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7-1973 Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society, Vol. 34, Nos. 3 and 4 Massachusetts Archaeological Society

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Copyright © 1973 Massachusetts Archaeological Society

This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. BULLETIN OF THE MASSACI-IUSETTS ARCI-IAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY VOL. 34 NOS. 3and 4 APRIL-JULY 1973

CONTENTS

Page HAFfING STONE IMPLEMENTS WILLIAM S. FOWLER...... •...... 1

CERAMIC POT DISCOVERY IN COASTAL CONNECTICUT CLARENCE DONATH. JR•...... 13

ABODES OF FOUR ABORIGINAL PERIODS WILLIAM S. FOWLER 15

RECOVERY OF A DOUBLE-BITTED GROOVED GOUGE CONSTANTINE ZARIPHES. JR 23

METAL CUTOUTS OF THE NORTHEAST WILLIAM S. FOWLER ...... •...... •...... 24

SITTING BULL: THE PATRIOT WILLIAM S. FOWLER ...... •...... 30

PUBLISHED BY THE MASSACHUSmS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, INC.

SOCIETY OFFICE, Bronson Museum, 8 No. Main Street, Attleboro, Mass. MASSACHUSETIS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OFFICERS President Ralph Bates 42 Leonard Street, Bridgewater, Mass. 02324 First Vice President Josephine Laugelli 219 Beechwood Street, Cohassett, Mass. 02025 Second Vice President Ross W. McCurdy 9 Manchester Street, Attleboro, Mass. 02703 Corresponding Secretary George S. Gibb 597 North Main Street, Attleboro, Mass. 02703 Recording Secretary Jean-Jacques Rivard 1117 Boylston Street, Brookline, Mass. 02167 Financial Secretary Mabel A. Robbins 23 Steere Street, Attleboro, Mass. 02703 Treasurer Eleanor W. Athearn 5105 North Main Street, Fall River, Mass. 02720 Editor William S. Fowler Bronson Museum, Attleboro, Mass. 02703 Trustees Guy Mellgren William B. Brierly Robert Wile Robert K. Cunningham Carol Barnes J.Frederick Davis F.Newton Miller Alan B. Lowry MASSACHUSETIS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY BULLETIN, pub­ lished in four Numbers of one Volume each year, commencing in October.

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Note: Address all requests concerning membership to the Secretary; aU orders for back Bulletin numbers (4 for $2.00 to members) to the Editor; and mail Society dues to the Financial Secretary. Exception: Classification (Stone Im­ plement), Vol. 25, # 1, and Classification (Products), Vol. 27, #3&4 - each $1.00 to members, $2.00 to non-members, both fully illustrated.

BRONSON MUSEUM

Tel. 222-5470

This is the Society's Museum, 5th Floor of the 8 North Main Street Building, Attleboro, Mass. - Museum hours are from 9:30 to 4:30, Mondays, Tuesdays, and Thursdays. For special arrangements to visit on other days, contact the Director, Maurice Robbins, or the Curator, William S. Fowler at the Society Office, Bronson Museum, Attleboro, Mass. The Museum includes exhibits of artifacts and seven dioramas portraying man's prehistoric occupation of New England. The displays are arranged so as to show man's development through four culture stages, from early post glacial times. The most recent diorama extends 15 feet across the front of the museum. It depicts an Archaic village of seven large and unique wigwams as indicated by their foundations, excavated at Assawompsett Lake by the Cohannet Chapter. Human figures to scale make the scene come alive and help create what unquestionably is an outstanding addition to our ever growing museum displays. This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling,loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. 1 HAFTING STONE IMPLEMENTS WILLIAM S. FOWLER

Over the past several years the writer has had a past 25 years, he has found these woodworking tools number of requests from various Society members to much the same as those from the Connecticut Valley. publish an account of his experiments dealing with Therefore, his recognition and classification of them into the hafting of stone implements. Apparently, these four distinct groups seems relevant. The writer's belief is interested individuals represent an ever growing number that they represent early man's principal implements of new members, who have not had the opportunity to used in producing wooden shafts and handles. More read what has been previously written on the subject by refined and well-shaped tools for making dugouts, the writer in now, non-available back issues of the paddles, log mortars, etc., such as Grooved axes, Society Bulletin. They seem to express a desire inherent Hatchets, and various types of gouges and adzes are in most people to know how wooden handles and shafts omitted, although they were undoubtedly essential tools could have been made and attached to the many stone for heavier kinds of woodwork. implements of aboriginal man, without the use of metal tools of today. For it is apparent that most all stone Tools for hafting, like those presently described and implements required shafts or handles to make them fit illustrated ( Fig. 1 ), have been used by the writer in a few for use. However, no one today can be sure of just what cases to perform experiments, in which he succeeded in methods were used. Nevertheless, there have come to making handles, suitably notched, without recourse to light in more recent days several stone implements that steel tools. However, while for most hafts he used a saw to show worked notches or grooves placed on them in such a shorten the work, finishing of the handles and shafts way, as to leave little doubt as to the part they played for invariably was accomplished with stone tools. This each corresponding haft. In view of these impressive produced results approximating in appearance, no revelations together with more recent discoveries that doubt, those of aboriginal workmen. have refined our thinking in the matter, it seems desirable again, to devote space for a comprehensive WOODWORKING TOOLS FOR HAFTING report on the subject. This will perforce include evidence ( Illustrations in part are from Vol. 25.#1. of the Society. outlined in earlier reports, but now presented in revised Stone Implement Classification) form. While hafting methods suggested in this paper may seem logical, it should be obvious to most that the Notcher ( Fig. 1,#5-8 ). First to be considered is this aboriginal haft in each case depended to a considerable most useful tool, which actually is a straight edged knife. extent upon the skill and ingenuity of the artisan doing While it may occur in various convenient shapes suitable the work. However, in spite of such probable variation for hand use, it always has one carefully serrated edge from fixed hafting patterns, there doubtless was more or less adherence to certain basic working principals for that is relatively straight. Often, its shape is three edged, the various kinds of hafts, which tended to produce apparently to provide a convenient finger grip, when somewhat similar overall appearances in each case. used to notch the end of the shaft for insertion of an implement ( Exhibits #6,7 ). However, it may have a thick roughly worked back opposite the thinned serrated edge, Regardless of exactly how each haft was made, it used for a handle ( Exhibits #5,8 ). When in this shape, it appears likely that workers had a limited variety of shaft may also be used as a saw, with which to fell a shaft or woodworking tools. After searching sites over a life-time, handle-sized sapling, and for making further cuts. Hence both by surface hunting and through excavation, it seems this tool has at least two functions, as a notcher and as a apparent that woodworking connected with hafting saw. In both cases it is effective only when used with utilized in the main only four distinctly separate kinds of green wood. When employed as a saw, the taut outside tools, each with a specialized function. However, some of fibers of the sapling, which is bent with one hand, are these doubtless were serviceable for performing more gradually severed. The time consumed in cutting about a than one function. Although these woodworking hafting 1 114" diameter sapling amounted to about a halfan hour, tools do not conform rigidly to fixed classified shapes, all while cutting it off again to the desired length took appear to belong to their respective type groups by virtue somewhat longer; narrow shafts for arrows or spears of marked basic traits, which set them apart from each other. require a relatively shorter time.

Much ofthe writer's research has been carried out on Frequently the Notcher is made of quartzite, but it sites in the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts. has also appeared made of durable quartz. It occurs in However, it is significant that during his work in the smaller shapes, when fashioned expressly for notching eastern part of the state and in Rhode Island over the the ends of shafts - Exhibit #7 from Amherst shows 2 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

considerable wear on its long edge. fine splinters from shafts as efficiently as sandpaper, but Roughing Knife ( Fig. 1,#9,10 ). Second in impor­ only after the wood has become dry. In this respect, its tance, this tool is essential in the process of shaping application differs from that of the wide grooved, coarse handles. Often made of hard quartzite, it is of a con­ grained type. venient size to fit into the hand. Its moderately thick blade, fashioned from a large spall, has one or both of its Shaft Scraper (Fig. 1, #11-16). Last but not least of opposing long edges worked. They display irregular large the shaft-working tools, this class consists of relatively serrations of perhaps as few as three or four to an edge. large thick flakes of stone with at least one thinned, While this useful tool may seem to be nothing more than sharpened edge; or frequently of smaller flakes. Both a casually flaked spall of no account, to the writer it has kinds are made ofvery hard stones,such as quartz,quartz appeared otherwise. Careful study of its worked edges crystal, felsite, or flint when available. Occasionally they reveals intentional removal offlakes struck first from one have a reworked straight scraping edge ( Exhibits #15,16) face and then from the other, to produce coarse but more often, one or more retouched edges are serrations. With this tool the writer succeeded in somewhat concave from excessive use. As compared to removing unwanted bulges in shaping handles, but only the convex worked edges of Stem and Steepedge while the wood was green. It proved to be an important scrapers, they may be identified by their distinctly tool for making handles straight from often crooked different straight or concave edges. sticks.- For a handle, being made for the popular club or The Shaft scraper is useful in the finishing of handles hatchet, had to be straight to be useful, a condition that left frayed from action of the Roughing knife, but may nature seldom provides. not be used in this way until the wood has become The method of using the Roughing knife, following thoroughly dry. However, in the case of projectile shafts, the reported aboriginal way, is to hold the green stick, when a firm fibered wood is used, scraping may begin after removal of bark, with one end placed against the while the wood is still green, as will be described under body. The knife held in the other hand is then drawn the subject of hafting projectile points. From this it may toward the body in slashing strokes applied against high be seen that scraping of such shafts is for the purpose of places on the stick. These are slowly worked away in this reducing the shaft's thickness, while in the case of straightening process. After preparing eight or more handles, the benefit accrued is that of smoothing. handles in this way, Exhibit #9 showed little or no signs of wear, which seems to confirm the durability of stone tools. SUGGESTED HAFTS FOR SOME IMPLEMENTS

Shaft Abrader (Fig. 1,#1-4). This third tool to be Projectile Points. For both arrows and spears the described is one that lacks definite shape. Itconsists of a shaft for the haft requires much the same treatment, the fist-sized, or a small block of coarse to medium grained difference being principally in the matter of size. The stone, such as granite, pegmatite, conglomerate of arrow being the shorter of the two, depending upon the various kinds, or sandstone. Its chief feature is a shallow length of bow used, demands more precision in its or prominent hollowed groove, or grooves on at least one making, to assure true flight when released by the bow. of its faces. A wide groove on coarse grained blocks ­ In preparing the shaft, the writer's success resulted after usually no more than one - indicates an accommoda­ experiments revealed probable procedures, which tion for handle abrading, while a narrow groove on basically are the same for both arrows and spears. sandstone - sometimes more than one - suggests a tool for arrow or spear shaft finishing. At the start, selection of a suitable wood for the shaft is essential, for it is desirable to obtain a wood that will Actual use by the writer of the wide grooved type not warp out ofline in damp weather. A straight growing ( Exhibit #1,2 ) in the straightening of handles proved it wood in stalks without knots, such as alder, is most to be useful not only as an assist to the Roughing knife in attractive at first glance, but was found unsatisfactory in elimination of unwanted bulges, but also it proved the end. Its soft fibers and pithy center proved to have efficient in wearing down exposed knots to a level with poor resistance against damp atmospheric conditions. the handle's surface, but only while the wood is green. Even after the wood had become fully dry, it bent out of shape, which made it undesirable for a permanent haft. In the case of narrow grooved Shaft abraders After this experience, it became clear that the preferred ( Exhibit #3,4 ) the stone block used is of a medium wood would have to be one that had a close grain without grained sedimentary kind such as sandstone. It seems a soft center. In the end, white ash saplings were found to probable that this type served as a projectile shaft be preferable. They attain about a foot or more of growth smoother, after the scraping process, next to be in a year depending upon the soil, and each succeeding described, had been completed. It effectively removes year send out a long shoot from the last. These saplings HAFTING STONE IMPLEMENTS 3

