DOCUMENTRESUME ED 028 871 RC 003 367 Indians of the Eastern Seaboard. Bureau of Indian Affairs (Dept. of Interior), Washington, D.C. Pub Date 67 Note-32p. Available from-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, D.C. 20402 (0-276-039, $0.15). EDRS Price MF-$0.25 HC Not Available from EDRS. Descriptors-*American History, American Indian Culture, *AmericanIndians,Anthropology, , *Conflict, *Cultural Interrelationships, Culture, *Demography, GeographicDistribution, Migration Patterns, Rural Population Identifiers-Algonquins, Iroquois, Muskhogees, Sioux, Timucuans A brief history is presented of Indian tribes living alongthe eastern seaboard of the from the time ofcontact of these tribes with the first European settlers to the present day. Early Indian-white relationshipsare discussed, as well as relationships established between thevarioustribesthemselves. An historical presentation of earlyIndiancultures and migration patternsisgiven on a state-by-state basis for each of .12 stateson the Atlantic seaboard. These early histories are then contrasted with modern seaboardtribes. The presentation is concluded with a list of historical and cultural Indiansites. (DA) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT,POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE Of EDUCATION 1?:.7.14 POSITION OR POLICY. \ 4 944.41-44.

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A statue of Massasoit, who celebrated the first Plymouth Thanksgiving with the Pilgrims, overlooks Plymouth Rock. PHOTO: MASSACHUSETTS DEPARTMENT OF COM- MERCE AND DEVELOPMENT

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ANC THE VERY NAME "INDIAN" was first applied to Indians of ir the Atlantic seaboard. Columbus, who landed in the West Indies, wrote of the "Indios" he had with him in a letter dated February 1493. It was the general belief of the day, shared "Jhe by Columbus, that in his voyage across the Atlantic he had reached India. He found, instead, a rich land made richer by the heritage handed down to the Europeans by his "Indios." Every American schoolboy knows the story of Pocahontas and Captain John Smith of Jamestown; of Squanto, the Indian rroha who showed the New England Pilgrims howto grow corn by putting . a fish in the earth with their seed. Atlantic seaboard Indians are the Indians who helped the European settlers get a toehold in a new and forbidding land.

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Pa, AIA phawop COVER Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan,as she appeared in 4.k ortaiyoni eo London, the wife of John Rolfe. Pocahontaswas 21 years ./Viren old at the time this portraitwas Painted, and died a year itra2. later. PHOTO: NATIONAL PORTRAITGALLERY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Iame$ owne

ti ricnnes ant do4.2. Indians of the EASTERNSEABOARD

The Indians of the eastern seaboard were the first to comemeanings that designate our cities, mountains, lakes, and into contact with Europeans. Although tradition puts therivers; and Indian words to grace our language. time of this first meeting at the arrival of Columbus, it isnow All of the Atlantic seaboard Indians belonged to the cul- conceded that the Norsemen were in New Englandsome 500tural division known as the Woodland People. Theywere years before. Long before the settlers' coming, these Indiansprimarily a hunting, fishing, or an agricultural peopleor a were familiar with the exploring and fishing vessels of distantcombination of all three. countries. They were sometimes kidnapped by thecrews of The homes they built suited the reather and theircus- these vessels and sold into slavery in other lands. toms. In the north houses were conical shaped bark and These stone age people belonged to small tribes looselyround bark-covered wigwams. In the centralarea they were joined in confederations dominated byone strong group. Thelong in shape and also bark-covered. Each housewas occu- family stocks stretching from Maine to Floridaon the east-pied by a number of families. Large villageswere fortified ern seaboard at the time of Columbus included the Algon-and surrounded by stockades. In the warmer climate, houses quian, Iroquoian, Siouan, Muskhogean, and Timucuan. were open shelters with thatched roofs. Many eastern tribes arenow decimated or dispersed, but In the far north, Indians originated the light birchbark they left a rich legacy for the people thatfollowedfood, canoe. Other boats were made from logs charred on one side implements, and custom; hundreds of names with beautifuland then expertly gouged out and shaped with sharp-edged 2 stones, horn, or strong shells. For winter travel over deep 4 73-z14 snow the northern Indians invented the snowshoe and the Fit. e toboggan. 44e1.- '- Except in the Deep South, little pottery was made and ' none of that noteworthy. Materials for implements and _ olr:`. utensils consisted of wood, bark, and stone. Baskets were :11. *. fashioned from bark or splint-woven. :mala*f. With only a primitive drill, northern tribes formed clam shells into tubular beads called wampum by European 3A.W- , traders. Wampum, important in ceremonial use, had no monetary value until Europeans began to use the beads as currency. lot The seaboard Indians lived on the regional game, fish, seafood, wild fruits, nuts, and berries. In addition, they r cultivated corn, beans, squash, and pumpkins. In the North they made maple sugar. In the central and southernareas . they grew . Corn was their greatest contributionto the world at large, but tobacco, too, was to havea profound e effect on it.

