12 at once responded to the presence of the goddess. These detailed ekphrases emphasize the grandeur and stature o f the goddess. However, when they are considered in the context of the larger narrative

(Venus' threats to Psyche and commands to Cupid; her use o f Mercury 1 1 as a herald), these pictures stand out as isolated incidents.

After the end of his prayer Lucius falls asleep again on the beach. The goddess comes to Lucius in a night vision and te lls him that though she worshipped in many aspects, under many names, and with different rites, the whole world venerates her as the same god­ dess: cuius numen unicum multiformi specie, ritu vario, nomine multiiuqo totus veneratur orbis (11.5/269.17). Lucius is assured of his prayer's effectiveness by her opening words: En adsum tuis com- mota, Luci, precibus (11.5/269.12). His prayer invoked the numen of

Isis, if not her true nomen, since the goddesses he mentioned are part of the numen unicum. Knowing the correct name usually insured the calling of the proper divine power. Isis confirms this concept in her response to Lucius. Although Lucius failed to mention Isis as one of the names in his lis t, his prayer is s till effective since

Isis combines a ll d e itie s under her godhead: deorum dearumque facies 105 uniformis (11.5/269.15). A listing of peoples and their names for the goddess follows to illustrate the diversity of her names, nomine multiiugo. The many names in Isis' revelation, like the lis t of god­ desses in Lucius' prayer, show the widespread syncretism of her cult in the Mediterranean area. When Lucius saw the moon rising from the sea, he addressed the goddess with names and c u lt associations of possible candidates for the goddess. His indecision over the proper name is evident from his uncertainty and his summary statement: guoguo nomine, guoguo r it u , guagua facie te fas est invocare (11.2/

267.18). Isis' response to these words states that she is worshipped the whole world over and combines the other deities in herself: facies uniformis.. .ritu vario, nomine multiiugo (11.5/269.15). The names listed in Isis' epiphany show her world-wide presence and her dominance over other well-known goddesses whom she has subsumed.

Among the names the goddess herself lis ts are Venus, Diana, Proserpina, and Ceres; these four goddesses are the same ones mentioned by Lucius in his prayer. Venus in Isis' revelation is among an even larger lis tin g o f goddesses. Lucius in his prayer named only four goddesses as possible candidates for the moon-goddess rising from the sea. In

Isis' self-revelation these four names and many others are brought together to indicate the range of Isis' influence in the world. Venus is but one of the names of Isis: illin c fluctuantes Cyprii Paphiam

Venerem (11.5/269.21). This re calls Lucius' naming of Paphos as a sanctuary for Venus: circumfluo Paphi sacrario coleris (11.2/267.10).

Paphos was ascribed to Aphrodite by the Greeks.The c ity has a temple of Aphrodite which archaeology has shown to have been 106

influenced by the Phoenicians. Aphrodite's epithet Urania is another

Phoenician influence on the cult. Urania probably translates a

Phoenician name and shows the O riental o rig in of the goddess. Venus

Caelestis with her home on Paphos centers her powers on fe rtility .

The name Urania may also have given rise to the story in Hesiod

(Theogony 188) that Aphrodite was born from the genitals of Uranus when they had been cut off and tossed into the sea. This fe rtility aspect of her name (Urania) fits well with the cosmic force of love as presented in Lucius' prayer: quae primis...sacrario coleris

(11.2/267.7).

Isis' epiphany to Lucius includes the revelation of her true name. The Egyptians are among those who c a ll her by her rig h t name: vero nomine reginam Isidem (11.5/270.2). This revelation brings the matter of the names fu ll circle since Lucius began his prayer with

Regina c a e li. At la s t we know that the queen o f the sky whom Lucius invokes is queen Isis. Up to this point Lucius is unaware of the id e n tity of the d e ity other than her being a moon goddess.

The powers of the moon goddess presented in the revelation elaborately parallel some requests in Lucius' prayer.I will focus on how the response o f Is is answers Lucius' prayer in three specific details. The order of the details included by Lucius in his prayer is reversed by Isis in her reply. Before his prayer Lucius hoped that the end of his suffering had come at least and that fate offered him a reprieve (11.1/266.21). Then his prayer calls on the four goddesses Ceres, Venus, Artemis and Proserpina (11.2/267.4). He follows the names of the goddesses with the appropriate closing. 107 guoguo nomine...invocare (11.2/267.18). Isis mirrors this sequence in her epiphany. Her revelation begins with cuius numen unicum.. .totus veneratur orbis (11.5/267.17). This answers the questioning of

Lucius as to the true name of the goddess. As evidence of the many names of the goddess and the world-wide extent of her influence there follows a lis tin g of peoples and th e ir names fo r the goddess. Ceres,

Venus, Artemis and Proserpina are part of the register. This listing supersedes and completes the group of goddesses mentioned by Lucius.

The most important feature of the response is the announcement that

Lucius w ill undergo a change of fortune. He earlier longed for a hope of deliverance, spem s a lu tis , lic e t tardam (11.1/266.21). In answer to his tears Isis replies that the time of his salvation is at hand: iam tibi providentia mea inlucescit dies salutaris (11.5/

270.4). His most serious need w ill be taken care of by the goddess.

Instead of death or retransformation the goddess offers Lucius some­ thing beyond his request. Before Lucius fled from the spectaculum at the theater, his l i f e was in danger. Is is appears to Lucius and supports his existence. She is the rerum naturae parens (11.5/269.12) ju s t as Venus had proclaimed herself in the ta le of Cupid and Psyche, rerum naturae prisca parens (4.30/98.7). However, in Book 11 Is is orders the universe in a way Venus could not. Under the guidance of this goddess Lucius w ill become a man again and leave behind the troublesome adventures he experienced as an ass.

The search for the true name leads Lucius to mention Venus as a possible candidate for the name of the moon-goddess rising from the sea. Twice the goddess Venus is included in the l i s t o f d iv in itie s 108

by which Is is is known. In the opening ten books of the Metamorphoses

Venus appears in several guises. Here in Book 11 she becomes an as­

pect of the guiding deity of the novel's conclusion.

The syncretism of Venus and Isis v/as not an isolated process be­

tween these two goddesses alone. Syncretism means the coalescence of

one god with another. Syncretism can be a conscious or unconscious

process. Ancient religions accommodated and adapted deities from

other religions with some ease. Of course, at different times foreign

religions were attacked and persecuted, especially at Rome, but in

general the process of syncretism went on with some re g u la rity and

international divinities were established.^^ However, subordination

and assimilation did not obliterate national deities. Local pride

and devotion prevented the complete extinction of the old names. The

assimilation of deities is evident from the beginnings of religion 18 in Syria and Anatolia. The process of syncretism was long at work 19 in Egypt itself. Isis is well-known in her identification with

Hathor and Bubastis (the Hellenized form of the Egyptian goddess 20 Bastet). Isis gained an extraordinary number of powers through conscious syncretism with other local deities. She took on a ttri- 21 butes of nearly a ll the Egyptian goddesses known to us.

Her rise from a local goddess to an international goddess o f many dimensions is accomplished through widespread syncretism. By the time of the second century. A.D. Isis was identified with Selene, lo, 22 Demeter and Aphrodite. An in s c rip tio n from Capua ( f ir s t or second century A.D.) summarizes the universality of Isis: te tib i una quae 23 es omnia, dea Is is . Twice in the Metamorphoses Is is is called the 109 goddess of many names: nomine m ultiiugo (11.5/269.18) and deae multi nominis (11.22/284.10).^^ In Plutarch's De Iside et Osiride 53,

372E Is is is called the goddess o f myriad names: ùuo 6c tSjv uoXXGiv pc yupLcavupos MewXnTau. P. Oxy. 1380 (lines 97, 101) o f the second century A.D. twice names Isis TtoXucSvupos. In addition numerous 27 inscriptions record these epithets of Isis. We should not then be surprised at the widespread syncretism as depicted in Lucius' prayer

(11.2) and Is is ' response (11.5).

The identification of Isis with Aphrodite has a long history.