4

7

9

10 8

~ I~ Il 16 L-.:.- O· '._,_~-""- .....~e--...-2.·--...... ---??- ..J

Fig. 1. SHAFT WOODWORKING TOOLS. 1,2,Shaft Abrader [coarse grained]; 3,4,Shaft Abrader [fine to medium grained]; 5-S,Notcher; 9,10,Roughing Knife; 11-16,Shaft Scraper. 4 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Fig. 2. SUGGESTED HAFTS FOR SPEAR AND ARROW POINTS. 1,Corner-removed#7; 2,Corner-removed#3; 3,Small Triangular#4; 4,Side­ notched#l; 5,Eared#3; 6,Corner-removed#8; 7,Eared#2 ... 1,4,6,7,Spears; 2,3,5,Arrows. are relatively straight and slender, providing good shaft the type of point being hafted. A few suggested hafts are proportions. However, they have knots between each iIIustratl?d for both arrows and spears ( Fig. 2 ). Also, year's growth, which have to be smoothed down, while note Colorado haft with a thong resembling rawhide the stem is somewhat crooked and out of line from one ( Fig. 3 ). Mention should be made here of an additional year's growth to the next. These irregularities should be operation besides the end notching, which probably was kept in mind, when consideration is given to the required in the hafting of most Early Archaic points like preparation of the shaft. Exhibit #6, a Corner-removed#8. Since these points have an extended tongue that converges to narrow propor­ First, after pealing ott the bark, while still green, the tions, it seems likely that the pith was first reamed out for knots are rubbed smooth with a coarse Shaft abrader. a short distance at the shaft's end to receive the tongue. Then by finger manipulation a start is made to straighten This would then have been fol1owed by the notching the shaft; no perforated stone (the so-cal1ed shaft­ operation to accommodate the seating of the point's straightener) is needed. Next, using a Shaft scraper, the shoulders. work of scraping the wood is commenced. The objective is to make the basal section slenderer than the point­ tipped end. This tends to place more weight at the point to insure a straight flight. Now, at this junction an important discovery was made, which seems to be the secret in the making of a successful projectile shaft. ,,- As the scraping continues without abatement, only interrupted from time to time by finger straightening of the shaft to correct its tendency to return to its original crooked state, heat is produced by the friction of scraping. Within minutes the outward fibers of the shaft begin to dry rapidly due to this induced heat, and in this way form a dry crust around a green center. In a short time this dried outer shel1 becomes rigid enough to act as fig. 3. ORIGINAL ARROW HAFT - found preserved in Chamber a vise to hold the shaft straight, as induced by the afore­ Cove, near Pueblo, Colorado, in 1969. Type of side-notched point indicates remains of the Apishapa Focus of about A.D. 1300. Note mentioned finger-straightening. When completely dry, the relatively wide thong used to lash point to shaft, which has a this ash shaft holds its shape against al1 climatic deep notch cut in its end to receive the point's base. Courtesy conditions. Southwestern Lore, Vol. 36,#1.

The projectile point is now placed in a notch, Final1y, the opposite end of the shaft is slightly previously made at the heavier end of the shaft with the notched for the bow string in the case of an arrow, and Notcher, while the wood is still green. It is lashed on with feathers, previously cut from a split quill, are bound on a water-softened fine gut thong, as may be required for with fine gut in a double or triple combination. HAFTING STONE IMPLEMENTS S

Hatchets and Clubs. These stone implements require handles of 1 1/2 feet or more in length, depending upon the preference of the one making the haft. However, the hafts used for all such implements probably varied in only a few minor details. Therefore, they are treated as a single group, for which the preparation of handles has proven to be much the same. Sharp bladed Hatchets vary little in form, but clubs have two types: the Hatchet club, and the Pronged club. A fairly hard wood is preferred, which produces saplings with a minimum of branches. A stalk of about 1 1/4" in diameter after removal ofbark seems about right for size. A section is selected that appears to have about the correct shape, although nature rarely ever provides the exact form desired. Oak and hickory have been used by the writer successfully for handles, although maple is also a possible choice. A branch may be used, but the stalk of a sapling is mOore accessible for procurement. As previously mentioned, the sapling is bent over with one hand, while the outward taut fibers are gradually cut with the Notcher, applied with a sawing motion. By ringing the tree in this manner, accompanied by corres­ ponding bending of the stalk each time away from the surface being cut, the sapling is finally cut in two. Obviously, slenderer stalks for projectile shafts may be cut in the same way.

After the bark is removed and while the wood is still green, unwanted bulges that usually occur are removed, as formerly explained, with the Roughing knife, and knotty intrusions are smoothed off with a coarse grained Shaft abrader. But now, deviating from this basic procedure, the thickness of the handle near the end to receive the stone blade is reduced with the Roughing knife. This produces an effective balance by transferring that much handle weight to the stone blade. However, in performing this operation the reduction stops short of the end by about 1". Here, transverse cuts have been made on opposite sides with the Notcher. By this maneuver, a shoulder of wood is formed, which serves as an anchor to hold thongs in place during the hafting. Finally, while the wood is still green, a notch is cut in the butt end with the Notcher to a depth of about an inch, and to a breadth sufficient to fit the thickness of the stone blade at its notched side. With the handle prepared in this way, it is now ready to receive the implement, which should fit snugly into the notched end. With rawhide or water-softened gut the blade is lashed on by simple crisscross weaving over both faces. Two methods are illustrated ( Fig. 4 ), as indicated by a single notch, or double notches as found on some clubs - Hatchets invariably have only a single notch ( Fig.S ). Here, a clarification seems advisable. Double­ notched clubs appear to have been intentionally notched ~ in 2 places on the outside edge opposite the handle. As L.- .o ~,~._..~c. '...... --,_"".-s".....---'..------J shown in Exhibits #1,2, offigure 4, these notches seem to Fig. 4. SUGGESTED CLUB HAFTS. 1,Pronged Club; 2,3,Hatchet have been made to accommodate hafting thongs, so as to Club ... [1,2,Double-notched; 3, Single·notchedj. 6 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

extending vertically over the center of its head. Its significance will readily be understood, as the method of hafting is outlined step by step.

First, selection is made of a sapling for the handle that has a length of about 2 feet or more; one that branches in a symmetrical fork at the smaller end. The two branches are cut off, allowing them to protrude about 2 1/2" beyond the main stalk'. Now, while still green, the crotch in the branched fork is cut out with a Notcher to fit the horizontal main groove of the ax at one side. Next, the projecting branch stubs are thinned with a coarse grained Shaft abrader, and before the wood dries are bent by pressure to fit snugly into the central groove, where they are held in this position until dry. After this, the ax is lashed to the handle with rawhide, not gut ( Fig. 6,#1 ).

However, the ax may be found to be slightly loose in the haft in spite of all that can be done to pull the thongs tight. Now the purpose of the second groove over the poll becomes apparent. With another piece of rawhide that is fastened to the main thongs at both sides, several turns '- 0,__...... _,_...... _="""'....._,"""£"""._= --.;.'2.. --.;.~ are made over this groove and are pulled taut as Fig. 5. HATCHET, single notch haft. illustrated. This effectively tightens the haft, and holds the ax head firmly in place. It seems probable that this equalize the tention drag and so prevent the blade from second groove was deliberately made for this purpose, so wobbling in the haft. that as the blade loosened from continual usage, the haft Gouge and Adz Blades. For these tools, of which might be tightened without the need of relashing the there are several types, preparation of the handle for the entire haft. If this unique haft represents more than an haft entails operatons that differ from those required for isolated case, it appears probable that any ax without the clubs and Hatchets. Requirements include a reasonable top groove might have been similarly lashed by simply straight branch with a thickness of about 1 112", one pulling the extra thong tight over the plain head of that has a branch protruding at its thicker end. After the ax. slashing a flat face on the inside of this protrusion, which Stem Scrapers. These tools appear in at least three had been cut offto a length of about 2", the implement's different shapes, each representing convex bladed face is placed against this oblique support. This should scrapers with stems, apparently made for hafting. The extend about half way down the blade. Its head now rests largest of these scrapers measures about 3 or 4" in against a protrusion of the handle end that is allowed to length, and has a broad, relatively long stem that tapers exend beyond the branch support. to a point or thinned blunt end. This tool is believed to With rawhide or gut the blade is now lashed to the have been used principally for scraping the hair off hides, handle. However, it soon will be apparent that no matter as is now done by pI ~nt-day Indians of the Dakotas how tightly the thongs are drawn, the blade may be with similar metal bladed scrapers. This tool requires a slightly moved one way or the other. In order to stabilize sturdy handle 7 or 8" in length to make it useful. It may it in the haft,two turns ofthe thong are made between the have been made from a section of an antler with an end implement's head and the protruding end of the handle. crook, like the Dakota specimen once owned by the This provides a seat for the blade. Illustration shows this writer, or it may be fashioned from any stick with a method of hafting ( Fig 6,#2 ). nearly right-angled crook at one end. This could be a branched root, as shown by the illustration, or some Full Grooved Axes. In the case of this ax, several other irregular growth of a similar kind. The crooked methods of preparation and attachment of handle were projection is cut off to about a 2" length,to which the doubtless employed, depending to some extent upon the scraper is bound. But before this takes place a notch is kind and quality of wood available. This report will cut at the base of the projection on the under side of the confine itself to one method only, as suggested quite handle, into which the scraper's pointed base is placed. clearly by an ax specimen from this area on display in the The lashing is performed by winding thongs around the Bronson Museum. This ax has a unique deep groove handle projection and scraper, leaving the wide blade HAFTING STONE IMPLEMENTS 7 exposed below, as shown in the side view drawing of the this scraper it is necessary, first, with the Notcher to cut a illustration ( Fig. 7,##1 ). As supporting evidence of this deep longitudinal groove at one end of the handle, form of a haft, often these scrapers are found with worn extending to at least the length of the scraper's stem. Its blades at the large end, only, and with the pointed end straight edge is then placed in this groove, while thongs missing, apparently snapped offwhen the blade became are bound around handle and through the notched side loose in the shaft. of the scraper. Examination of the illustration showing this haft should impress one with its advantage, in giving The next Stem scraper to be considered is usually the operator a chance to firmly grip the handle, when relatively small, about 1 to 2" in length with a stem that using the tool ( Fig. 7,#3 ). is symmetrical, sometimes slightly side-notched on both sides. Evidently this kind of a Stem scraper was inserted Grooved Hammerstones. Unlike most Hammerstones deeply in one end ofa split stick, or in a notch made for it which were held in the hand without handles, a grooved with the Notcher. It was then merely bound on with variety is at times encountered and probably had a thongs wound around the blade and handle as illustrated different use from the hand-held type. The groove, in ( Fig. 7, #2 ). most cases, is quite shallow and is pecked horizontally around the center of the stone, which shows results of Perhaps the method of hafting the third kind of Stem hammering at one, or sometimes at both ends. It seems scraper is the least obvious, but at the same time may obvious that the groove indicates hafting, suggesting that have been the most ingenious. This relatively small blade this kind of hammer required a handle to be effective. of about the same size as the aforementioned one is dis­ Since the groove is not deep, it seems to be intended more similar, in that it has an asymmetrical stem that is side­ as a grip for holding thongs than for the wooden notched on but one side. The opposite side is left more or shoulders of a handle. Therefore, the haft would have to less straight and at somewhat ofan obtuse angle with the differ in this respect from that of the Grooved ax with its direction of the blade, which tips obliquely away. To haft encircling deep groove.

'------,----- , - = ...... "'" ,;'-_...... _-'.,------~ Fig. 6. SUGGESTED HAFTS FOR AX AND GOUGE BLADES. 1,Full Grooved Ax; 2,Plain Gouge. 8 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Notcher to delineate the knob, which serves as an anchor for the thongs.

In lashing on the Grooved hammerstone, the knobbed butt end ofthe handle is placed against one side of the stone at its grooved center, while rawhide is lashed around the knob and over the groove of the stone. After several turns have been made, it will be noted that the stone is loose in the haft. To correct this, two winds of the thong are made between the stone and the knobbed end and around the thongs thus far lashed in place: As these are pul1ed tight, the implement head becomes rigid in the haft, as shown in the illustration ( Fig. 8,#1 ). It is possible that this tool, when furnished with a handle long enough to be wielded with both hands, may have been used to split white ash shafts into basket staves. This operation, presumably the same then as now, is accomplished by hammering the end of the shaft against the rigid edge of a hard platform.

Fig. 7. SUGGESTED HAFTS FOR 3 TYPES OF SCRAPERS. 1,Stem [long shank); 2,Stem [symmetrical]; 3,Stem [asymmetrical]. A satisfactory haft has been discovered, which may have been the preferred one for the Grooved hammer­ stone. Also, it might wel1 have served for other implements with similar traits, such as some Bal1headed clubs, as wel1 as for certain blades with a flat facet on one side, instead of the usual hafting notch.

A suitable straight stick about 1 112" thick of any length desired is prepared for the handle. While still ~ green, its thickness is reduced toward one end. However, L- ----iO__...... ,-...... ,...",c,...;...'...,..,eo-."=$----'2.----...... 1 in so doing, care is taken to preserve a knob at this end, Fig. 8. SUGGESTED HAFTS FOR GROOVED HAMMERSTONES, after·a suitable cut around the stick is made with the AND KNIVES. 1,Grooved Hammerstone; 2,Stem Knife. HAFTING STONE IMPLEMENTS 9

3

~ '------'--- 2. , ~ c:'" .... s "'. 5 /,, ...... 1

Fig. 9. SUGGESTED HAFTS FOR PLANTING TOOLS. 1.Corn-Planter; 2,Stem Spade; 3.Triangular Hoe; 4.Stem Hoe. Planting Tools. There are three kinds of implements on display in the Bronson Museum. and as illustrated ­ in this category, only one of which needs more than a holds the blade as tightly in place as the day it was made casual description of its haft. This exception is the Tri­ ( Fig. 8.#2 ). angular hoe, which has a more or less flat oblique base. In hafting, a thick, dead branch will answer for the After obtaining a stick for the handle using the handle. at the thicker end of which a flat facet is made by Notcher as a saw, as previously explained. a notch about splitting off a portion. The oblique base of the hoe blade an inch deep is made in one end with the same tool. while is then placed on this flattened end of the handle, while a the wood is still green. After enlarging this to receive the rawhide thong 3 or more feet in length is wrapped knife's shank, side notches are cut into the handle at the around it. The preferred method, which holds the blade base of the deep notch. These side notches are then firmly in place, consists of crisscrossing the thong both deepened to a point, where they little more than meet over its face and back, as shown in the illustration of a both edges ofthe knife's stem. Water-softened gut is next small sized weeding hoe ( Fig. 9.#3 ). See Appendix for stretched around the handle's end within its side-notched special Triangular hoe hafting. cuts. From here it is crisscrossed on both sides of the handle and around the protruding knife blade. while at The other planting tools consisting of Stem hoe, Stem least two more turns are made around the stone itself just spade, and Corn-Planter require merely a simple wrap­ off the handle end. In this way the knife blade is held around method of thong binding, as shown by the firmly in place,so that it cannot work loose transversely. illustrations ( Fig. 9.#1,2.4). nor can it be pulled out of the handle. Illustration shows this method of lashing ( Fig. 8.#2). Knives. Of all stone tools, the Stem knife cutting blade requires the closest attention in following certain ULUS. Another tool is the well-known knife of the essential hafting operations. The writer's success with Early Archaic, the Ulu, with its straight back and semi­ this h~ft is such that one he made entirely with stone lunar ground slate blade. When it has a comb back ­ tools and laced with gut more than 20 years ago - now sometimes incision decorated - attachment ofa wood or 10 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY bone handle probably was unnecessary. However, when tools ( Fig. 11,#2 ). Other specimens, found at two camp the straight back is plain, some kind of a handle would sites in South Hadley and Agawam, with similar traits, seem to have been required, either of wood or bone. An also presumably are Abrading-scrapers used for Eskimo haft of today of a similar flat slate Ulu, now on completing the hollowing of steatite bowls at home sites; display in the Bronsom Museum, has the back slipped one is used for the suggested haft ( Fig. 11,#1 ). into a slot cut along one side of a bone, and made fast with fish glue or its equivalent. This seems to indicate Attention should now be called to a deliberate that an attached handle for the plain backed Ulu was thinning ofthe blade's triangular stem that took place, in utilized. Sometimes, one or more holes produced by which large flakes were removed from one face to form a abrasion perforate the straight back through the blade, distinct channel at times, as shown by the Dolly Bond which must have been made to receive thongs for hafting exhibit. The thinned stem of the hafted specimen is it to a handle. For either the plain or perforated blade, hidden from view; is indicated by dotted lines. It seems the handle may have been a short length of a stick, with obvious that this type ofblade had to have some kind of a about a 11/2" diameter. It might then have been split in handle attached in order to make it useful, since its two - as is suggested - with one edge worked out to triangular base would seem to have prevented a finger accommodate the thickness of the blade's back. From grip, if held in the hand. But what sort of a haft could here on, hafting would consist simply of binding the have been invented to produce a suitable handle? handle halves together at both ends, as well as through any existing perforations. In this way the Ulu is bound Leather thongs wound around the stem, as may have tightly, and is held in place as though fastened in a vise, been used for many tools, was here out of the question, similar to one on display in the Bronson Museum ( Fig. since the sloping triangular sides would have quickly 10 ). This specimen has one hole placed about midway caused the thongs to slip off. What then could have been between both ends of the back. devised? Does not the heavily thinned triangular end suggest the answer? For, as has been shown in the case of Triangular Scrapers. In the category ofscrapers there other hafts, definitely worked notches or grooves on is one kind that seems to require separate attention, blades do appear to indicate methods used in attaching because of its distinctive triangular shape. The sides of handles. After much thought and subsequent its stem form two sides of a more or less right angle experiments, a possible haft was accomplished ­ triangle while its semi-lunar-shaped scraping blade improbable as it may seem at first glance - of a becomes the hypotenuse. This edge is coarsely flaked, perforated wooden handle, into which the blade's stem is doubtless to accomplish the kind ofwork for which it was inserted ( Fig. 11 ,#1 ). To hold the blade fast in the haft, a designed. Several specimens of this blade have appeared wooden plug is driven down from the top into the flaked­ at the Westfield and Dolly Bond stone bowl quarries, out channel, formed by the stem's thinning, as illus­ with worked traits similar to those of the industry's trated. By performing this unique haft, the writer proved Abrading-scraper, which seems to place it in this class of the basic principal ofthe wedged plug correct. But would

o I "" c'.-.... &;;:"~ '2. '0 _

Fig. 10. SUGGESTED HAFT FOR THE STRAIGHT BACK PLAIN ULU - not COMB BACK. HAFTING STONE IMPLEMENTS 11

.....------...... -- I ..... co ~ __2.------'------""'" Fig. 11. SUGGESTED WEDGE HAFT FOR A TRIANGULAR SCRAPER. 1,Quartzite Blade, from State Line Camp Site, Agawam; 2,Gneiss Blade [Abrading-scraper], from Dolly Bond Stone Bowl Quarry, near Millbury. an aborigine, with his limited means, have been able to course. is understood to have been reported recovered effect such a haft? For him to have attempted the from water emersion in the Ohio River Valley some years required perforation by the use of fire would have been ago. long and tedious, not to mention its probable failure to form a tight satisfactory haft. Although thongs of gut or rawhide are mentioned for hafting in this report, it is probable that other kinds of However, after further thought, it does seem that a material were sometimes used for impermanent hafts, similar result would have been possible in Stone Age when more available. For example, in the case of times. by the simple expedient of splitting a thick, short planting tools, doubtless made by women planters, often stick. The blade's triangular stem could then have been in the field, strips of twisted bark or wild grape vines held firm between the stick halves by binding them might have served; the writer has successfully used together at both ends with thongs, much the same as twisted bark cord for such hafts. In any event, when hafting the Vlu. Then, as a final act, a wedge could continuous application of creative effort over thousands have been driven in as previously explained. If this ofyears ofaboriginal labor, must have developed hafting hafting technique was actually used, would it not seem results far superior to any imaginary hafting suggestions that it may have been the forerunner of the machine key of today. The efficiency of the human mind, when faced way of today? with problems of survival, no matter how primitive such effort may seem today, outweighs any attempt at this late While the described hafts ofthis paper do not include date to duplicate early man's ingenuity in devising by any means all the various kinds of stone tools that suitable hafts for his stone implements. And with this required handles, they do account for some of the more thought in mind, the writer humbly offers this report well-known types. Doubtless some of the operations with a feeling of inadequacy in suggesting these several employed in hafting, as outlined for the ten different methods of aboriginal hafting. kinds of tools, were utilized for still other tools not described, such as drills and Chipped axes. Also, still Bronson Museum other techniques must have been used for hafting the May 3,1970 War Club Prong, and Celt. For these implements - the Celt in small sizes that show an unbattered poll - it is APPENDIX likely that the blade was sunk half way in one end of the handle, after a suitable hole had been made to receive it, (Special Hafting of Triangular Hoes). probably by fire. The stone head might then have been not only held in place with pitch, but also bound in with When it comes to determining the various methods of thongs for security. Such a Celt haft, minus the thongs of hafting stone implements that may have been utilized by 12 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY aborigines of the Northeast. no quick way is possible of learning what the methods were. Strange as it may seem, such early commentators as Roger Williams, who relate at some length about the material possessions of the Indians and much about their beliefs and social customs, say nothing about how their stone implements were lashed to handles. although it is likely that more than 80 percent of all such tools had to be hafted before they could be used to advantage. For example, Williams states that the Indians about Boston used clam shells for hoes. which formerly were of stone. but fails to say how they were bound onto handles. Obviously. they would not have become hoes until they had been attached to handles in a way that would preserve their strength. so they could withstand the strain of planting. The writer found that since quahaug shells have similar traits to stone Triangular hoes they may be hafted in the same way.

In the case of most Triangular hoe blades basal corners are lopped off irregularly with enough rough frets exposed to provide the required support for holding the thong in place, as it is wound in a crisscross fashion over the face and back of the hoe blade ( Fig. 12.#1 ). However. occasionally one occurs with a short triangular blade and sloping basal sides. produced by removal of the corners ( Fig. 12.#3 ). This specimen of white quartz, recovered from a Palmer River site in Swansea, Mass., is an example of a Triangular hoe with an undesirable slope on the left basal side. Evidently. the maker of it. when knocking off the basal corners, was successful in obtaining the desired notch to hold the hafting thongs in place on the right side. but not on the left. Therefore, to haft this specimen. the method described in this report would apply. The stubby pointed bit in such cases would not be long enough to accommodate the presence of thongs fastened just below the extremities of its sharply expanding sides, since such positioning would subject them to undue wear from sharp stones and coarse dirt, as the hoe cut into the soil. In such a situation the sloping basal sides, on only one side, as in the case of Exhibit #3, seem more desirable as a suitable location for the hafting thongs that they may be kept out of contact with the earth. However, it has been found that.this is not possible without some sort of an accommodation to prevent the thongs from loosening and slipping down the slope toward the handle. What is lacking, obviously, is a fret of some kind prominent enough on one, or both basal sides, as the case may be. to hold the thongs in place. O~ ~ -:t----~--' '-- __.._.,-...... ,c::.-:...-J.."....,...... It has been found that such frets may be artificially created by first winding the thong a couple of times Fig. 12. TRIANGULAR HOE HAFTING. 1,Usual haft for long bitted hoes; 2.Special haft for short bitted hoes and sloping basal sides; around the sloping base before crisscrossing it from 3.Palmer River specimen of white quartz. showing one sloping basal blade to handle (Fig. 12.#2). This discovery, simple as it side, and one that is satisfactorily side-notched. may seem, makes the difference between success and failure. It suggests that aboriginal craftsmen probably of their simplicity often baffle modern attempts to resorted to clever devices in their hafting, which because duplicate them. This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling,loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. 13 CERAMIC POT DISCOVERY IN COASTAL CONNECTICUT

CLARENCE DONATH, JR.

I first learned of a probable ceramic pot discovery indicate damage incurred during the length of intern­ during the summer of 1971 from a friend who owns a ment, rather than a deliberate "killing" elsewhere prior small Indian/Eskimo-made goods store in Niantic, to its secreting away. No other artifacts were found in Connecticut. He was visited that day by a local man who association with this vessel. had in his possession what appeared to be an Indian clay pot, which the man recently found and had brought to Mr. Beaudreau allowed me to photograph and take the Indian store to inquire about its origin. Not being important measurements of the vessel, so these facts able to offer much comment on the artifact, but knowing could be studied. We then compared the neck decoration of my great interest in amateur archaeology, my friend and overall appearance to the Bulletin detail of Stage 1 to obtained the man's name and phone number. Stage 4 ceramic pots, trying to date its origin. The pot exhibits Stage 3 traits; has a 6" diameter I was able to contact the pot's discoverer, a Mr. Louis Beaudreau of Waterford, Connecticut, that evening and mouth opening and is 7 1/2" high. The basal walls, as was extended an invitation to visit his home to view the measured through the bottom hole, are 3/8" thick, with vessel. Armed with my camera and a copy of the Massa­ a temper consisting of medium to coarse crushed quartz. chusetts Archaeological Society's Bulletin "Ceremonial Some ofthe larger quartz temper fragments occasionally and Domestic Products of Aboriginal New England" are noticeable on the outside surface of the vessel as they Vol. 27, Nos. 3 and 4, dated April-July 1966, containing came to the surface during construction and became classification details ofceramic pots, Stage 1 to Stage 4, I fixed in place. A flat rim has an everted 1/4" high lip could only wonder as I drove to see the pot, how and with a deeply scored decoration around its outside. The where it was found; was it authentic; and how did it pot's full globular body is cord marked on the exterior survive so long undiscovered in an area settled during the first days of New England. The answers were to follow.

As Mr. Beaudreau unveiled his find, I knew at once that he had indeed come across an authentic ceramic vessel, since its ware compared to the few pot sherds I had been fortunate enough to recover during my many hours afield. The surprising factor was the state of pres­ ervation of the vessel, with no crumbling sections and apparently not requiring any preservative treatment since the pot's walls were quite rigid, with good tensile strength.