The Greeks considered Hathor, the goddess of sexual love in ancient

Egypt, the equivalent of Aphrodite. Through Hathor's association with Isis and Aphrodite, the latter two goddesses coalesced. There is evidence for the cult of Isis-Aphrodite in Alexandria, Delos, and 28 many other parts of Greece and Egypt from an early period. In an inscription from Thrace (dated fourth or th ird century B.C.) the 29 priest Artemidorus made a dedication to Isis-Aphrodite. Other inscriptions of this type continue into the Christian period. In the firs t and second centuries A.D. there are several prominent notices of this assimilation. In P. Oxy 1380 Isis and Aphrodite are linked 30 at several cities. In the Greek aretalogy from Kyme Isis is said to have brought men and women together. "Eyw yuvôuxa moL avôpa ouvnyayov(W 15) and "Eyw ax^pYGO^au yuvSuxas ûno âvôpüiv pvctyxaaa 31 (W 25). This is similar to the Venus of Lucius' prayer when he ca lls the moon-goddess the C elestial Venus who united the sexes and eternally propagated the race of men (11.2/267.7). Plutarch also links Isis and sexual love: xnv 'louv EuôoCds(pncru BpaBedetv xa no

32 épcüTüKct. There is the pronouncement in Is is ' own words that the

Cyprians ca ll her under the name Paphian Venus (11.5/269.21). In addition to inscriptional and literary evidence, there are many 33 examples of sculpture and terra-cotta which portray Isis-Aphrodite.

Through the process of Hellenization the Egyptian goddess became sim ilar to Aphrodite in appearance. Her features as described by

Lucius in the vision (11.3-4) are softened from the more austere

Egyptian representations. '

Isis, the great ancient goddess of Egyptian religion, was, like

Venus, an important d iv in ity in the second century A.D. The goddess had a long religious history in Egypt and the Mediterranean area. It is important to understand the powers which Isis draws on in the novel.

The earliest legends of Isis date from the third millenium B.C. It is d ifficu lt to learn Isis' original significance since she gained many a ttrib u te s which were not part o f her o rig in al myth. The most primitive conception of Isis seems to have been either as a cosmic 35 deity or the embodiment of the fe rtile land of the Nile River delta.

Her Egyptian name is Aset, the "Mother Throne," which was vocalized by the Greeks as 'iocs or Elols, Isis. Isis was one of the nine great early gods of the city of Heliopolis, a young member of the ancient Ennead. From these primitive conceptions Isis evolves into a true personality with appropriate anthropomorphic legends.

The earliest Egyptian religious sources, the Pyramid Texts of the third millenium B.C., furnish the firs t evidence for these three 37 d e itie s: Is is , O siris and Horus. Is is has three major roles in her mythology with O siris and Horus: as mourner fo r O s iris , her brother Ill and husband, as the wife o f O s iris , and as the mother of Horus. The

funerary function of Is is as a mourner was the dominant one early

in her history. In the myth as recorded by Plutarch, Isis searches 38 for the lost Osiris and then cares for his body. There are preserved

Egyptian texts of three mourning songs used in the passion of Osiris,

in which Isis sings solo and duet parts. These hymns of grief, part

of the vast funerary literature of ancient Egypt, became the most 39 sacred expression o f sorrow known in the re lig io n . Is is was thus

the patron goddess of mourners and was im itated fo r the powerful display of grief at the loss of Osiris. The Egyptian royal families were especially concerned w ith rite s fo r the dead and perservation of the body after death. Isis by her affectionate care for Osiris' body became the example for the Egyptians in mourning for their dead rulers. Isis cared for the bodies of the dead just as she had tended to the preservation of the body of Osiris.Isis the mourner was

imitated in Egypt in festivals honoring the death of Osiris. She was the paradigm of grief for those who had lost family members. In her role as mourner she was la te r im itated in Greece and Rome and possibly influenced the conduct of mourning in other parts of the world.

The roles of Isis as the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus were also important for the spread of her cult outside of Egypt.

The goddess is the embodiment of wifely fid e lity , uxor dolorosa 42 mourning Osiris and protecting their child Horus. Her functions as wife and mother and Isis, Osiris, and Horus as the family unit were more common in the Graeco-Roman era. The love o f Is is and O siris fo r 112 each other began at the start of their existences as they had united sexually in their mother's womb. Isis was the wife of Osiris and was deeply upset when Osiris was lost to her. Her devotion to Osiris continued even when she discovered his adultery with Nephthys which resulted in the birth of Anubis. Isis cared for Anubis as her own child and persisted in her search for Osiris in spite of the in­ fid e lit y he committed before his death. Is is ' w ife ly devotion to

Osiris is evident from her long search for him after he disappeared.

The persistence of Isis and her vow after Osiris' death never to marry again show her as tenaciously affectionate for Osiris.

Egyptian marriage laws use this pair, noted for the strength of their marriage, as a mythological model.Her intense devotion to Osiris extends also to th e ir c h ild Horus. The dominant tra its o f Is is were her attention to Osiris and her love for Horus. Isis the mother- goddess was tender and careful in her rearing o f Horus because one day he was to become the avenger of Osiris. In addition to this motive of retribution Isis also cares much for Horus; she is one of the mother-goddesses of the ancient world s im ila r to Cybele. However, the fe rtility aspect of Isis, besides the usual Isis (Land)-Osiris

(River) connection, also includes the human element of motherhood.

This feature is fully elaborated on in the aretalogies.^^ In sculpture

Isis often portrayed with Horus, frequently suckling him at her 45 breast. All in all Isis' dealings with Osiris and Horus show her to be the embodiment of very human emotions, love, loyalty, sorrow, and compassion. Her relationships with them are characterized by tenderness and kindness. Isis was the best model of a faithful and 113 loving wife and mother.Isis had the ability to feel deeply and

"it was especially as the kind, warm-hearted wife, sister and mother, nursing her child at home, that Isis appealed to those who embraced her faith.The goddess of the fam ily in Egypt was to f i l l that same position in the Graeco-Roman world.

The chief literary testimonies for the study of Isis in the second century A.D. are the Greek aretalogies, Plutarch's De Iside et

O siride, and Apuleius' Metamorphoses Book 11. They each contribute to the view of Isis as an omnipotent and universal goddess. Isis appears under many guises in the aretalogies and the Metamorphoses, while in Plutarch her relationship with Osiris and Horus is investi­ gated. The goddess is wide-ranging and influential both geographically and in her considerable powers.

In the course o f her development Is is took on many other aspects which widened the range o f her duties beyond those of mourner, wife 48 and mother. Many o f her old and new a ttrib u te s are summarized in 49 Greek aretalogies, which enumerate the "virtues" of a divinity.

These texts from the th ird century B.C. to the second century A.D. 50 celebrate the goddess in her various functions. In Egypt, where there was a long tradition of aretalogies, hymns to Aton, the Solar 51 Disk, and Osiris were important for the development of the form.

The Greek Isiac aretalogies are closely related to one another not in chronology but in both form and content. They contain essentially the same praises of Isis and may all be related to an Egyptian 52 archetype found in Memphis. The results of the syncretism of the

Helenistic period are evident in the aretalogies. 114

Through the evolution of her own cult in Egypt and her association with other goddesses, Isis by the Ptolemaic era had evolved fa r beyond her three original roles. The aretalogies show the full extent of Isis' range. The syncretic tendencies are also evident in the Metamorphoses especially at 11.2 and 11.5 where the various peoples have given their own names to the goddess. The aretalogies were expressions o f fa ith in a worshipper. At the opening of the Maronée aretalogy the author explains that he is writing the praises of Isis because his prayer to

Isis for recovery from an eye disease had been granted. Since Isis is considered a universal goddess, the dedication to her in payment for a favor or benefit received usually takes the form of the glorification of the universal power of the goddess through the lis tin g of her interventions on behalf o f a ll mankind. Thus the aretalogy does not correspond exactly to the benefit gained. It has a wider audience and presents a f u ll development o f the goddess' role. The locations of the aretalogies prove the reach of Isis well beyond Egypt. The duties she performed in Egypt are being extended especially in the Ptolemaic era to Greece and later on to Rome. An aretalogy of the third century B.C. is proof that Isis was making strides toward a universality which is fully seen in all six areta­ logies. An investigation of the aretalogy is important because the aretalogy 1) is evidence contemporary with Plutarch and Apuleius,

2) shows her considerable powers which evolved in Egypt and elsewhere through syncretism, and 3) offers a contrast between the powers of

Is is (also expressed in Metamorphoses Book 11) and those o f Venus and the figures o f Venus narrated in Metamorphoses Books 1-10. 115

The fullest and most complete aretalogy of Isis is that found at 53 Kyme. The form of this aretalogy is characteristic of that of the others. Nearly all of the lines begin with a singular form of the 54 first person pronoun. In this "I-style" the deity represents her­ self through self-predication, as if in direct response to a petition.