Inquiring how he came upon such a rare find, Mr. Beaudreau related that as an amateur geologist, he had been searching the woods near his home for various minerals, as his hobby normally required on weekends. Naturally, large rock outcroppings, ledges or glacial falls always caught his attention and it was on one of these outings a few weeks before, that he had come upon a likely looking spot in the woods. It consisted of a large outfall ofglacial boulders along a wooded hillside, which had been naturally thrown together in such a way as to produce a dense boulder-strewn area.

Prowling under the rocks with his flashlight and rock hammer, he saw a portion of the rim of the vessel appearing above some loose sand. He carefully removed the find by clearing the area with his hands. The pot, in ~ c~~ "~ ~---' ...... ;0__._: __" __6 an almost upright position, was recovered complete, although the bottom does have a two inch hole broken Fig. 13. CERAMIC POT RECOVERY, Stage 3. 1,Photo of Pot; 2,llIustration of Pot, showing deep incised lines around neck, over­ out. All pot sherds from this base hole were found printed with dentate plaited oblique bands; flat rim with incised immediately beneath the pot which would seem to rope-like lip; cord-marked outside, plain inside. 14 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY only, while the constricted neck exhibits a good degree of design. This neck design ( Fig. 13 ) consists of deep hori­ zontal incised lines, overprinted by a diagonal dentllte platted motif, which frequently occurs on Stage 3 PO'- pottery. Appearing around the lower edge of the neck design and separating it from the body cord marks are a series of small vertical incised lines. The pot's interior is completely smooth, with the entire inside surface charcoal black as though it had contained a fire during the last days of it~ use or manu­ facture. Mr. Beaudreau mentioned that during the initial discovery, the pot had been about half full of small granular charcoal bits, which he later recovered to keep all evidence intact. Classifying this pot as Stage 3 would place it in the late prehistoric, or about A.D. 1400 and on, sometime prior to the first arrival of Dutch and English traders in this region.

Our meeting ended with a promise from Mr. Beaudreau that we would get together soon for a visit to the site of his find.

THE SITE

Several months passed before we were able to arrange our time for the meeting. In the meantime, Mr. Beaudreau had a short account and photo of his find written up in our local newspaper. I took this clipping with me on a visit to the Bronson Museum during August 1971, to show the curator, Dr. William S. Fowler. His immediate comment upon viewing the photograph was that the full globular base of the pot probably was indicati e of a New York influence. This rapid analysis NIANTIC was to prove to be most factual once we learned where BAY the pot had actually lain hidden. Waterford, Connecticut is a coastal town located on the southeastern Connecticut shore line. The west section LONG. ISLAND SOUND of the town is bordered by the Niantic River flowing for about three miles to Niantic Bay and then into the sea. It Fig. 14. MAP OF SITE AREA. Pot Recovery, in rock cavity, upper was in the upper Niantic River Valley (Fig. 14) that Mr. righthand corner. Beaudreau took me to see the discovery area. The site is located along the edge of a powerline A quick investigation among the surrounding rocks cutting through the woods. As soon as I saw the site, I revealed quite a few oyster shells about the surface as realized why the pot had lain hidden so long, even though they had been thrown down from above. Mr. though the surrounding section has been and still is Beaudreau pointed out an interesting looking rock rapidly building up. Here was a rough and rugged shelter on the east side of the rockfall. This may reveal boulder-strewn rock slide, with the larger boulders 10 to more data relevant to the ceramic vessel once we have a 15 feet high and with dangerous gaps appearing between chance for closer examination in the spring. sharp rocks. This situation does not lend itself to the casual walker or youngsters, who usually find these ont­ The Niantic River, even today, abounds with wildlife croppings close to their homes and frequent them as a in the form of ducks and geese which stay all year long. refuge or play area. The pot lay hidden in the lower edge The river is full of saltwater fish such as striped bass, of this rockfall between two good sized rocks, which white perch and flatfish, with sea-run brown trout formed a cavity. To view the actual sand-filled floor of adding an interesting flavor. And only in recent years has the cavity, you have to almost stand on your head there been a decline in the once abundant and famous between the rocks. Niantic Bay scallop. This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling,loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. CERAMIC POT DISCOVERY IN COASTAL CONNECTICUT 15

With such attractions it is a certainty that the area molllusk gathering activities were being conducted in was well known and frequented by aboriginal natives, this seashore location. who may have come across Long Island Sound from Long Island, New York. They would have brought with Or possibly the pot had never seen service as a them thoughts and customs to influence our local domestic product, since the charcoal bits still remaining Nehantic and Pequot Indian tribes, thus accounting for may indicate a newly manufactured item with signs of the full globular vessel, with a design motif resembling the firing process still in evidence. It seems reasonable to Castle Creek Owasco pottery of New York. speculate that the pot could have been made during the summer months due to the ease in this season of CONCLUSION gathering clay, with long daylight hours and easy living conditions that favored pot construction activities. Then, The pot's history and purpose is difficult to if this new-pot theory is used with the pot secreted away determine, but from its perfect condition - save for its after summer firing, rather than being pressed into use, damaged base - and facts associated with the find, it is this might tend to show that the area was occupied only possible to make some observations. It would appear that during the summer months - shellfish gathering time ­ the pot had been carefully laid away in good shape after to be retrieved next season after a winter spent at some possibly a season's use as a domestic product, to be inland site. reclaimed at some later date, rather than to be carried to a new location. An unserviceable item would most likely In any case, the fact remains that a good pot was have been broken up and discarded around the occupa­ hidden away, rather than being used until broken, tional area instead of being so carefully hidden. suggesting that a movement ofpeople from the area took place with the intention of returning to the same site at a The contents of charcoal bits and blackened inner future date. One can only surmise what events may have wall surfaces are most intriguing. Could this have been a taken place to prevent their return and recovery of this result ofsome oyster smoking process, wherein the vessel vessel. Could it have been the arrival of the white man? served as a smudge pot to smoke its contents of freshly shelled oysters, thereby preserving them in preparation North Stonington, Conn. for the long winter months? The scattering of oyster February 28, 1972 shells in and around the glacial boulder area proves that

ABODES OF FOUR ABORIGINAL PERIODS

WILLIAM S. FOWLER

During the past quarter of a century, in the course of research have now produced several kinds of evidence of archaeological research of the New England area, a reliable nature, which have given encouragement for recurring tantalizing questions have arisen about the this report. Not that this evidence has always been as living conditions ofits aboriginal occupants. People seem factual as might be desired, but that a reasonable inter­ eager for knowledge, especially, as to what the abodes pretation of it has led to a probable understanding of were like that related to the several different culture changing living conditions reaching back over an periods. Realizing that environment has been a determ­ extensive span of man's occupation. And, as man ining factor in man's survival, research has included a adapted himself to environmental conditions throughout study of climatic changes that took place over the long the ages, it seems relevant to attempt a reconstruction of span of man's occupation of this northeastern area. This the kind of housing he may have devised to protect has entailed the work of geologists as well as archaeolo­ himself from the elements. gists in an effort to find out what may have taken place over the last 9,300 years. This starting date was obtained This report attempts to envision the various kinds of from a radiocarbon measure of charcoal from an open lodgings, as influenced by changing environmental hearth at the Paleo Bull Brook site in Ipswich. Years of conditions and ways of life that may have existed here 16 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY during four well-defined culture periods: Paleo, Early Considering these conditions and existing tundra Archaic, Late Archaic, and Ceramic-Woodland. Some of limitations, it seems reasonable to envision for this early these abodes are well-defined, but others are inspired period an impermanent hut composed of brush, which by circumstantial evidence of a kind that seems might have been set up with an opening at one side, with convincing. To those who demand factual evidence accommodations for one or two people. For additional before accepting an attempted postulation, parts of this protection from the rain, a skin, when available, might report will doubtless appear as heresy. And yet, the have been thrown over the top as a roof. This brush hut writer feels that the evidence, such as it is, should be would have served only as a night shelter, daytime living exposed and interpreted, seasoned with a generous being in the open. Bull Brook's workshops, then, might sprinkling ofcommon sense. After all, archaeology is not be conceived as places outside the hut, where activities of an exact science in the sense that an envisioned fact can the day were carried on including the making of flint be definitely proven beyond a possible doubt. Instead, it implements. represents an effort, in which groping for the truth never ceases, but forever continues toward an evasive goal. The brush hut, about 4 feet high to the roof, of the However, it would seem that this should not prevent Shoshoni, "Digger Indians" of the 1800's ( Fig. 15 ), reasonable postulations, which might lead to a better furnishes a good example of a primitive brush abode, understanding of otherwise heterogeneous evidence. used in modern times by backward people in desert tundra surroundings. It should probably resemble the Paleo-A merican (about 9,300 years ago). The Paleo shelter of 9,300 years earlier, since it too was ancients of this initial period of occupation in New subjected to a similar barren environment as that of the England were not the Indians of Columbus. They were Shoshoni. our first Americans, and are known to have used the Early Archaic (about 7,000 years ago). At the end of distinctive Fluted point in spearing their tundra-fed late the Paleo, when the making and use of Fluted points had Pleistocene game, such as mammoths and mastodons. ceased, new ideas arrived to alter somewhat the cultural Although small deposits indicating their presence have attributes of the day. These changes are apparent by the appeared in various locations, their heaviest concentra­ tion has appeared at the Bull Brook site, previously referred to. There, at depths of from 10 to 15" below the loam on hard-packed gravelly sand have appeared numerous workshop areas. These were indicated by accumulations of flint chips with flint Stem scrapers, Gravers, and Fluted points mixed in. No stone hearths were found at this level, but an open hearth of charcoal was encountered, which provided the radiocarbon date previously referred to. No post molds were found to suggest frame structures of any kind, which is under­ standable, since the tundra surroundings would have furnished nothing larger than bushes. What then could have protected these early hunters from stormy weather in the form of an abode?

Here is a situation with only sparse factual evidence available, of which a hypothetical evaluation seems necessary. Summers would have been short, during which tundra grazing would have been open for animal feeding, while for the rest of the year ice and snow would have forced both animals and hunters to warmer more southerly climes. The highly nomadic state of existence that resulted must have kept these Paleo hunters on the move with only short stopovers. However, these doubtless were long enough at some sites, as at Bull Brook, to have furnished sufficient time in which to make tools from flint stock brought in from outside regions. To judge from the charcoal remains of an open fire at this site, Fig. 15. BRUSH SHELTER, of Digger Indians near the Grand Canyon. Copy of photograph made in 1871-5, during the Colorado River hearths ofthese people probably were outside affairs, not Expediton of Major John Wesley Powell; the hut stands about 4 ft. to located within shelters. top of roof. From Man's Rise to Civilization, by Peter Farb. ABODES OF FOUR ABORIGINAL PERIODS 17

appearance of several new projectile point types. the stone hearth, previously described, appears to have Counterparts ofthem have been reported from regions to been constructed for outside use. the south and far west, where they have been radiocarbon dated. These data have indicated a probable transitional This shelter postulation, probably would not only position for these points between the Paleo and Early apply to the Early Phase, just described, but also to the Archaic ages. Here in New England they have been rest ofthe Early Archaic. During this final span of about considered as representing the Early Phase of the Early 1,500 years the nomadic caribou hunters of the age Archaic, and may have occupied a span of about 500 moved slowly northward out of New England, it would years extending down to 6,500 years ago. They include seem, in gradual pursuit ofthe caribou, upon which their the following types: Eden, Corner-removed#2, and survival depended. Retreat of the tundra and its supply Parallel Stem. At Oak Island, Titicut, and Twin Rivers, of lichen, upon which the caribou fed, followed the excavations uncovered occupational remains involving at melting ice northward and set the stage for what least one of these three point types, appearing in the followed. Archaeologically, this remainder of the Early lowest occupied horizon. Also, at these sites presence at Archaic is associated with small stone hearths with an this low level of small unique stone hearths with small opening at one side, quite similar to those of the Early fire pits encircled with stones, and with an opening for Phase. These were clearly identified by recoveries at the feeding fuel at one'side, furnishes evidence of related Oak Island site on North River, Society Bulletin, Vol 29, conditions that may have existed. #3,4. Evidence suggests that this last portion of the Early Archaic was tundra motivated, like the Early Phase, In these hearths appeared charred sticks, not log followed by an ever persistent approach of forest cover, remains, which should indicate presence of a bushy which was slowly moving up through New England. tundra instead of forest growth, although there might Projectile point types found in close association with this have been pockets of coniferous trees growing in low culture period are: Corner-removed#5,8 and 9; and swampy places, as forestation was commencing to creep Bifurcated with sharp barbs. in from warmer climes to the south. But for the most part, a wide open tundra probably covered the Searching for an example of a shelter of more recent countryside, swept over at times by high winds that times, which might resemble the envisioned skin hut of caused formation of sand dunes in some areas. At this the Early Archaic caribou hunters, a probable parallel time herds of caribou are thought to have roamed the occurs to the writer. He recalls seeing a good photograph tundra, and are believed to have influenced the mode of in a magazine issue of the early 1900's of a skin-covered human existence to a considerable extent - their bones hut, then in use by herdsmen of some part of the have been recovered at various sites. As far as shelters are Mongolian desert. This was before arrival of canvas concerned, it seems obvious to one, who has examined tents, now widely used. If his memory serves him right, the small stone hearths at close range, that they must this hut of Asiatic nomads had a somewhat rounded have been used in the open. For the hearth's construction shape of about 10 or 15 feet in diameter. It appeared to with stones surrounding a small fire pit suggests an have skins fastened to a simple frame ofpoles, which had intentional attempt to protect the fire from wind action; been bent over at the top to form a round-edged flattened an unnecessary precaution if the hearth had been used roof. This reached to about shoulder height from the inside a shelter. As to the form of human existence, the ground, and on one side ofthe hut was an opening for the presence of caribou suggests a highly nomadic existence doorway. Such a structure, it would seem, could have for the hunters ofthis early period, to judge from today's easily been taken down and moved at will. This example experience of the Caribou Indians of Canada. They hunt appears to support the postulation of skin-covered huts and follow caribou herds over the Quebec-Labrador for New England's caribou hunters of the Early Archaic. peninsula, a tundra waste that once existed here in New England. Late Archaic (about 5,000 years ago). This final Archaic stage is separated stratigraphically at excavated By this time poles for building could have been sites from the Early Archaic, wh~ch it follows, its most obtained from the few trees, which were beginning to diagnostic projectile point types being: Eared, Corner­ appear in low places. And with the availability of caribou removed#7, Side-notched#l, and Small Triangular#4. A hides, it is probable that a more carefully constructed general lack of evolutionary development of stone abode than that ofa brush hut would have resulted. Post implement types from Early to the Late Archaic, but molds or other organic remains from this early period instead a replacement in the latter age of old with new may never appear to substantiate what the structure types in most categories suggests arrival ofa new people. actually looked like. Nevertheless, man's survival, as Small in number at first, but with advanced ceremonial determined by caribou and the environment of those rites in evidence often including the use of red powdered days, suggests a small caribou hide-covered hut. Smoke ocher, excavated recoveries suggest a creative alert exhaust probably would not have posed a problem, since people had arrived, probably from western regions. They 18 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

were part of an eastern movement of peoples that had There is reason to believe that this advanced form of been going on from earliest times. And by now, forests building, which utilized cut tree poles for rafters and had taken over, covering most areas much the same as probably bark for shingling, continued as the preferred today. A warm period, the so-called "Climatic Opti­ type ofconstruction throughout the Late Archaic. At the mum," was in progress with modern kinds of animals close of the age, sometime after the beginning of the present, replacing the caribou of former days. Ceramic era, destructive forces appeared that seem to have caused a change in house building methods. With these changed conditions people became more sedentary, which had much to do in bringing about an The Late Archaics, with their dominant stone bowl elaboration in house construction that now took place. A industry, which had persisted for more than 2,000 years, report in Society Bulletin, Vol. 32, #1&2, describes in apparently were unimpeded during this time by warfare; detail recovery of house floor evidence, outlined by post were engaged in making products for the welfare of the molds at the Wapanucket #8 evacuation on Assawomp­ family. Hence, they lived, as it would seem, in a peaceful sett Lake. This has enabled a probable reconstruction of society, which encouraged expansive architectural the Late Archaic house structure as illustrated ( Fig. 16 ). accomplishments in house building. But by the end of An associated charcoal sample from outside the house the period populations evidently had multiplied, to judge was radiocarbon dated about 4,300 years ago. This house from the heavy concentration of stone artifacts left was comparatively large with a 32 to 4S foot diameter, behind. Then, with arrival of ceramics, cooking pots and was probably somewhat conical in shape, inter­ began to be made of clay by women, replacing stone rupted by vertical low side walls and a straight sloping bowls formerly made by men. And with the resultant rafter roof. The side walls overlapped at one end to closing of the stone bowl quarries, men were deprived of provide an entrance, and because of this unique charac­ the invigorating work of producing the products of the teristic this structure has been called the "snail-shell" quarries, except for stone pipes, which continued to be house. Evidence shows that the hearth fire was inside the made by men. structure, the smoke escaping through an opening at the top bewteen the rafters. As a result ofthis industrial change, living conditions

Fig. 16. SNAIL-SHELL HOUSE, Late Archaic, about 4,300 years ago. Illustration of a house from diorama of seven, Wapanuckel#8 site, Bronson Museum. ABODES OF FOUR ABORIGINAL PERIODS 19 must have become altered. And with more people to deal diameter, while several modes ofcovering are mentioned, with, the stage was set for formation of tribes to effect including: finely woven mats; thatched with rushes or better group control. But, as always happens under such corn husks; and pieces of bark attached like shingles. Of circumstances, infringement of tribal fishing or hunting these various coverings, bark seems to have been a rights seems to have caused friction that was redressed by favorite selection, since it is mentioned frequently in tribal warfare. Evidently, such action involved fire with early accounts. With the presence of dense woods and destruction of the enemy's houses. This appears to have large trees, its preference is understandable, although brought about an architectural decline, in which the length and width of the pieces of bark must have defeated tribal group no longer was interested in depended to a large extent upon the kind of trees rebuilding their large snail-shell houses requiring weeks involved. oflabor. Now, with the threat of repeated conflagrations, people seem to have settled for more quickly constructed Besides bark's accessibility, it seems to have provided smaller shelters, to be described in the following section. a dry shelter, as may be gleaned from The Captivity and Removes of Mary Rowlandson in 1676. Taken into captivity along with others at the burning of Lancaster in Ceramic- Woodland (about A.D. 300). This last Philip's War, she survived a grueling ordeal oftravel with culture development involves people, who, because of her captors. It covered a long trek through the wilderness their continued used of some implement traits from the of the Connecticut River Valley, before ransom was Late Archaic with only slight changes, are presumed to effected at "Redemption Rock" near the foot of Mount have been descendants from that age. It was a period Wachusett. Her account, coming as it did shortly after when the activity of pottery-making and maize planting her return, is considered most authoritative, and is often was conducted by women, while men were the fighters, used for reference because of her detailed descriptions. when not engaged in hunting or fishing. Somewhat more sedentary than their predecessors, due perhaps to the On occasion of her fourteenth remove, as they went addition of maize as a partial food staple, these people through the forests toward the Bay-towns this reference left behind several types of projectile points, which are is of interest: "When night came on, we sat down: it considered most diagnostic of this period: Large Tri­ rained, but they [Indians] quickly got up a bark wigwam, angular, Small Triangular#5, Corner-notched, and Side­ where I lay dry that night ... many of them had lien in notched#3,5,6, and 7. the rain all night." The kind of wigwam involved in this account can only be surmised, but the work must have As suggested in the previous section, the living abode been expertly done to effect the dry result as reported. To for this age was reduced to small proportions, doubtless have been a wigwam in this instance - a term used as a result of the threat of destruction by enemy groups. frequently by Mrs. Rowlandson - the structure would Ritchie reports, in his Pre-Iroquoian Occupations ofNew probably have conformed somewhat to the established York State. the finding on one Canandaigua village of pattern: pole-framed and shingled with pieces of bark, circular hut or wigwam sites about 10 feet in diameter. although the bark slabs might well have been larger than They were traced by postmold patterns with central fire­ usual to save time. To have accomplished this work in the places, consisting in each case ofan indiscriminate group short time inferred by her expression, "quickly," is an of firestones, and indicate small abodes of some kind. impressive piece of house building, far from that which But the best evidence of what these structures may have might be expected from lazy individuals. looked like, and the way they were constructed is to be In respect to wigwam living of those days, it is of had from reports of early commentators. They witnessed interest to note from further remarks of Mrs. these abodes, called wigwams, and at times lived in them, Rowlandson that the family fire place was inside the which should make their accounts authoritative. Several wigwapl. Describing her seventeenth remove, she says: of these references may be found in the report on house "Then I went into another wigwam [in an Indian Town] floors, Society Bulletin, Vol. 32, #3&4. The squaw was boiling horses' feet, she cut me off a little Morton's account, as found in that report, i.s quite piece." descriptive as to the method of wigwam construction, and is repeated here. He says: "They gather Poles in the From such early reports it is possible to obtain a fairly woods and put the Great end in the ground, placing them accurate mental picture of what the house of the last in the form of a circle or circumference and bending the culture period looked like, and how it was used. But topps on them to form an Arch they bind them together there is another piece of evidence derived from an obser­ with the Barke ofWalnut trees which is wondrous tuff so vation of today, which seems to confirm the wigwam they make the same round on the topp." structural form, as described by colonial eye-witness accounts. In 1933 the writer was in Chicago on business, Champlain, Roger Williams and others refer to small and attended the last World Fair held in that city. The round houses ranging in size of from 10 to 15 feet in thing that attracted his attention was a performance by MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 20

American Indians from three sections of the country, An early photo ofabout 1860 has been obtained from demonstrating different methods of house construction the Minnesota Historical Society, showing Winnebago peculiar to their respective cultures. There was the adobe Bark Wigwams with the type of bark construction then pueblo of the Hopi, and the spacious tepee of the Sioux. in use: long strips of bark laid over a frame of saplings But what interested him most was the wigwam of the ( Fig. 17 ). Winnebagos, a people living in the forests of Wisconsin near Lake Winnebago. They speak Algonkian and Another people of Algonkian lineage, the Chippewa belong to the same linguistic stock as the aborigines of of northern Minnesota, occupy an area around the New England. Could it be that this relationship accounts western shores ofLa_ke Superior. Their name is said to be for the similarity of the Winnebago wigwam to that a corruption of Ojibwa [pronounced Ojibway], garbled described by our early commentators? Whatever the by Europeans into Chippeway, so that even today many reason, their wigwam appeared to the writer, as he Ojibwas call themselves Chippeways. Like the examined its structure, to conform in general to that Winnebagos, these people were living in bark-covered described by Morton and others, as used by the historic wigwams as late as 1870, as shown by a photo of this natives of New England. The Winnebago structure date, courtesy of the Minnesota Historical Society ( Fig. appeared relatively small and had a domed-over shape 18 ). This picture shows wide slabs of bark placed over, with a vent for the escape of smoke, and with a small and secured to a frame of saplings, while outside, posts opening in one side for the entrance. A framework of and stray saplings lean against the bark covering to hold bent-over saplings, covered with slabs of dark colored it in place. bark, had a height of only about 5 feet, necessitating a CONCLUSION stooped position for anyone entering, with no chance of moving about within in an upright posture. Several of Looking back over the 9,000 or more years of man's these wigwams were being lived in at the fair by a group occupation ofNew England, and examining the probable of Winnebagos, which presented an impressive sight. kinds of abodes he used, it seems clear that his actions were often impelled by his environment. At the start with the open tundra wastes surrounding his camp, he used such structural material for his hut as nature provided in the form of brush. The result may have resembled the brush hut of nineteenth century Digger Indians of our western plains, who were faced with similar waste land limitations. With low temperatures and a short hunting season for the Fluted point hunters, permanency of housing was never contemplated. Hence, the quickly thrown-together brush hut was most probably the . structure of Paleo New England. As time moved on, about 2,000 years later, conditions had begun to change, with newcomers arriving, whose source, as formerly, may have been Asia. By now prehis­ toric animals had disappeared and had been replaced by certain animals oftoday. Of these, by far the most useful and therefore the one most hunted is believed to have been the caribou. Herds of these animals must have frequented New England at this time, and moved north into Canada following retreat of the glacial ice caps and tundra. Their hides were useful for clothing, and because ofthis availability, very probably were also used in house construction. Certain it is that skin-covered huts at the turn of the 20th century were being used by certain nomadic herdsmen of the Asian desert, who may be derived from the same racial stock from which the Early Archaic migrants sprang in earlier times. New England caribou hunters may likewise have used skin-covered Fig. 17. WINNEBAGO BARK WIGWAMS. Photo taken in about 1860; huts, which, being easily moved, would have served them courtesy of the Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn. The well in place of more permanent structures. long strips of bark as shown in this wigwam construction are reported to have come from the basswood tree. Note spindly saplings or vines stretched over the bark covering to hold it in place. At this point it may be well to explain the reasons for ABODES OF FOUR ABORIGINAL PERIODS 21