This is the form used by Apuleius in Metamorphoses 11.5 for the reply of Isis to Lucius' prayer. The forthright manner of presentation, this "I-style," is ideally suited for trumpeting herself and her 55 characteristics. Nock calls it the most striking feature of the aretalogies and nowhere is it put to better use than in the opening 56 line. Isis in this statement speaks to the Greek world at large in 57 her own words. After her epiphany Isis announces to Lucius En adsum and proceeds to describe herself and the names given her by various peoples. This self-predication recalls the statements of the Greek aretalogies.X T - 58

A general distinction to be made in the various powers of Isis is that between her ancient fam ilial functions and those functions which detail her protection and service to mankind. The three basic roles of Isis can be considered as part of the former group because they show Is is as the model w ife , mother, and mourner in her expression of grief and affection for her family members Osiris and Horus. Yet even these begin to show Isis as helpful to men. Isis is a comfort to those in distress or mourning. Later in the aretalogies these roles crystallize in making Isis the patron goddess of women. A.J.

Festugfhre in his discussion of the Isiac aretalogies goes further 59 in the division of the roles of Isis. The three basic roles of 116 Isis are considered the substratum for the later expansion and

syncretism of Isis with other goddesses and roles. He explains that

the Isiac aretalogy follows a d e fin ite organization. Far from being

a disordered presentation as has been suggested, the aretalogy is

divided intothemes.These themes, as re a d ily seen in the

aretalogy from Kyme, which I w ill use to discuss Isis, are her nature,

her omnipotent powers, and her inventions, the eupn'poTa. These themes

are present throughout the aretalogy and are not limited to a set

number of lines. Distinguishing these themes allows us to organize

and clarify the roles of Isis expressed in the hymn.

The firs t nine lines of the aretalogy concern the nature of the

goddess. The opening lin e (W 1) beginsE iLous éyw gCpl n Tupaw os cn naans xwpag. This can be compared to the claim o f Venus (orbis

totius alma Venus 4.30/98.8). At the outset Isis announces herself eg by giving her own name. This opening line further states that Isis

is the ruler of every land. This also emphasizes the universality of her appeal ju s t as much as the first-p e rson pronouncement o f her name in Greek. Isis is no longer the goddess merely of the Nile

River basin or of Egypt, but her power is fe lt in every land. A section of Isis' genealogy continues the theme of the nature of the goddess found in the firs t nine lines. At the end of this section

Isis is termed the goddess invoked among women: 'Eyw eupu n uapà

YuvauÇt Geos naAoupEvn (W 8). Several other lin e s of the aretalogy w ill f i l l out the meaning of "goddess of women." This introductory section comprising the theme of the nature of the goddess looks ahead to much of the material in the aretalogy. In addition to the theme 117 of the nature o f the goddess, th is section also announces several important aspects of the whole work. Her roles as wife and mother, concepts basic to Is is at a ll times, bringer o f c iv iliz a tio n , and goddess of women round out the varied portrait of the deity. Isis is a universal goddess through her intervention in so many aspects of human lif e .

The next two themes of the aretalogy, the omnipotent powers of

Isis and her inventions, make clear her actions on behalf of mankind.

These themes also are not limited to a set number of lines in the text, but appear throughout the aretalogy. Her omnipotent powers include her control over the elements of nature and the use of her divine w ill. She plotted out the paths of the stars (W 11) and of the sun (W 12, 42, 42) and moon (W 12). Is is works as a creator- goddess in that she differentiates the earth from the sky (W 10) which had at one time been an individual whole.This differenti­ ation, the separation of natural phenomena, is an essential feature of creation in the Egyptian cosmogony.

The most important area of nature which Isis supervises is the sea. Earlier in the aretalogy Isis was the mistress of every land

(W 3). That statement previewed the extension of her power from the land to the sea. It implied that Isis was in command of every region of the earth. Several times in the aretalogy Isis is directly linked with the sea. She is not identified with water or the Nile

River which are clearly the domain of her husband Osiris. Isis states that she is the queen of the rivers, winds, and seas: "Eyw noTauüiv xoù, àvdpwv hoL OaXdtaons euu'c xupta (W 37). This declaration 118 is clarified and made more direct shortly when Isis claims to s tir up the sea and then calm i t : "Eyw upaUvtu wot Muyaovw QaXaaaav (W 41).

From these general statements Isis becomes more specific over what her control of the sea means to mankind. Similar to her stirring up of the sea is her making sea travel safe. At her discretion she makes the navigable unnavigable: 'Eyw uAwxot a%Awxa nobw oxav èyo \ ôoÇn-

(W 48). F in ally Is is is the queen o f seamanship: 'Eyw vauTLXtag e ty'

Mupta (W 47). She helps men to navigate the seas and guides them to their destinations. These powers give more detail into her role as 65 a sea-goddess, Is is Pelagia, a role which was only f u lly developed in the classical period. The Egyptians were of course familiar with the sea since they had developed commerce and communications with the eastern Mediterranean region from early in their history. They too learned navigation from their voyages on the Nile River. The link of Isis with the sea comes from a double origin. First, Isis was equated with Hathor, an early Egyptian sky goddess and goddess of love. Hathor in turn had been assimiliated with the "Lady of Byblos."

Byblos was an important port c ity o f Phoenicia and had long been under the influence of its neighbor Egypt. Its sea-goddess, the

"Lady o f Byblos," a t some point during the Egyptian Middle Kingdom was equated with Hathor.The development thus runs "Lady o f Byblos"-

H athor-Isis. The second source fo r Is is Pelagia is the goddess' role in helping the dead cross over the Nile River. She sits in a funerary boat and appears as a wailing woman close to the body of the de­ ceased.Isis had also travelled in a boat in her journey from

Byblos where she found the body of Osiris.Byblos in this story is 119 69 related to the syncretism o f Isis-H athor as mentioned above. A fter

Typhon had mangled and scattered Osiris' body, Isis sailed in a

papyrus boat to look fo r the pieces.

The worship of Is is under the c u lt name Pelagia did not begin until Hellenistic times. The name is unknown in Plutarch although there is evidence th a t Is is was a sea-goddess before his time.

Another name for Isis, Pharia, was popular in Roman times. Isis 72 Pharia was the protectress of the Pharos harbor. The lighthouse on the island of Pharos, dedicated to Isis Pelagia, was one of the seven 73 ancient wonders of the world. However, the clearest association of

Isis with the sea is the Ploiaphesia festival described by Apuleius in the Metamorphoses 11.8 f f . The aim o f th is fe s tiv a l, also known as the Navigium Isid is, was to inaugurate the navigation season after the winter.

The close of the aretalogy confirms Isis as the rule of fate in the widest sense. The w ill of Isis w ill be accomplished in all matters and with her all things are possible: "o Uv èpou 6dçn, t o ü t o

HOL xeXetTau / 'Euou t k x v t’ èueuM Eu (W 44-45). These daims extend Isis' control of fate to all matters. Through her power over fate Isis can lengthen a man's life tim e . By these claims (W 44-45) Is is widens her rule to include all the affairs of men before death; she can make life better or worse for men. The strict Egyptian meaning of fate is the length of a man's, life . In the aretalogy fate is given an additional meaning. Fate encompasses the duration of years and all that happens within those years. These pairs of lines, W 44-45 and

W 53-54, must be considered together since the earlier ones prefigure 120 the final climactic lines on fate.^^ They complement each other in that together they o ffe r a broad perspective on fate and complete the picture of Isis as the ruler of the world. In these lines there is also a hint that Isis can perform wondrous deeds for man since nothing is beyond the range of her possible actions. Since the w ill of Isis determines a ll that man does and w ill do, these powers are termed Isis.' control o f the widest possible range of human endeavor.

These declarations support the sweeping contentions at the close of the aretalogy.

The clearest statements on Isis and fate are made in the final two lines, W 53-54. From all her other powers and inventions the aretalogy progresses to a statement of her complete command of the universe. Complete command refers both to her regulation of a man's years and her accomplishment of all that she w ills. Isis overcomes fate and fate is obedient to her: 'Eyù t o ûyapyevov vuxw / ’EyoO

Etyapyevov àxouEu (W 53-54). Is is has created the world and con­ trols it. All of man's activities and even the length and quality of his life are under Isis' control. The verbs of these pairs of lines vcxca, dxouEt, xeAECtat, and eTtebxei. show Is is as the agent of power in the world. These verbs indicate the subservience of all things to Isis. Especially instructive is vuxw (W 53). Isis does not merely influence fate, but rather enjoys victory over it. The key concept in the aretalogy is Isis' power which provides the thematic unity of the piece. From the beginning of the aretalogy we find Isis' power expressed over and over again. This aretalogy 75 is rightly called "a series of claims on behalf of the goddess." 121

These claims, or powers, culminate in the final lines on fate. By the end of the aretalogy the claims of Is is have encompassed a ll of human endeavor and even fa te , the length of a man's time on earth. A ll the other prospects of man pale in significance before that of death. Yet every aspect of man's life is important to the goddess and worthy of her attention.

An example of what Isis can accomplish is the release of those in bonds: I set free those in bonds: 'Eywt o u s èv ôeayoüs Xuw

(W 46). I t has been suggested th a t th is release of bonds entails

Is is ' use of her magic powers to help mankind.It seems that th is would be a natural development from the preceding statements that a ll things are possible with Isis. Isis' ability to direct man's affairs and save his life is in evidence here. Magic could be a source of 77 torment fo r man and Is is could free him from any human charm.

Magic is the attempt to control the powers of the universe for 78 selfish ends. Isis is the ruler of magic and at the same time a power of the universe. Isis' control of the elements of nature as declared in the lines of the aretalogy confirm her as the ruler of magic. While it is true that Isis offers release to those in physical duress and fearing for their lives (Lucius in Metamorphoses

Book 11), a better understanding of the line is that Isis helps those in misfortunes of any kind in their time of need. The particular misfortunes which Isis can alleviate are detailed in earlier sections of thearetalogy.In keeping with her ancient tradition as a master magician and healer this line explains Isis as one who breaks down magical bonds or charms and offers medical aid to those who need it. 122 The broken bonds are both magical and medical. Is is w ill use her magic to accomplish magic and fight disease. Her triumph w ill bring men closer to salvation. Her magical powers are not a new development 80 of her personality,but are documented in testimony from a ll periods.

The name of Isis is closely linked with magic through a tradition 81 lasting more than thirty centuries. Isis had been associated with magic fo r as long as she had been called a goddess by the Egyptians.

Isis was called the great enchantress and was worshipped as the patroness o f magicians. The background fo r th is magical a rt of Is is is extensive. In the e a rlie s t stages o f Is is ' development as a god- 82 dess she undertook several projects which required her use of magic.

In a story of great antiquity Isis employed magic to find out the real name of her father Re. The other incidents of her magical practice involve her immediate fam ily u n it. As part o f her ancient roles of wife, mother, and mourner Isis saved both Horus and Osiris.

Is is succeeded in piecing together the body of her husband O siris who had been murdered and dismembered by Seth. She resuscitated O siris and conceived her son Horus through him. Is is protected Horus, born g o premature and weak in his lower limbs, from Seth. These episodes resulted from Isis' employment of magic. The magic involved in the birth of Horus is especially provocative as Isis is said to have drawn the seed out of Osiris. After reviving Osiris Isis in some way 84 was responsible for both aspects of copulation.

These stories o f Is is connect her magic with her medical abilities. As a helper of mankind she plays the role of physician for people with sickness. Is is aided Re, O s iris , and Horus. She cured 123 Re of the scorpion's bite and Osiris of his mutilation, and protected and preserved Horus. This ancient tradition of Isis as the healer- ntagician aided considerably in the spread of her faith.Her popularity was enhanced by her magical and medical prowess. The a rt of medicine belongs to Is is as part of her magical powers.What

Isis performed for her family she does also for the population at large. Isis' revival of Osiris was specifically transferred to any person. It was then every Egyptian's ambition to become Osiris after death and so be cured and resuscitated by Isis. As the ruler of fate, medicine, and magic Isis controls life-and-death situations.

Isis can cure men and so lead them to salvation.

This discussion of the lines of the aretalogy which focus on the omnipotent powers of the goddess concludes with an assessment of Isis as a salvation goddess. This concept follow s from her roles in con­ junction with magic, medicine, and fate. A savior god has been de­ fined as one who is a dynamic personality and who cares fo r man's 87 well-being. Isis meets these requirements since her three basic roles as wife, mother, and mourner portray her a goddess who displays great activity on behalf of her family. In these roles Isis is a very human figure on account of her care and devotion to her family.

Isis cares for mankind and the Egyptian Pharaoh in particular. For all time Isis nurtured and protected the Pharaoh. The goddess also acts on man's behalf through the working of magic and medicine. Her actions in reviving Osiris means not only salvation for her husband, but also for the whole society. As the great magician-healer Isis cures those who seek her aid. In her role as master of fate Isis can 124 extend a man's life tim e . Her protection o f men is evidenced by her title as patroness of sailors. Isis the savior god not only protects individuals, but also redeems them. The redemption is achieved through her mysteries.

The third theme or section of the aretalogy deals with the in­ ventions of the goddess. Is is is the in s titu to r of many things neces­ sary for civilized life . These inventions, cùpnuata, are the work of 88 a beneficent goddess. This theme, the longest in terms o f the num­ ber of lines devoted to it, is centered in the middle portion of the 89 aretalogy. In the mysteries of Isis, one of her most important inventions for mankind, we can find another example of Isis' powerful 90 nature. The omnipotent powers of the goddess in the areas of magic, medicine, and fate protect and preserve men. As a goddess of sal­ vation through these powers Isis determines the length and quality of a man's lif e . Through the mysteries Is is also governs the a fte r­ life . Among the benefits she offers mankind, the most sought-after is immortality. This is accomplished through Isis' intervention in the mysteries. The most important way to seek deliverance from fate and gain happiness is through in itia tio n into the c u lt. Her role in founding the mysteries is made clear in the Kymean aretalogy: I re­ vealed the mysteries unto men: "Eyw pun'aeus &uSpw%ous éiiéôGLÇa (W 20).

This line occurs in the middle section of the aretalogy where the discoveries of Isis on man's behalf are detailed. The mysteries of

Isis are available to help man achieve salvation in this life . 91 This theme also includes Is is ' work fo r mankind. One particular part of the population which Isis serves is women. Isis 125

as a goddess o f women is one o f the major roles of the goddess as

developed in the aretalogy, a role whose in it ia l appearance v/as noted 92 above (W 8). Is is can rig h tly be called a goddess o f women since

she has helped women gain respect in marriage and parenthood. As a

basis for understanding Isis in this role we look to Isis as a goddess 93 of f e r t i l i t y and b irth . Is is was invoked fo r help w ith any problem

in these processes or with situations o f domestic lif e . In the myth

Isis was the model wife and mother. By her protection for her family

Isis is a goddess with nearly human emotions. She served as the example of women fo r married lif e . Is is brought men and women to ­ gether (W 15, W 25) and devised marriage contracts for them (W 28).

The sexual aspect o f Is is developed from her association w ith Hathor and la te r Aphrodite. Although sexual love was part of her sphere of infleunce, she was particularly concerned with love in marriage.

The line on marriage contracts (W 28) is evidence of her interest in 94 permanent relationships between men and women. Is is ' assistance and concern with women extended beyond marriage. Is is ordained that children be born to women(W 16), caused parents to be loved by their children (W 17), and punished those who were unkind to their parents

(W 18). P. Oxy. 1330 summarizes all her actions on behalf o f women and b rie fly explains her role as goddess o f women: "You made the power of women equal to that of men:" au yuvauSuv Canv ôuvapuv

Tûv âvôpwv ÉTtot'naas (lin e s 214-216). Is is was a supreme female god­ dess and elevated her worshippers to the same level as that of men.

Her p a rticu la r appeal was during the important occasions in lif e : birth, marriage, and death. 126

The aretalogy from Kyme furnishes us with important insights into the roles of Isis in the second century A.D. Lucius' rejection of the world o f sensual Venus leads him to seek a higher level of re lig io u s experience. The priest recalls Lucius' obsession with sensual pleasure: sed lubrico virentis aetatulae ad serviles delapsus voluptates curiositatis inprosperae sinistrum praemium reportasti (11.15/277.8).

We should note that Lucius described himself in similar terms just before making love with Fotis: in servilem modum addictum (3.19/67.1).

When Lucius flees the theater it is a physcial sign of the change which he has undergone. Is is is a f it t in g d e ity o f the new lif e fo r

Lucius. Isis is especially suited to offer Lucius the roses and so restore the balance back to Lucius' world since she is a goddess of 96 magic, fate and salvation. Isis controls fate in that she ordained the length of time Lucius would remain an ass. Lucius was the play­ thing in the hands of blind fortune. Now Isis w ill be a beneficent goddess to him. Isis also offers salvation to Lucius in that he is called to her religion. He is initiated into her mysteries (and those of Osiris) and thus he is fortified against the onslaughts of the world o f magic and debased love. As the goddess o f married l i f e Isis guards the sanctity of marriage and sexual relations within the family. In this way she is opposed to the adultery prominent in the later books of the novel.