Fig. 18. CHIPPEWA BARK WIGWAM. Photo taken about 1870; courtesy of the Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn. Note the large cutout pieces of bark, apparently overlapping, allached to a frame of bent-over saplings. The tree source of the bark is unknown, although its appearance suggests white birch. assuming that the next culture period ofthe Late Archaic weight replaces the Oval atlatl weight; Stem and was peopled by new arrivals from the west, rather than by Stemless knives replace the Ulu and Leaf knife; Grooved descendants of the Early Archaics. Doubted by some, gouge replaces the Channeled gouge; Grooved ax and who like to consider the entire Archaic era as one Pestle are new introductions; and broad-bladed cultural develpment, what may be said to the contrary is projectile points, such as, Eared, Side-notched#l, and anathema to them. However, it seems to this writer that a Corner-notched#7 replace the narrower javelin Corner­ conscientious appraisal of archaeological recoveries, removed#S,8 and 9 points. Also, there was a change from stratigraphically recorded, should serve as a valid the old method of hafting these last named spear points approach to the truth. More specifically, the fact is that of the Early Archaic, which have elongated narrowing certain implement types of the Early Archaic are stems ofrelatively reduced proportions. For these points, replaced by new types ofthe Late Archaic, having similar it seems self evident that a hole was first reamed in the functions, but with no evidence of having gone through pith of the shaft at one end, into which the extended an evolutionary change. For example, the Wing atlatl narrow stem ofthe point was set, after a slight notch was 22 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY cut across the end to hold the point's shoulders. This appearing at several excavations, show them to have been method is far different from the Late Archaic haft, which culturally advanced above a purely hunting-fishing required only a deep notch cut in one end of the shaft to economy like that of the Early Archaics. They had accommodate the relatively broad-stemmed points of developed satisfactory explanations involving the that age. presence of spirtitual beings, who controlled man's actions in this world and the next. With such advanced When all such replacements and changes are taken thinking, it seems natural to find these creative people into account, a logical conclusion seems to evolve that a living in large commodious snail-shell houses, which new tradition had arrived, made up of people with must have taken days to build. Also, this explains their different equipment and ideas. For without an evolu­ intense industrial activity in the making of stone bowls tionary development of artifact traits in evidence, a lack for cooking. These activities would seem to suggest a of racial continuity seems evident. Therefore, disappear­ somewhat sedentary life for these p.eople, with ance of the Early Archaic caribou hunters from their established home camps to which they continually camps seems apparent. Barring a cataclysm to explain returned. this situation, of which no trace remains, the evidence By about A.D. 300 arrival ofthe knowledge of pottery strongly suggests a departure of these hunters, north, in making, as previously alluded to, changed everything. quest of their main quarry, the caribou, as previously When women became the potters, stone bowls became hypothesized. The new occupants of the former camps unfashionable and unwanted, which brought about the appear to have been more culturally advanced with more closing of steatite quarries. An industrial revolution had creative ability. In time, they opened the steatite quarries quietly taken place, in which women replaced men as and became the stone bowl makers of the Late Archaic, makers of the day's cooking pots. And now with arrival the first industrialists of New England. A few caribou of maize, women took on the job of planting and hunter stragglers, who may have stayed behind, were harvesting the grain. This new food gave these descen­ soon absorbed by the newcomers, with some useful traits dants of the stone bowl makers a more sedentary sort of here or there adopted and modified. existence. But the opportunity that now presented itself for a further cultural advance was gradually eroded by No better example of this cultural absorption exists tribal warfare, when it was accepted as a means to an than that concerning the class of implements called end. And, as has already been pointed out, this sort of plummets. Here, the Classic plummet of the Early destructive action caused an architectural decline, Archaic is followed, stratigraphically, by the Clumsy resulting in smaller abodes, or wigwams, no more than plummet ofthe Late Archaic, obviously a modification of 10 to 15 feet in diameter. the former. Assuming this artifact to have been a line sinker for fishing, an explanation of the modification Early commentators' descriptions of these structures, seems quite obvious. Here, the new arrivals apparently as previously noted, tend to indicate how the industry of adopted an Early Archaic fishing tackle, because it was useful for their survival. But, in making it, they did not the former alert stone bowl makers had suffered. bother to refine it to its symmetrical classic shape, Doubtless these peoples' greatest mistake, which caused this decline, was their acceptance of military bravery as a because they were not its inventors. Instead, they made it in clumsy shapes, which only approximated the classic chief social attribute. And in time this brought on symmetry of the Early Archaic plummet. excessive degrading practices, resulting in unbelievable torture of captives. And, as so often happens in like circumstances, a determined sustained rise of a people to So, the evidence appears to indicate that about 5,000 a remarkable industrial level was halted by warfare, and years ago the Late Archaics began arriving in small over a span ofsomewhat more than a thousand years was family groups, as had been the case with all previous reduced to a more savage state of existence. movements of people into New England. Hence, a long time should doubtless be allowed for a population Bronson Museum increase sufficient to make any group action possible. June 7,1970 After about 500 years their ceremonial burials, This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling,loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. 23 RECOVERY OF A DOUBLE-BITTED GROOVED GOUGE

CONSTANTINE ZARIPHES, JR.

Some 200 yards southeast of the Lone Pine site, as described in Society Bulletin, Vo1.32,#1&2, at the foot of extensive basalt ledges lies a flood plain. Through this relatively level area runs Goff Brook, which is fed by several springs, one of which is now covered with piles of debris from bulldozer operations. The brook skirts a large marsh to the east, and finally empties into the Connecticut River. This flat plain area is known as the Spring site, and enough evidence here has appeared to indicate that once it was an aboriginal camping place.

Two years ago Caruso Bros., a construction company, bulldozed the area to provide a land-fill dump for the town of Rocky Hill, Connecticut, and continuing use of the land for this purpose is now gradually encroaching upon the site. As the land was bulldozed, numerous quartz chips and some of flint were noticed while surface hunting, and in the end a well-made adz of basalt was recovered. While no records have appeared to show that the site had ever been plowed in the past, it may have had some disturbance from an old stage coach road that once passed through the area, connecting Rocky Hill with Ferry Landing on the Connecticut. Today much of the road is overgrown with brush and trees and is scarcely discernible.

A patch of blackened earth where the bulldozer had scraped first attracted our attention, and a trowel was used to explore this discolored area. Ultimately a stone hearth was discovered adjacent to it. It lay approximately 10" below the present bulldozed surface in the subsoil, and was filled with fire-cracked stones. Continued troweling suddenly uncovered in the hearth a perfect Grooved gouge of basalt, which had apparently been untouched by the hearth fire. But the thing that attracts the eye about its general construction is the appearance at the poll end of an evenly chipped semi-cirular bit with thinned edge that borders on sharpness. It seems obvious that here is a Grooved gouge, double-bitted, but in place of a gouge as the second bit there is a small chipped adz blade instead ( Fig. 19 ). Lying only 3" away from this ~ tool appeared a Small Stem quartz point, and about 2 '------:o,--"""'-::,-::...... --:c=-,....~sc:::-::e="'"'--a---- ...... feet removed was found a Corner-removed#7 spear point Fig. 19. DOUBLE·BITTED GROOVED GOUGE, Spring Site, Conn. of flint, besides several quartz chips and one of flint. All This tool consists of a Grooved gouge with a chipped adz poll. of which seems to indicate that a living area had been mention some of the tools found at the latter site. In the encountered. lower zone appeared Late Archaic evidence in the form DISCUSSION of: Eared, Side-notched#6, Corner-removed#3,7, Small Stem, and Small Triangular#4 projectile points; a Because of the proximity of the Spring site to the T-based drill; Grooved gouges; Celts; a Grooved ax; and Lone Pine site on top 'of the basalt ledges that separate a 6 112" long, small traveling stone bowl, well-made with them, as previously reported, it seems advisable to a pouring spout. In the upper zone were remains of the This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling,loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. 24 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Ceramic occupation including: Small Triangular#S, clam-shels and Oyster-shels, cutting their out-sides with Small Stem, Corner-removed#3, and Side-notched#S stone hatchets." projectile points; a Hatchet club; War Club prongs; On this occasion, at a much later age from that of the Hand spades; and several clay potsherds. Late Archaic, stone gouges apparently were not in use; were replaced by clamshells used as scrapers. However, The Spring site find of the combination tool of the Grooved gouge would probably have been used in Grooved gouge and chipped adz appears to be culturally Archaic times before shellfish had become part of the associated with the lower zone occupants of the nearby diet.Wood's mention of stone hatchets seems somewhat Lone Pine site of the Late Archaic. Such a double-bitted suggestive of the kind of work the adz blade of the implement is seldom found and at once creates specula­ double-bitted gouge might have performed in the earlier tion as to how it may have been used. Since the basalt age. Although ifthis is so, it would have been wielded not tools of the two sites of this report were relatively as a hatchet, but as an adz because of its haft; numerous, it seems possible that they may have been attachment of the handle to a gouge is not from the side used in the making of dugouts. If so, this report's like a hatchet, but from its face, which would have double-bitted implement probably performed a double caused the chipped bladed end to have been handled as function. The gouge blade would doubtless have been an adz. As another functional probability, it seems used to scoop out the charred wood in the hollowing of possible that this extra cutting blade, coarser than the the log, while the adz blade might have been useful in ground blade of the gouge, might have served the useful trimming the outside, as is suggested by the writings of purpose of cutting out rough areas such as knotty spots WiIlima Wood in 1634 in his report, New England's not thoroughly charred by the hollowing fires. The idea Prospect, to Sir William Armyne, Knight and Baronet, in back of this, it seems obvious, would have been to save England. Wood visited among the natives about the thinly ground blade of the gouge from possible Plymouth and noted their various customs and projects, fracture, which in most cases would have made it useless. one ofwhich was the making ofdugouts. Here is what he says: "Their Cannous be made either of Pine-trees, Rocky Hill, Conn. which they burned hollow, scraping them smooth with April 26, 1972

METAL CUTOUTS OF THE NORTHEAST

WILLIAM S. FOWLER

Upon arrival ofEuropean explorers along the coast of this metal into pieces. These they ingeniously shaped into New England in the 16th century, the stage was set for a various serviceable objects of which the projectile point sharp reaction in the aboriginal economy of the country. seems to have been a favorite. An early account as Through barter the natives were quickly introduced to reported by De Forest amply supports these statements. the white man's superior metal tools of iron and steel, of He relates an occurrence at a time preceding the Pequot which the knife and hatchet probably were the most war of 1637, when the garrison of Saybrook,Connecticut sought after. And while the creativity of the Indians in forbade departure of a Dutch vessel, whose crew was the making of tools from stone and bone was steadily planning to trade with the Pequots, "saying that they [the eroded with replacement of their implements by those of crew] would supply the Indians with kettles and other the whites, the inherent desire to produce by their articles of metal, which would immediately be turned inventive skill still persisted. As metal gradually took the into arrow heads;" derived from an account of about place of stone, a growing desire prevailed among the 1640 by Capt. Underhill. natives to fashion useful objects out of it.And of all avail­ able metals, copper and brass kettles - in general use by From our point ofview, it is difficult to imagine how a the whites - and possible sheet copper and brass also, as spear or arrow point made from relatively thin copper or some recovered grave goods may indicate, were highly brass - these metals are indistinguishable after lying in prized. For Indian craftsmen soon found ways of cutting the ground for many years and will be referred to here in METAL CUTOUTS OF THE NORTHEAST 25