The aretalogy from Kyme helps us understand the contrast between

Venus and Is is . Like Venus she is thought o f as a goddess o f creation and of the sea. The sea province of Isis aids considerably too in the assim ilation of Venus and Is is . But on the whole the roles o f the 127

goddesses are in opposition. The ancient roles of Isis as wife,

mother, and mourner fo r her fam ily are nowhere seen in the Venuses

of the Metamorphoses. Likewise her role as mistress of fate is be­ yond the scope of Venus. The narrative of Book 11 o ffe rs a com­ mentary on the q u a litie s of Is is as displayed in the aretalogy. The magical and medical q u a litie s of Is is aid her in the resurrection of Lucius from asshood. Is is works her magic to overcome that of

human withces. These witches were noted for being able to turn the world upside down: Meroe Saga...inluminare (1.8/8.9) and Pamphile quae...novit (2.5/29.3). Isis in turn sets the world right: quae... dispense (11.5/269.15) and te .. .elementa (11.25/286.28). The aretalogy also discloses Isis' control over the elements of nature.

The control of the witches in putting men into bonds is part of their powers: Meroe nam.. .merae (1.8/8.16) and Pamphile amoris profundi pedicis aeternis alligat (2.5/29.8). Isis' offer of salvation in the protection of her mysteries gives Lucius considerable comfort in a world which he has seen dominated by passion gone w ild .

As a goddess of women Is is endeared herself to women in domestic life and was a model for them to follow. Surely those admirable qualities of Isis concerning home and family could not be more ridiculed than by the women of the second half of the novel. Partic­ ularly in the tenth book proper conduct in family life is completely absent. Indeed the ascetic nature of Isiac religion offers consolation and discipline to the world. Lucius has this ascetism in mind when he dedicates his lif e to the goddess. His actions show the ascetic nature of the religion while the Isis' relation to family life is 128 is ignored. This ascetic nature and the loving kindness of the com­ passionate Egyptian goddess anchors his religious belief in a way in which his devotion to Venus could not.

Isis offers consolation from the ills of this life through a day of salvation: iam tib i providentia mea inlucescit dies salutaris

(11.5/270.4). Isis' role as a goddess of fate is clear from her statement that she has the power to extend his life : scies ultra statuta fato tuo spatia vitam quoque tib i prorogare mihi tantum licere

(11.6/271.7). Just as Lucius nearly met death during the celebration of the games of Thiasus, so now he w ill find his salvation during a religious celebration of Isis. Isis asks for and receives devotion from her new recruit. Lucius sees that the new day has also brought a renewed sense o f lif e in nature, which may perhaps show Is is ' creative powers at the coming of the good weather. The earth seems throbbing with life as Lucius prepares for his retransformation. The significant speech of the priest of Isis touches again on Isis' victory over fate: in tutelam iam receptus es Fortunae, sed videntis^ quae suae lucis splendore ceteros etiam deos illum inât (11.15/277.19).

Isis is a savior goddess who has freed Lucius from the bonds of a cruel and blind fortune: comitare pompam deae sospitatricis innovanti gradu...en ecce p ris tin is aerumnis absolutus Is id is magnae providentia gaudens Lucius de sua Fortuna triomphât (11.15/277.22). Lucius is described as born again after the miracle of his retransformation: renatus (11.16/278.12). This is precisely what Isis offers to all who embrace her faith. Lucius completes his devotion to the goddess by 129

his initiation into the mysteries, a procedure which involves con­

siderable hardship and discipline on the initiate's part.

Lucius' prayer in chapter 25 gives a picture of the actions of the goddess in the words of one of her believers. The key item of his speech stands out at the beginning; Isis is his savior and he lacks the words to express the f it t in g praises o f the goddess: Tu quidem, sancta et humani generis sospitatrix perpétua.. .nec mihi vocis ubertas ad dicenda, quae de tua mai estate sentie, suffi c it (11.25/

286.20). This is similar to the inability of people to praise Psyche

(4.28/96.21). Other elements o f the prayer which exemplify the powers of the goddess as recorded in the Kymean aretalogy include her protection of men on land and sea and her control of fortune and nature. Fortune had long been Lucius' enemy and is portrayed at the opening o f the novel by Socrates as cruel and indulgent in the triumph over mankind: "ne tu fortunarum lubricas ambages et instabiles incursiones et reciprocas vicissitudines ignoras..." "sine, sine," inquit, "fruatur diutius tropaeo Fortuna (1.6/6.5)." Lucius 97 enjoys Isis' beneficence and harsh fortune no longer torments him.

Venus and Is is in the Metamorphoses are distinguished by the worlds which they command. Another area of comparison is Apuleius' use of spectaculum and ekphrasis in describing them. Apuleius was lavish in his descriptions of Venus both in ekphrases and spectacula.

These same features exist in the final book of the novel, but they are used fo r d iffe re n t purposes and w ith d iffe re n t re su lts. The spectaculum o f Book 11 is the re lig io u s fe s tiv a l o f Is is : in te r hilares caerimonias et festiva spectacula (11.6/270.22). The account 130

of this festival is the only time the word is used in the final book.

The theme of spectaculum can be used to contrast the worldly Lucius with the initiate. In this procession Lucius w ill be returned to his

human shape; his retransformation w ill be open to the public as well as to the initiated followers of Isis. For the crowd the procession w ill be simply another event which w ill arouse their wonder and curiosity and be an interesting and diverting pasttime. But for Lucius and the religious members of the group the experience w ill be a re­ warding religious event. The intent of the festival is a sacred obligation to honor the goddess. Lucius' attention is focused on the priest carrying the roses. When Lucius accepts Isis in his dream and rushes toward the roses in his eagerness to escape his ass­ hood, Lucius separates himself from the crowd, the multi civium, which pursued spectacula throughout the novel. Lucius accepts the authority of Isis and is no longer concerned with the pursuit of spectaculum. His search fo r rara miraque culminates in the re lig io u s ceremonies o f Book 11.

The rhetorical device ekphrasis is also used in a different way.

The vision of the risen moon-goddess (11.3-4) is an elaborate description. However, the sensuality of the physical features of

Is is are not emphasized. Her features do not t i t i l l a t e Lucius except as savior goddess. The beauty of Isis in the vision w ill bring

Lucius closer to his intended goal, escape from his asshood. The earlier ekphrases were shown to be fille d with rich detail which high­ light the physical attractiveness of the figure of Venus. Lucius' 131 pursuit of hair as a fine item is abruptly ended when Isis is seen with her flowing locks. The transition from sybarite to initiate in

Lucius is so keen that Lucius feels bound to parade with his bald head: non obumbrato vel obtecto c a lv itio , sed quoguoversus obvio, gaudens obi bam (11.30/291.19). His baldness is a sign of his maturation into the spiritual world of Isis where the obsession he once held for beautiful hair is satisfied by his goddess of salvation. 132

NOTES TO CHAPTER IV

The firs t instance is in the story of Thrasyleon's death. The dogs from the house o f Demochares rush out of th e ir kennels and a t­ tack Thrasyleon in his bear disguise. Although he was aware of his impending doom he fought the dogs o ff until his robber friends could get away: quamquam enim vitae metas ultimas obi re t (4.20/89.14). The second phrase is found in the story of one of Lucius' owners. When Lucius is bought by a baker from a nearby town and forced to work in the m ill, he comments on the physical states of his fellow mi 11-grinders. Lucius reminisces about his life as a man and mourns for his present degradation. He believes the work in the mill w ill destroy him: veterisque Lucii fortunam recordatus et ad ultimam salutis metam detrusus summisso capite maerebam (9.13/212.21). For Thrasyleon the new status means death. Lucius imagines death is at hand and prepares for the worst. 2 Compare 1.26/24.14 in cubiculum reversus optatae me quieti re d d id i; 2.32/52.3 lecto simul et somno tra d id i; 3.1/52.7 me securae quieti revulsum nox diei reddidit; and 9.20/218.11 (Myrmex) rursum se reddidit quieti.

^Schlam "Platonica" 481, 483.

^Penwill 59.

Tatum, "Tales in Apuleius' Metamorphoses," TAPA 100 (1969) 523.

^Similar expressions of time of day open other books: 1) 2.1/24.17 Ut primum nocte discussa sol novus diem fe c it; 2) 3.1/52.6 Commodum punicantibus phaleris Aurora roseum quatiens lacertum caelum inequitabat; 3) 4.1/74.9 Diem ferme circa medium, cum iam flagrantia sol is ca le retu r; 4) 7.1/154.5 Ut primum tenebris abiectis dies inalbebat et candidum sol is curriculum; and 5) 8.1/176.15 noctis gallicinio.

^Griffiths Isis 114-115 note to Regina caeli.

^Griffiths Isis 119-120 note to tu .. .subsiste and 155 note to vero nomine; S c h illin g 59-60 discusses the in d is tin c t nature of early Roman numina and includes two examples o f uncertainty in the power's 133 gender: sive mas sive femina a shield in s c rip tio n and si deus, si dea es from a prayer in Cato Agr. 139; H. Wagenvoort Roman Dynamism 78, 80; G. Appel De Romanorum Precationibus 75-78; Festigiere "Lucius and Isis" 69; R. Ogilive The Romans and Their Gods in the Age of Augustus 26-28; one example cited by G riffith s and O gilvie is Aeschylus Agamemnon 160 Z e ug , o o tu s k o t ’ ê o t u v. E. Fraenkel Agamemnon I I , 99-100 comments on th is lin e : "In these words the many names and appellations o f the god are summed up in a formula which includes them all ... to know the name of the daemon is to acquire power over him; the exhaustive enumeration, or if that is impossible the summarizing, of all his names is therefore necessary for the prayer to take effect." g Penwill 56-57 notes these results while examining how Psyche's progress in the tale parallels Lucius' life . in Schlam Cupid and Psyche 37.

^^Schlam "Platonica" 484-485. 12 These scenes were discussed e a rlie r; see above 30-84, 87. 13 Other slight references which may be plays on celestial Venus are in the ekphrasis of Venus calva [the goddess born from the sky: licet ilia caelo deiecta (2.8/32.2)] and in the mime [the white body of the actress re ca llin g her descent from heaven: corpus candidum, quod caelo demeat (10.31/262.5)].

^ ^ G riffith s Is is 155 note to vero nomine. 15 G riffiths Isis 116-117 notes to caelestis Venus and circumfluo Paphi sacrario discusses the cult of Aphrodite on Paphos and the significance of the epithet Urania.

^^Griffiths Isis 137-167 has an extensive discussion of the structure and details of her revelation.

^^For a discussion of syncretism and acceptance of foreign deities see J. Ferguson, The Religions of the Roman Empire chapter 12 "Syncretism and Confrontation" and F. Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism (New York, 1956), 76-77. 18 A. D. Nock, "The Development o f Paganism in the Roman Empire," CAM, X II, 437-438 notes th a t re lig io u s syncretism was so widespread in the ancient world that it is not surprising that the modern world has difficulty in making distinctions between divinities. 19 Morenz 140 shows the expansion in Egypt of local deities into national ones. He disdains the use of "syncretism" as a term to describe this process because he shows that it derives not from auY«epdvvupL "to mix" but from auv-Kpnat "with the Cretans" denoting 134 the union o f the Cretans against a common enemy. However, he seems to be the only one who makes this point and the term "syncretism" is used throughout critical literature. For the assimilation of Hathor and Is is see G. Roeder, " Is is ," RE*9 (1916) 2120-2121 and W. Drexler, " Is is ," Roscher, Lexikon 2 (1906y~494-499. 20 Heyob briefly summarizes the syncretism of Isis with Hathor (48-49) and with Bubastis (51, 70-71). 21 E.A.W. Budge, The Gods o f the Egyptians I I , 216 comments on the wide range of Is is ' influence: "From what has been said above it is manifestly impossible to lim it the attributes of Isis, for we have seen that she possesses the powers o f a water goddess, an earth goddess, a corn goddess, a star goddess, a queen of the underworld, and a woman." 22 Drexler, "Isis," Roscher, Lexikon 2.428-499 summarizes these prominent identifications with Isis. Witt 141-151 emphasizes especially the Isis-Artemis association. 23 ' L. Vidman, Sylloge Inscriptionum Reliqionis Isiacae et Sarapiacae number 502. 24 G riffith s Isis 145.245 in commenting on these phrases gives further evidence for this epithet of Isis which summarizes the diverse assimilations with her name. pC See G riffith s DIO 502-503 note to yupucSvuyos fo r other examples of this epithet to Isis.

^^B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, e d ito rs . The Oxyrhynchus Papyri ja 190-220. 27 Vidman, Sylloge TioXuuîvuyos 325; yupuwvdyos 351 , 505, 808; myrionyma 639, 656, 692, 698, 721, 749. See also W itt 111-129. 28 I follow the summary of the evidence presented in Heyob 48-50. See also G riffiths DIO 41-43.

^^Vidman Sylloge 128.

30p. Oxy. 1380.9, 22, 35, 38, 45, 67.

I use the text as printed in Wa\sh 252-253 who reproduces it from A. Sala? "Inscriptions de Kymd d'Eolide, de Phocée, de Tralles/ BOH (1927) 379f. Sala? incorrectly numbered line ten, an error which Walsh corrects. The W. refers to the Walsh text.

S^De Iside et O siride (DIO) 52, 372D. 135

33 F. Dunand Le Culte d'Isis dans le Bassin Oriental de la Méditerranée I, 80-85; Heyob 51.

Morenz 248-250 and W itt 123-127. A liv in g example of th is syncretism is Cleopatra VII, the lover of Antony. Isis, as the mother of Horus, is equated with the liv in g queen o f Egypt. Several Ptolemaic queens especially id e n tify themselves with Is is . J.G. G riffith s , "The Death o f Cleopatra V II," JEA 47 (1961) 115, points out that Cleopatra, already an Isis-figure by being queen of Egypt, was worshipped in her life tim e as Aphrodite; see also Plutarch Antony 26.

Heyob 37; W itt 19; Cumont O riental Religions 89; Ferguson The Religions o f the Roman Empire 24.

Witt, 15, 18 discusses briefly the hieroglyphics for her name; c f. C.J. Bleeker, " Is is as Saviour Goddess," (in The Saviour God ed. S.G_^F. Brandon) 3 and G riffith s DIO 257-259 notes to 'EXXnvuM(5v yap n ’ laus GOTu.

3?Witt 18-19. 38 The story of Isis' search is not limited to the version of Plutarch: G riffith s DIO 315 note to %Aavwwevnv. 39 The songs of mourning are evidently ancient texts as noted by Witt 16, G riffiths DIO 63 and J.H. Breasted Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt 27. But G riffith s elsewhere (DIO,38) and Heyob 33 refer to the songs as being in three Ptolemaic texts, called The Songs o f Is is and Nephthys, and The Hour-Watches. In any case the role of Isis as mourner is a very old one. 40 Adolf Erman A Handbook of Egyptian Religion 117. On the funerary functions o f Isis see Breasted Development 57, 104 note 11, 113, 156 and 290. Two chapters of Erman's book deal with the dead: Chapter 4 "B eliefs Regarding the Dead, o f the Early Period and of the New Kingdom" 85-114 and Chapter 5 "Funerary Customs o f the Earl Period and the New Kingdom" 115-147. See also Morenz Chapter 9 "Death and the Dead" 183-213, especially 197-198 on the pyramids. 41 There is disagreement over what role of Is is contributed most to the spread of her c u lt in the Graeco-Roman world. Compare Heyob 42 and W itt 19. 42 G riffiths DIO 501 note to BpaBedeuvxâ èpwxLxd; Breasted Development 37.

^^Heyob 43 and notes 23-24 refer to Diodorus Siculus 1.27 on the Egyptian marriage laws. 136

^^Witt 130-131; other chapters of Witt discuss motherhood- f e r t i l i t y : Chapter 10 "The A ll-Loving Mother" 130-140 and Chapter 11 "Great A rtem is-Isis" 141-151.

W. Muller "Isis mit dem Horuskinde" Munchner Jahrbuch der bildenen Kunst 14 (1963) 7-38 and V. Tran Tam Tinh and Y. Labrecque Is is Lactans as noted by Heyob 44 note 26.

4Gwitt 18, 41; Heyob 44; G riffith s D]0 502 to BpaBEdeuv xà GpwTuxd; see also Budge The Gods of the Egyptians I I , 203-204, 211.

4?Witt 19. 48 The Hellenistic conception of Isis is a composite picture which showed a considerable accumulation of stories: Heyob 37-52 and Witt 13-24, 36-45.