general as copper - could have withstood the impact After making a clearing and laying out a line of that occurs when killing game without bending over. squares along a mounded rise, excavation of the site was However, many projectile points were apparently made undertaken. Nothing of note appeared until just before from this copper in various triangular shapes, which the day's dig ended, when Mrs. Harold Plough uncovered suggests they were put to practical use as replacements of a thin metal point. It was triangular in shape, made from the natives' former triangular points of stone. Perhaps a copper cutout, and furnished evidence, although they were found more effective in penetrating flesh than limited, that here indeed might have been the Hoccanum the uninitiated today can imagine; when made from a Indian fort of colonial days. copper kettle,fingers cannot bend the point, as seen from a recent recovery. Some early accounts leave little doubt Subsequently, the writer's area of research was as to their use. In 1602, Brereton reports seeing among shifted to the eastern end of Massachusetts, where, as the Massachusetts Indians: "... great store of copper, time went by, other interesting copper cutout of Indian some very red, and some ofa palor colour [brass] ... they ingenuity appeared ( Fig. 20 ). Because of a similar head some of their arrow herewith [with copper] much stockaded situation to that at Hoccanum, the first like our broad arrow heads." And Higgerson, another recoveries from the state's eastern section to be early commentator, wrote in 1629 that some of the mentioned are those found at Fort Hill in North Middle­ arrows of this region were headed with bone and some boro. Here, at a sharp bend in the Taunton River, a short with brass. Further it is interesting to note that in more way up stream from the Titicut site on a high bank of the recent times Professor Putnam of Harvard exhumed river, was exposed by careful excavation many post from an Indian grave across the harbor from Boston a molds in line. These were found to mark the outline of a triangular brass arrowpoint found embedded in one of small palisaded Indian fort, known to have existed here the lumbar vertabrae ofthe skeleton. And as described in in historic times. The work was completed by Society this paper, several recoveries occurred in locations where members, and was followed up by a dig close by at the their use as projectile points seems quite probable. rear of the fort. It was here that the late William H. Taylor recovered from the loam two metal triangular As is well known, there were different sizes of copper points made from copper cutouts, of which one is attrac­ kettles with varying thicknesses of metal, which must tively shaped with its base deeply cut out (Exhibits #7,8). have reached its thickest state in large copper caldrons. If these had to do with the defense of the fort. as their Just how the natives managed to cut these kettles into nearby position seems to indicate, then it is likely that pieces is still a mystery - sheet copper, however, would this kind of point may have proven serviceable as a lethal doubtless have posed less of a problem. Possibly they weapon. Further recoveries by Taylor and his son made succeeded with the help of certain metal tools of the at the Seaver Farm and Titicut site, and in Raynham will whites. Copper and brass kettles were bright to the eye now be described. and must have held great attraction as loot in the event of A short way down river between Fort Hill and the a sacked village, or as barter in times of peace. Then Titicut site lies the Seaver Farm, source of many abori­ there was iron, a more difficult metal to shape, since the ginal finds. A small section ofit was excavated by Society native craftman's knowledge of how to work it was members in 1962 at a bend in the river. Here, recovered limited to the malleable technique. This metal was used from the loam was a small triangular copper point with occasionally, as will become evident, when the artifacts of drilled hole and a deep cut-out base that gives it the this report are described. shape of an A. Also found in the loam were two rolled The writer's attention was first focused on this copper beads with unevenly cut edges, and a drilled subject years ago, when he carried on research for the copper pendant, all presumed made from cutouts Society in the Connecticut River Valley of Massachu­ (Exhibits #2,4,5). The hole through the point - also setts, as Chairman of the Connecticut Valley Chapter. It appearing in several other points yet to be described ­ may indicate that the point was strung with other perfor­ was about 1942 when Roger Johnson became interested in the Indian history of Hadley and vicinity. From his ated ones on a leather cord to be held in reserve in this way for safe keeping (Exhibits #2,12-14). However, when home in Hoccanum near the foot of Mt. Holyoke he had the hole is large it sometimes served to attach the point to searched the nearby area on the east side of the Conn­ the shaft, as shown by 4 hafts from a Seneca burial at the ecticut River, where a palisaded fort was recorded to Green Farm, Boughton Hill, Victor, New York. The have been built by the River Indians for protection from thongs used in doing the hafting were preserved by Mohawk raids in early colonial times. After careful cuprous salts from the copper points ( Fig. 21 ). tracing of historic records, he located a certain ground formation deep in the woods, not too far removed from At the Seaver Farm surface finds of cutouts consist of the river, which he believed marked the site's location. a perforated copper pendant, a triangular copper point, And it was to this locale that he led the writer and other and another one (Exhibit #3), ingeniously made with Chapter members for an investigative excavation. lapped-over edges on both lateral sides, apparently to 26 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

5

9

'3 6

14

16 A A

18

17 19

~ SHAW &~~a ms 2.0 ZI - c

Fig. 20. METAL CUTOUTS, Eastern Massachusetts Recoveries. Implements cut from copper and brass kettles or sheets. METAL CUTOUTS OF THE NORTHEAST 27

illustrated (Exhibit #21). Although the copper of these beads is badly eroded with irregular surfaces showing, their even rolls and uniform lengths suggest that they may be trade beads originating in Holland. Such beads are reported to have been used by Dutch explorers and others as barter; referred to again in the conclusion. In Raynham and an adjoining region two more tri­ angular copper cutouts were recovered as surface finds (Exhibits #14,15). The perforated one, a Taylor recovery, has graceful slightly incurvate lateral sides, as do some of the other points previously described, which, along with the several deeply cutout bases, represent well-developed artistry of native craftsmen in the making of these projectiles.

At Wapanucket sites on Assawompsett Lake several skillfully made metal artifacts have been recovered by L.- Q __....._~ ---:l.----~ I ,...... c=: ...... , ... .es Cohannet Chapter excavators. Perhaps the most Fig. 21. HAFTED COPPER POINTS, PERFORATED, Green Farm, outstanding one is a large brass spoon with decorated Boughton Hill, Victor, N.Y. Note large perforations through which handle (Exhibit #17). This expertly designed and well­ pass thongs; preserved by cuprous salts from the points. made spoon was uncovered in a grave along with a small lend strength to the point (Exhibits #1,3,6). This treat­ Stage 4 ceramic pot with vertical collar having but one ment seems to indicate an intent to actually use this castellation, as though for a pouring spout. The spout's copper cutout as a projectile point, which strengthens the edge is decorated with three small effigy faces, framed belief that other copper points of this kind, although underneath by two ears of corn in the shape of a V. This without lapped-over edges, served similarly, confirming pot recovery evidently has an early colonial provenience the reports of early commentators and the Seneca because ofthe spoon, doubtless made from a brass kettle recoveries at the Green Farm. cutout. At the Titicut site adjoining the Seaver Farm cutouts An unusual find was made here of an iron projectile were found in the loam oftwo triangular copper points­ point (Exhibit #16). However, because of rust erosion it is one appearing in the shape ofan A- and a copper perf­ impossible to tell how it was constructed, although orated pendant (Exhibits #11-13). In addition, a small because of its hollow condition, it may have been made stem point of iron was dug up, but rust has so eroded its from a relatively thin piece of wrought iron. This might surface as to prevent even a guess, as to how it was made have been wrapped around a tapering core with its point (Exhibit #9). Beside these recoveries, an intriguing cutout hammered into shape. Also found at this site were two long rolled copper beads (Exhibit #18). Ragged edges, was found here as a surface find. It appears to be a small, where the pieces ofcutout copper overlap, may be clearly sharply pointed copper awl- its function is problemat­ seen in each which suggests that they were formed ical (Exhibit #10). Attention is called to the way metal around a solid core of some kind. edges on both sides of the point have been folded in, apparently to give it strength. It is thought probable that If this were all, it should be evidence enough to this small tool originally had a commodious handle of indicate the varied extent of Indian cleverness in the bone or wood to make it useful. fabrication of metal cutouts into useful objects. However, still another unusual recovery was made recently on the Also at Titicut interesting cutouts were recovered Island of Nantucket, which seems to require special from osseous Burial #6. This contained a female adult, attention be given to the circumstances surrounding its child, and 2 bark bundles, each containing half of the discovery, with a detailed description of its appearance. remains ofa new-born infant. At the feet of the adult lay a birch bark container shaped like an envelope, pre­ In the fall of 1970 Kenneth Coffin, a Society member served by cuprous salts oozing out from copper objects and collector of aboriginal artifacts, was employed within. These consist of a cutout pendant 5 1/2" long to excavate the foundations for a new house to be built on with a small perforation at the wider end which is decor­ the island. While doing the work he noticed that the soil ated with 8 notches (Exhibit #22); and 4 small cutout had large quantities of shell debris and stone chips, pendants 5/8" square, each with a tiny perforation suggestive of a camp site, which alerted him to the (Exhibit #20). Beside these copper finds, out of one ofthe possibility of finding artifacts. However, nothing turned bark bundles came hundreds of short, rolled copper up until March of the following year, when he returned beads in uniform lengths 1/2" and 5/8"; 3 of each are and dug a trench to the newly-built house for laying a 28 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

pipe. It was then that on the mound of back-fill from the interment. The knife, if of copper, as its reddish color previously excavated house foundation he picked up the implies, might have been a cutout from a large copper metal knife, as illustrated (Exhibit #19), the subject of caldron in order to provide its 1/8" thickness. Such this part of the report. metal vats were in use on ships ofthe day and in certain colonial manufacturing enterprises, but how they were In trying to assess its source it seems important to cut up, presumably by Indian ingenuity, is not known to review other recoveries made at this time in the trench, this writer. A curious detail about the knife is a small and in another one dug close by and parallel to the first, hole to be seen in its shank. This appears cut straight only about 12 feet distant from the house foundation. through without taper on either side, unlike aboriginal Broken human bones from presumably a grave, reaming with stone drills. Possibly it was made with a including part of the skull, lay strewn along the first white man's metal drill, Indian operated. trench, where the backhoe apparently had gone right through a burial. Then, in the second trench at a depth These interpretations of the evidence are offered as of about 26" a cache was uncovered. It contained two possibilities only. Other interpretations, of course, are long bladed whale bone spades about 3 x 10" in size with possible, but considering the disturbed condition of the side-notched polls, directly below which appeared two various recoveries from this Nantucket uprooted grave, stone celts about 6" in length. Apparently these were those as presented seem quite possible. What purpose part ofthe grave goods, which may have included several the knife's small hole could have had can only be other recovered artifacts, including two Small Triangular surmised, as is the case, similarly, with those holes found stone points and a Grooved hammerstone. in some of the points. Doubtless the likeness shown in Returning now to the metal knife, which also may this respect between these two kinds of copper goods is have been part of the grave furnishings. Its character­ suggestive of a like intent with culture association istics have been carefully examined by Paul C. Morris, Jr. indicated. and reported to the writer. The knife is made of relatively flat-faced metal that is badly pitted from soil erosion; is CONCLUSION fully 1/8" thick, and, as described by Morris, is "very The subject of cutouts from copper or brass kettles, reddish-brown in color over all." This seems to indicate or from sheets of these metals by Indian craftsmen of that it is made ofcopper, not bronze, as thought by some. early colonial days is engaging, because of the many Bronze, after being buried for extended periods, has resultant artifacts. However, copper as a metal was not been observed to take on a deep brownish color without a new to the natives, for as far back as the Late Archaic ­ reddish tint and without surface pitted erosion. The in many cases probably toward the close ofthat period ­ knife's shank has been hammered on top and bottom to it had found its way into New England in small amounts form 1/32" flanges, probably with the intent of elimin­ from deposits in the Lake Superior region, generally in ating sharp edges, which otherwise might have cut the the form of finished articles. Excavated recoveries thongs that would have bound on a handle. Along one including ornamental copper objects appearing in the decorated face of the blade, as shown in the illustration Late Archaic horizon have been reported by Ritchie, - the reverse face is plain - there appear 9 triangular occuring at several excavated sites in New York. Rolled indentations in a line, which tends to produce a kind of copper beads, sometimes barrel-shaped, are perhaps the chevron decoration suggestive of native design work of most common ofall, while awls, axes or celts, and an ear protohistoric times. It is believed probable that these plug have occurred. In New England a copper nose marks were hammered into the metal by use of an iron ornament 1/4 x 6 1/2" in size, pointed at both ends, was punch of the whites that had a triangular-shaped bit, recovered in 1868 from red paint Adena burials, since the indentations are irregularly spaced with encountered while foundations were being dug for the different depths in evidence, especially at both ends of West Street School in Holyoke. More recently a copper the line. Finally, the cutting blade has been sharpened on ax -assayed and found to be made of Superior copper both edges top and bottom, a condition reminiscent of - was excavated by Richard Bent from just under the aboriginal stone knives, which usually are sharpened on shell at the Powers Shellheap in Kingston, representing a both edges by chipped serrations. time level toward the close ofthe Late Archaic ( Fig. 22 ). While all these finds including the knife were not Other recoveries worth noting, Society Bulletin, Vol. 27, recovered at one place, they appeared near enough to the #1, are barrel-shaped rolled copper beads taken from burial spot, where the skeletal remains were strewn Adena burials at Brookfield. Undoubtedly, all of these about, to suggest this grave as their source. Ifso, then the artifacts were premade before arrival in the Northeast, knife would appear to be of Indian provenience of the brought in by Adena migrants, or as trade goods. But colonial period, since the fragmented skeleton ­ this does not rule out the possibility that occasionally an presumably Indian because of presence of the stone celts artifact might have been made here of imported nuggets - was in a state offair preservation ofnot too ancient an of Superior copper. METAL CUTOUTS OF THE NORTHEAST 29