■"Heyob 47: "The oldest extant version of the aretalogy is the hexametric hymn o f Andros which stems from the f i r s t century B.C." Grandjean 9 makes the aretalogy from los the oldest version (3rd century B.C.); see also Festugière 233. 50 Grandjean 8-11 has a precise summary on the material o f the aretalogies and other Isiac texts. Including the one presented by Grandjean there are six aretalogies to Is is : 1. los 3rd century B.C. 2. Maronée 2 n d -lst century B.C. 3. Diodorus Siculus 1st century B.C. 4. Andros 1st century B.C. 5. Salonika lst-2nd century A.D. 6. Kyme lst-2nd century A.D.

^^See Witt 100, 103-104 on the praises of Osiris and of Aton, revered by the Pharoah Akhenaten. 52 Heyob 45-47 and Grandjean 12-15 summarize the d e ta ils of the archetype controversy; see also Morenz 249 and note 88.

^^Sala6\ "Inscriptions," 379. 54 Grandjean 45-46 and notes 76 and 77; Heyob 48; W itt 105-106; and P. Roussel, "Un nouvel hymne à Is is " REG 42 (1929) 145-146. 55 \ Festugiere 232 and note 64 and Nock 224 both agree that this style has no Egyptian source and is probably an oriental device; see also G riffiths Isis 137-138 note to En adsum. 56 Nock 224: Every lin e has a f i r s t person singular pronoun. cy Nock 226: "Praises (i.e . aretalogy) as a document in Greek involved a deliberate w ill to speak of the world at large and a 137

spirit of propaganda which shows its e lf in the establishment of Egyptian worship."

^^Griffiths Isis 137-139 in the note to En adsum discusses the parallel between this response and the aretalogies and the possible influence of the aretalogies on Apuleius.

^^Festugiere 209-234.

Festugiere's arguments are offered in reply to R. Harder Karpokrates von Chalkis und die memphitische Isispropaganda (Berlin, 1944) who believes the Kymean inscription was copied from the stele in Memphis standing by the temple of Hephaestus ( i.e . Ptah) and infers that it was, as Diodorus says, a translation of a text composed in Egyptian. Harder also notes that the disorder of the lines is an Egyptian characteristic. Both Festugiere and Nock in his review of Harder believe the o rig in a l document was in Greek.

I follow the three principal themes and the outline with explanatory notes o f Festugiere 221-228. 62 See note 31 above.

^^Festugiere 221: "La deesse nouvelle, qui se presente pour la premiere foisjiu public grec, fa it d'abord connaitre son nom. Evidemment: E lols éyw eupc." See also Festugiere 230.

^^Morenz 173-174 discusses Isis as one of the Egyptian creator deities. G riffiths Isis 140 note to rerum naturae parens cites evidence showing that Isis "is not expressis verbis the creator of the universe."

^^The major title s of Isis as a sea goddess are Pelagia, Pharia and Euploia: G riffith s DIO 491-492 note to aipuÇtv '1ou6os kv. Oouvdxns. ^^See Morenz 235 fo r Hathor - "Lady o f Byblos" and 274 fo r dates of Middle Kindom and its dynasties. See also G riffiths Isis 37-38.

G^Griffiths Is ^ 37.

GBpiutarch ^ 16, 357D.

^^G riffiths DIO 322 note to npos %nv BuBX ou Xtopav.

^^Plutarch DIO 18, 358A; see also G riffiths Isis 40.

^^Phillipe Bruneau, "Isis Pelagia à Delos" BCH 85 (1961 ) 435-446; and G riffiths DIO 59,73.

T ^G riffith s DIO 43. 138

73w itt 65.

^^Jan Bergman, " ' I Overcome Fate, Fate Hearkens to me,': Some Observations on Isis as a Goddess of Fate," in Fatalistic Beliefs in Religion, Folklore and Literature,ed. H. Ringgren, 41-42. 75 F.C. Grant, ed. Hellenistic Religions: The Age of Syncretism 131 in the introduction to his translation of the aretalogy.

^^Festugiere 223 puts th is lin e (W 46) together with W 44-45 and W 53-54 as part of a section of the aretalogy which he entitles "Rein ne se f a it sans moi [ I s is ] , tout m 'obeit." He translates W 46: "je delie tous les liens (magiques?)." 77 Paul Ghalioungui, Magic and Medical Science in Ancient Egypt 18-19 lis ts several principles on which magical practices were based. The firs t in his lis t is "the belief in an immaterial and impersonal force permeating the Universe, a force that the magician could seize and subject to his own ends. I f th is was already bound anywhere, he could also set it free, but only to direct it elsewhere. Otherwise, it constituted a floating peril that threatened any object in its path, and even the sorcerer himself." This impersonal force could work to the detriment of man. It is interesting that Ghalioungui uses the term "bound" to describe the immaterial and impersonal force. By comparison with a magician who uses th is force fo r e v il purposes Is is released those in bonds and directs the pwoer of magic herself. G riffiths Isis 49-50 notes that magic can be of two kinds, benign or baleful; "to Apuleius then, the magic that is bad, though is has undoubted power, is reprehensible because it is w ilfu l, merely serving the magician's desires, and because i t f u lf ils aims th a t are e v il. The f i r s t condemnation w ill apply to the kind of magic sought by Lucius in the opening of the Meta- morphoses. In an Isiac context i t may well be viewed as Typhonic magic, as Merkelbach a p tly remarks . . . By and large, however, her magic is beneficent according to the canons of Apuleius; it does not harm, but heals."

^ \ . A . Mackay, "The Sin o f the Golden Ass," Arion 4 (1965) 477. 79 For example Is is established punishment fo r those who do not love their parents (W 20), ended the governments of tyrants (W 25), made an end to murders (W 26), delivered the plotter of evil into the hands of the one plotted against (W 34), protected suppliants (W 36), and oversaw laws (W 4, 52) and righteousness (W 16, 28, 29, 33, 35, 37, 38). o n Budge The Gods 214: "From a number of passages in the texts of various periods we learn that Isis possessed great skill in the working of magic and several examples of the manner in which she em­ ployed it are well-known ... Isis tricked Ra into telling her his greatest and most secret name through a serpent's b it ... and re­ vived Horus and Osiris from death." 139

186. 82 This refers back to an "early" Isis (Pharonic) who used magic to learn Re's name. 83 For the premature b irth o f Horus see Plutarch DIO 19, 3580 and DIO 65, 376B.

^^G riffiths DIO 353 note to 'ApitowpctTnv: "The activity of Isis is referred to also in P. Louvre 3079, where the goddess is made to say, ' I have played the part o f a man though I am a woman, in order to wake thy (O siris') name here on earth since thy divine seed was in my body,' The suggestion is that Isis, having succeeded in re­ viving the dead Osiris, was in a way responsible for both aspects of the sexual act." See also J.G. G riffiths The Conflict of Horus and Seth 104-105 and W itt 37.

^^Witt 22 emphasizes this magico-medical aspect of Isis. The goddess offered hope both as the best magician and finest doctor. In addition to her other attributes these reiterate her position as the goddess who cares fo r mankind.

^^However, Is is was but one o f the medical gods (patrons) of Egypt. Others include Sekhmet, Toth, Horus, and Thaouris. See Ghalioungui, Magic 32-35.

^^Bleeker, "Is is as Savior Goddess," 1-3.

^^Festugiere, 228-229 discusses the various aspects of Isis as a goddess o f invention and b rie fly compares her w ith Prometheus. on Festugière, 223 considers lines W 13-36 of the aretalogy to comprise the theme of the eipnyara. This theme, however, as is true of the other themes, the nature o f the goddess and the omnipotent powers of the goddess, is not strictly limited to these lines^but is present in all parts of the aretalogy. 90 The association of Is is and Demeter is noted by Herodotus 2.59, 156, and 171. See G riffiths Isis 151 note to Eleusinii vetustam deam Cererem and 293 note to si dicere lic e re t and Dunand, Le Culte III, 243 ff. 91 Diodorus Siculus 1.27.1: "Isis became the cause of more and greater blessings to all men than any other." Translations are from C.H. Oldfather, Diodorus Siculus. Volume I, 85. Diodorus' statement (1.14.1-2) on Isis' discovery of wheat and barley is repeated in 1.27.4: "I am she who discovered fruits for mankind." Anne Burton Diodorus Siculus Book I: A Commentary 74: "The discover of wheat and barley is presumably a ttrib u te d to Is is in her association with Osiris as a vegetation god, and thence as the equivalent of the Greek 140

earth mother. Demeter, to whom wheat and barley were sacred." Another association with Demeter is through the establishement of laws (see above note 79). qp Heyob is essential for the study of Isis as a goddess of women.