the "Land of Gitche Gumee," presumed to be Lake Superior. During the long span from the Late Archaic down to the coming of the whites, as has been indicated, knowledge and use of Superior copper by the aborigines ofthe Northeast existed, although only to a minor extent. Therefore, it is not strange that in colonial times the Indians should have been attracted to the copper goods of the whites. In some way they found out how to cut them into pieces to be fashioned into prized ornaments and tools in their economy. The copper cutouts, as described herein, when reported as recovered by excavation, occurred in the loam, where they were associated in most cases with colonial artifacts. This close association of these two kinds of remains supports the long-held belief of their contemporaneity, which upholds the thesis of this paper. However, to establish a source for the Nantucket knife poses somewhat more of a problem, since no colonial artifact, appeared in association with the disturbed grave goods. Evidently, this grave is not a deposit of the Late Archaic, since it is not the usual secondary cremation burial with red ocher ofthose times. Instead, it appears to be a burial of colonial days, an osseous interment of only two or three hundred years with a fairly well-preserved skeleton. Furthermore, its later-day status seems well supported by the presence of whale bone spades. For it is a matter of record that Cape Cod and the Island Indians in more recent times successfully hunted and took whale when sighted near land. Therefore, their Indian predecessors in early colonial days might be expected to have done likewise, thus making whalebone available. Furthermore, if the knife had been made earlier in the Late Archaic of Superior copper instead of from a copper cutout, the ___0 , ~ = .:.... _ .... ';l. ll probability is that it would have been more than 1/8" thick, with uneven facial surfaces, more like those seen Fig. 22. COPPER AX, from Powers Shellheap, Kingston, Mass. on the Kingston copper ax as illustrated. Evidently, copper objects continued to arrive from Still another possibility exists to explain the knife's the Midwest during Ceramic times, but only to a tantal­ source; that is if its metal is bronze. In this event, it izingly minimal extent that made copper a much prized might then be established that it is of European manu­ commodity. This may be gleaned from reports of some of facture and came into the hands of Nantucket Indians as the early explorers who reached these shores in the barter. However, two facts seem to refute this hypothesis. 1500's. Verrazzano, one ofthe first to sail along the New First, the reddish-brown color of the metal, as previously England coast, made contact in 1524 with the reported, appears to indicate copper, since European­ Wampanoags at about where Newport is today, and calls made trade artifacts of bronze taken from certain Maine attention to their most valued possessions as follows: Indian graves, as observed by the writer, are dark brown "... plates of wrought copper, which they esteem more in color with no reddish tint: have no surface eroded than gold." It is presumed that the copper plates referred pitting, and are generally thicker than 1/8". Second, the to were personal ornaments brought in as trade goods irregularly spaced triangular indented decorations are from the Lake Superior region. This becomes more more suggestive of native handwork than of precision evident from a report made by explorer Cartier in 1535. workmanship of European artisans. Further, the unique He tells of his meeting with the Hurons, who also wore way in which these simple triangular indents have been similar copper ornaments. They gave him to understand used to form the familiar chevron design common to - pointing west - that these copper goods came from native-made Stage 4 pottery of the protohistoric period This journal and its contents may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling,loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. ©2010 Massachusetts Archaeological Society. 30 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

seems convincing evidence of Indian artistry. For these made them in quantity for use as barter in the hands of several reasons the Nantucket knife appears to be oflocal the explorers. Therefore, it is probable that when a Indian manufacture in early colonial times, a cutout number are found together in equal lengths, all evenly from a large copper kettle such as a caldron, made of cut and uniformly rolled, that they originated as relatively thick metal. precision-made products of European manufacture, like those from burial #6 at Titicut (Exhibit #21). When it comes to an analysis of rolled copper beads, it is well to observe that they are first encountered in red Understandably, those objects as illustrated, which paint burials at the end of the Late Archaic; in most seem to have been made from copper cutouts, are instances presumed to be the remains of Adena probably only a small sampling of such metal products. migrants. In this respect they are doubltess premade Other specimens doubtless exist, including various imports from Ohio, homeland of the Adena wanderers. ornamental trinkets and implements of aboriginal These beads usually are short, sometimes barrel-shaped. ingenuity. It is hoped that this paper, in presenting this When plain rolled copper beads are unusually long, like subject for study, may result in bringing more of these the two shown from Assawompsett Lake, with ragged metal goods out ofhiding, retrieved as surface finds or as unevenly cut edges, it seems probable they were locally excavated recoveries. made from copper cutouts. Still another source of these beads in moderate lengths is Holland, as indicated by Bronsom Museum certain excavated evidence. The Dutch appear to have October, 1971

SITTING BULL: THE PATRIOT

WILLIAM S. FOWLER

In the course of archaeological research, it is well at bridge that connected them. The point is that of times to stop and ponder what the people, who made the whatever traits were peculiar to the New England stone implements, were like. While we cannot jump the aborigines, probably some were similar - Asiatic in span of years that separates us from the prehistoric substance - to those other Asian migrants, who peoples of the Northeast, or elsewhere, we can study the occupied the western plains of the country. Therefore, characteristics of those, who have descended in a pure perhaps the writer may be forgiven for this paper's state. To find this condition of racial purity, we have to apparent divergence from a more direct involvement in refer, for the most part, to known contacts with Indians New England's aboriginal past. In any event, it seems of the 1800's, which were reported in those days. appropriate to consider the emotions of an outstanding leader of the Plains Indians, aggravated by the While the subject ofthis paper may appear to some to encroachment of the white civilization upon his people. be unrelated to the aboriginal past of New England, For, although this was in the third quarter of the 1800's, when the occupation of North America in early times is it was during the western Indians' contacts with the considered in a broad sense, a relationship becomes whites. And the effect upon the aboriginal way of life apparent. For, it is quite generally believed that an there, no doubt, was similar to what it was during the irregular migratory movement of long duration involved 1600's, the contact time here in the Northeast. A clash of Asiatic hunters following game into this country. two different social orders occurred, whenever the whites According to authorities, who have studied the facial attempted to find living space beside the original traits of various Plains Indians, it is thought that the occupants. However, it was this sort of cultural friction early arrivals came from different racial stocks still to be between two totally different races that brought out, on found in various parts of Asia. The entrance to North occasion, deep-seated expressions from the heart, one of America seems to have been at Bering Strait, which in which is related in this report. those days, due to a greatly lowered ocean level that exposed land between the two continents, became a land It came about quite unexpectedly, as so often SITTING BULL: THE PATRIOT 31 happens, during the early days of this Society, when arrangements were being made to hold our annual meeting at Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts. Dr. Allyn of the college had introduced the writer to Evelyn Yellow Robe, who was a student at this institution, for the purpose of inviting her to give us a word of welcome at the meeting. She proved to be a charming person with educated poise, a worthy repre­ sentative of her race, the Hunkpapa Sioux of the Plains, and a great grand niece of Sitting Bull. Through conver­ sation had with her as a result of this introduction, the writer gathered information about her people, which he would now like to share with the readers of our Bulletin. For, it is possible that some of it may apply to those natives who occupied New England, because of their probable similar Asiatic source with that of the Plains Indians. Evelyn appeared at this 1941 meeting in native deerskin clothing, a changed person in appearance from her civilian college dress. After a few words of greeting, she repeated the Powder River speech of her early forebear, Sitting Bull, which made a marked impression upon her audience.

It seems that this speech occurred just before the battle of the Little Big Horne, in which Lieutenant Colonel Custer and his entire elite cavalry company of 260 men were wiped out by an Indian attack. It was led by Crazy Horse with his Oglala Sioux and included Fig. 23. SITTING BULL. Photo of this distinguished Hunkpapa Sioux Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa Sioux with some Cheyenne. In medicine man, presented to W.S. Fowler by Evelyn Yellow Robe, a anticipation of the fight, at a council of the Sioux held lineal descendant of Sitting Bull. several days before on the Powder River, nearby, Sitting By this time a crowd of his Indian followers to the Bull delivered his famous speech that has assumed a number of 150, congregating outside the cabin, had the rightful place among a host of noted freedom orations police entirely surrounded, and were pressing them to the made by leaders of numerous races throughout the ages. wall. Upon being brought out Sitting Bull apparently The writer was so impressed by the words that he changed his mind, became greatly excited, refused to asked Evelyn Yellow Robe, at the conclusion of the move further, and called on his followers to rescue him. meeting, if she could furnish him with a copy of the Then, while the Indian police tried to clear the way speech and an authentic photograph of Sitting Bull, if through the crowd, Catch-the-Bear, a Sitting Bull possible. She gladly agreed, -and their presence in the follower, fired and shot Lieutenant Bull Head of the writer's hands has inspired this report; a belated token of police in the side. Whereupon Bull Head turned and admiration for this important medicine man of the fired, sending a bullet into the body of Sitting Bull. At Sioux. In his cry for freedom, he appears to this writer the same moment Sergeant Red Tomahawk of the police not only as a great leader, but as the "Patrick Henry" of fired a bullet through the head ofSitting Bull, who fell to his people ( Fig. 23 ). the ground, dead. Now followed a hand-to-hand fight between less than 43 police and more than 100 Indian The death of Sitting Bull as told in the 14th Annual followers of Sitting Bull, in which the latter were driven Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18%, has been into the nearby woods. At this moment troops of the reviewed by the writer and the essential events are Eighth cavalry appeared on the scene, who drove Sitting herewith recorded. Early in the morning on December Bull's warriors up Grand River. During the skirmish, 6 15, 1890,43 Indian police under command of Lieutenant of the Indian police were killed or mortally wounded, Bull Head surrounded Sitting Bull's log house at his while Sitting Bull, his son Crow Foot, 17 years ofage, and camp that had been discovered, located at some distance 6 other hostiles were killed. Itis of record that during the from the reservation.He was made a prisoner and was fight Indian women attacked the police with knives and told he must go to the agency; to which he agreed. The clubs, but were promptly disarmed imd put in one of the police took two rifles and several knives from the cabin. cabins under guard. And so ended the career of Sitting 32 MASSACHUSETTS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Bull, who had said he would never submit to capture, a appeared unusual that this descendant of the Hunkpapa determinaton that persisted to the end. Sioux could be so talented, and yet had given up in disgust - an investigation had been made by her during POWDER RIVER SPEECH a sojourn among her people - when she came to realize she could never hope to overcome the apparent lack of Sense of a determined independent spirit to be free interest for learning among the rank and file on the runs throughout the Powder River speech that follows, reservation. She quickly explained to the writer that two and the photo of Sitting Bull accompanies it ( Fig. 23 ). class groups exist in Indian society - now under As a war chief it has been said that this famous medicine attempted change through new government educational man was one of the most able, honest, and idealistic regulations - those with ability to learn and get ahead, statesman in Indian History. and those who are satisfied to stay behnd in the common ranks to be led. The reason seemed clear' enough "Behold my brothers, the Spring has come; the earth according to her. The upper class is composed of tribal has received the embrace ofthe sun and we shall soon see leaders - probably dates back into antiquity - such as the results of that love. Every seed is awakened; and so medicine men, war captains, chiefs, etc. They have has all animal life. It is through this mysterious power inherited their acquired abilities during many that we too have our being, and we therefore yield to our generations of training by performing duties of leader­ neighbors, even to our-animal neighbors, the same right ship, and through controlled marriage within their select as ourselves to inhabit this land. Yet hear me, people, we group. That is, their children were not allowed to marry have now to deal with another race - small and feeble individuals from the lower class. That group was when our fathers first met them - but now great and composed of all others, who, as a result of this kind of overbearing. Strangely enough, they have a mind to till segregation, had failed to develop qualites of leadership. the soil, and the love of possession is a disease with them. Consequently, today, with but a few exceptions, only These people have made many rules that the rich may those from the upper class have the ability or a desire to break, but the poor may not; they have a religion in absorb advanced education. Could it be that a similar which the poor worship, but the rich will not. They take condition had existed among the Algonkian tribes of tithes from the poor and weak to support the rich and New England, which, in colonial days, had produced those who rule. They claim this mother ofours, the earth, such outstanding leaders as Massasoit, (Ousamequin), for their own and fence their neighbors away; they deface Canonicus, Miantinomo, and others? her with their buildings and their refuse. That nation is _like a spring freshet that over-runs its banks and destroys It appears possible that this custom of marriage all who are in its path. We cannot dwell side by side. selectivity may be an outgrowth of tribal warfare over the Only seven years ago we made a treaty by which we were centuries, in which military leadership became a assured that the buffalo country should be left to us necessary qualification for those of the upper class. It is forever. Now they threaten to take that from us. My probable that warfare was confined to the Ceramic Age brothers, shall we submit, or shall we say to them; first alone in prehistoric times. For evidence of transition to it kill me before you take possession of my fatherland." from the peaceful Late Archaic industrial age suggests the coming of warfare with the probable formation of Beside whatever meaning this speech may suggest, tribes at that time. In all this, a concomitant factor seems the writer gleaned some interesting information from to have been the industrial change that took place, in Evelyn Yellow Robe, who finally gave up the idea she which women became the makers of cooking pots once had of devoting her life trying to uplift her people from fired clay. By then women no longer wanted the back on the reservation. Instead, she decided to cast in heavy male-made stone bowls, causing the stone bowl her lot with the whites, from whom she had received her quarries to close down. This must have shifted industrial education. After graduating from Mount Holyoke procurement responsibility from men to women, which College, where she majored in English Speech, she was left men free to fill their time otherwise, exclusive of admitted to the faculty at Vassar College, where she hunting and fishing, men's perennial activities as food taught our girls how to speak English properly, as an providers. And with a probable increased population instructor in English speech - a strange but noteworthy that then was prevalent, the time was ripe for men to accomplishment of one from a race, formerly considered show their leadership in tribal affairs that included tribal as savages. All this came before she won her Ph.D. at warfare, which took the place of their former stone bowl Northwestern University with honors, and a scholarship industrial activity. to Paris for further advanced study.

Such an amazing scholastic record seemed to the Bronsom Museum, writer at the time to require some explaining, which December 20, 1970 prompted conversation had with her on the subject. It