S^Heyob 48.

^^Heyob 48-50. Plutarch DIO 52, 372D relates the statement of Eudoxus who called Isis a judge in matters of sexual love. This seems to emphasize that Is is was concerned with the love o f a man and woman, but most particularly, as related to her own life story in the myth, with the love of husband and wife. According to Heyob and G. Michailides, "Contribution a l'étude de la grande deesse en'tgypte, II, Isis deesse de l'am our," B u lle tin de l'I n s t it u t d"Egypte 37 (1956) 191-213.

^^Heyob, Chapter 3: "Is is as Perceived by Women in the Graeco- Roman World," 53-80 indicates Is is ' appeal to women as based on Is is ' protection in life and help for salvation in death.

^^Seward The Symbolic Rose 11: "The roses o f Is is eaten by the ass, which finally return him to his human form, symbolize the pure devotion that is able to redeem the heart of man as it redeemed the golden ass." See also G riffiths Isis 159-161 note to roseam.. .coronam.

^^See also Walsh 181 and G riffith s Is is 241-244 note to Fortunae. CONCLUSION

The sophistication of Apuleius' Metamorphoses is evident in his presentation of Venus. The goddess' role is significant for an under­ standing of the novel. Apuleius presents Venus in several forms throughout the Metamorphoses. The reader is provided with a range of values and impersonations o f the goddess.

The basic meaning of venus is used as part o f the sexual themes.

The equation of venus with sex and pleasure underlies most of the appearances of Venus in the course of the adventures. This portrayal of Venus Vulgaria is in contrast to the sexual forces ordained by

Venus Caelestis, one aspect of Regina caeli (11.2). Between these poles is the presentation o f Venus in the ta le o f Cupid and Psyche.

There Venus displays human jealousy and lust for revenge against her rival. Her role may imply sexual pleasure through the adoration of herself as the love goddess (5.28) and her joyous dance at Psyche's wedding (6.24). At the highest end of the scale, the Venus of the tale of Cupid and Psyche does l i t t l e to o ffe r herself as a cosmic force. Pettiness and pride undercut her Olympian d ig n ity.

The range of values extends from sexual pleasure as part o f s e lf- w ill (Venus Vulgaria) to sex as part of the cosmic order (Venus

Caelestis). The enjoyment o f sex as the g ra tific a tio n o f lu s t

141 142 contrasts with the power o f sex emanating from the divine presence.

This presence it s e lf mustbe venerated.

There is an extendedrange of impersonations of the goddess. Fotis impersonates Venus in an atmosphere of sexual a n ticip a tio n . This episode is preceded and followed by occurrences o f venus. In fa c t these occurrences of venus meaning sexual pleasure are scattered through all ten books. Similarly, Lucius in his admiration for Fotis' hair applies a rather obscure epithet to the goddess which also in­ volves hair: Venus calva (2.8/32.3). The artistry of both passages is clear, since on the one hand Apuleius is combining well-known poses of Venus, while in the la tte r case he has offered a refined metaphor on hair which w ill echo throughout the novel. Venus is portrayed on two le ve ls: f ir s t , in a learned digression as a metaphor, and second, in a conscious physical dramatization of the goddess.

Venus is also played on two levels in the ta le of Cupid and Psyche.

Here Psyche is compared to Venus ju s t as Fotis was, but the outcome is e n tire ly d iffe re n t. Psyche has the name Venus thrust upon her; she receives the worship due Venus most unwillingly. She is a physical embodiment o f Venus, but not o f her own choosing. The goddess as a character in the tale there, handled with rhetorical and narrative force, is a complex of many strands. Her jealousy marks the burlesque of the Olympian deities present in the ta le . But she also shows part o f her true majesty and grandeur by the two ekphrases which d e ta il her modes of transportation in the sea and sky. In the final scene of the tale Venus assumes a tra d itio n a l role as a laughter-loving goddess when she dances a t the wedding o f Cupid. Her appearance in the ta le o f 143

Cupid and Psyche is unique in the novel in that Venus herself takes part in the story, i.e . th is Venus is neither a metaphor nor an imper­ sonation.

The mime introduces a goddess entirely devoid of religious content. The actress playing Venus impersonates the goddess on a level other than that of Psyche. Here the actress-goddess is active in a dramatic presentation and plays the role in an entirely mythological setting. The descriptions of this Venus are designed to highlight her sensuality. She stands at the apex of the debased love affairs of

Book 10 and crystallize in Lucius' mind his disgust with the world at large. The spectacle of Thiasus is designed to prepare for the ultimate act of perversion in the novel: Lucius' copulation with the condemned woman. Instead Lucius is distraught at that scheduled turn o f events and seeks salvation from the world which he viewed f i r s t as a man in the pursuit of the fabulous, rara miraque, and then as an ass who saw things in a more sharply-focused view. His asshood allowed

Lucius to be an observer of the degrading events of human life .

Lucius' rejection of the show of Thiasus and flig h t from the city bring him to his long-awaited day of salvation. Lucius becomes a spectaculum for the crowd, but in quite a different way than he had imagined. Instead of his copulation with the condemned woman, the crowd is treated to the sight of the transformed Lucius. They see the beneficent hand of the goddess at work: populi mirantur, religiosi venerantur tarn evidentem maximi numinis potentiam (11.13/

276.12). This salvific action of the goddess is in contrast to the 144 rough treatment Lucius received from blind fortune which dogged his every move.

The saving goddess has Venus as one of her aspects. Is is has subsumed the role o f Venus who brings the sexes together and propa­ gates the world. This Venus is but one aspect of Regina caeli.

Through Is is ' diverse assim ilations she had become by the second century A.D. a goddess of many names and powers. One of her fo re ­ most abilities is her control over the forces of nature. The Greek aretalogy from Kyme shows her to be a goddess of magic, medicine, and fate. It documents the range of powers Apuleius celebrates in his presentation of Lucius' goddess of salvation. Among the other aspects of Isis prominent at this time is her guardianship of women.

This contrasts with degrading character of women in the latter part of the novel and with the Venuses presented in such detail. The impersonation of Venus by Isis is complete and final. Venus appears only as part of Isis' divine grandeur.

The contrast between the re lig io u s atmosphere of Book 11 and the frivolous tone of the earlier books is carried over into the presen­ tation of Venus. The sexual themes o f the adventures are highlighted by the appearance of the goddess. Is is stands in sharp r e lie f to the figures of Venus presented earlier. In the range of portrayal of

Venus, the presentation of Isis stands alone. Isis is a goddess of salvation who raises Lucius from his asshood. The portrayal of the e a rlie r Venuses only sank Lucius deeper into the maelstrom of magic, witchcraft, and unbridled passion. The figure of Venus has moved from 145 a goddess of earthly lusts and jealousy to a universal conception of power and beneficence. The symbols of Venus, such as the roses and the long hair, continue to be part of the action and description in

Book 11, but here they are used for different purposes. Likewise ekphrasis remains a significant literary device for exposition; how­ ever, the subject of the description is no longer Venus as seen in

Fotis or,the mime. The pursuit of spectaculum is also of a different order. In the series of adventures the profane crowd is always on the lookout fo r the marvelous and the unique. In Book 11 the marvel is one of religious awe at the power of the goddess. Hence the public procession to the sea is both a public and private spectacle. The parade contains mystic symbols meaningful to the worshippers of Isis and yet is also a day of public celebration.

Lucius' attitude toward religious experience is one element of the contrast between Venus and Isis. His earlier motivation was the pursuit of pleasure and knowledge of magic. A fte r his retransformation thoughts o f th a t kind are fa r from his mind. Lucius' new re lig io u s attitude is veneration of Isis. In this sense Venus "fails" as the divine force which inspired his previous existence. Of course Venus remains in Book 11 but only as an aspect of the goddess Is is . Indeed the Venus of Book 11 is s till the procreative force but this power is tempered under the command of Is is . The great national goddess of

Rome is ignored in the novel. The Hellenized Egyptian goddess is brought forward as the saving goddess of the novel. Apuleius in­ te n tio n a lly rid ic u le s the goddess of Rome in the same'way that Venus had been the object of satire in earlier literature by showing that her 146 way is destructive. Apuleius uses the Olympian sex figure to show that

traditional religious belief palls before the loving kindness of the

compassionate, s a lv ific goddess. Irra tio n a l s e lf-w ill and wonder at

sex are replaced by wonder at the cosmic order which controls sex and by

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