Arlielew41.1.1-.., Diorama of northern Indians of the eastern seaboard at 0.1eklk the time the white man visited the New World quarrying '4;1: . «....exisetee.A4i Ait._****/'', _ & and chipping stone beside their mat-covered wigwam. The Pes .7-434 TV,V.V4r*.70 man quarrying has the shaved head and scalp lock of the Z .4;71 warrior. PHOTO: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 4.. 3 Seaboard Indian chiefs were acknowledged leaders inOntario and Erie, the southern shore of LakeHuron, all of their own tribes but were neither rulersnor kings and hadNew York (except the lower Hudson region),central Penn- no power, privileges, or rights above others. Titles of royaltysylvania, the shores of Chesapeake Bay, andparts of Ten- were bestowed upon Indian chiefs by colonists to the New nessee, Virginia, and the Carolinas. The Six Nations and the World. Most tribes had a clan system which determinedCherokees were Iroquoian. kinships. Next in size to the Algonquiancame the Siouan. The On the eastern seaboard the Iroquois alone hada formal-eastern members of this family lived in the Carolinas and ized government worthy of thename, but theirs was aparts of Virginia. The Catawbas and the Biloxisare Siouan. remarkable one. Certain chiefswere nominated by the The Muskhogean family, another important familygroup, women and confirmed by the tribal and league councils. Noroamed and hunted through parts of ,Georgia, action could be taken without unanimous consent. The struc-Florida, and the Carolinas. The Creeks,Choctaws, Semi- ture of the Iroquois government influenced American leaders noles, and Chickasaws are important Muskhogeangroups. such as Benjamin Franklin who soughta plan of representa- The Timucuan family was comprised ofa number of tive government for the colonies. Florida tribes which dwindled under the attacksof the English and their Indian allies from the Carolinas. Itis be- FAMILY STOCKS lieved survivors were taken to Cuba by the Spaniards. The Algonquian was the largest family stockon the sea- board, stretching from what isnow Maine to Virginia and straddling the Canadian borderto the Rockies. Belonging An artist's conception of three from the head of to this family were the Wampanoags, Pequots, Narragansets, the Savannah River who visited London in 1762. The In- Shawnees, and Delawares. dians by then wore clothing almost entirely of European The Iroquoian family, probably the.most powerful, occu- materials but distinctly Indian in cut. Theman, left, carries a trade ax and a wampum belt, center, a day pipe. PHOTO: pied most of the St. Lawrence Valley,the basins of Lakes SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 4 ;;."- Ate - c2-7, 111:1541f , , .k _TW..17.4.1"r4-411- *fig' illf* lI _1 71 : ' 1. 'i_ 1 =, , 1-' ,,,,, :,;141" ., .:. ,-;,-- - iL., s ..., ' ..;',....,,,,,,,, \,,,, ,, , ,,,,.'t,..07.;, _ ;i.4 '- -.._ 4 ,-. , oe,,,, -sk 40. \ ,- i F ,,,::.:Vik ':-., k\eIWAW,V.,\Akk, ,,,1,1}\, VAAVis4.\ : ",..,:kv,,,, '11.14fLt.A..4 ;-,E7t31:417.4,0411,4: fr 8 .1, 1". - ' - L - : ' :,....k. ' e ,'S ' \,`" "

* -01i11,wid TT 4 ,111:::,,t , '71 -;,71,;i: e "; United States in the early 16th century. The French began to trade in furs with Indians along the St. Lawrence River somewhat later. In 1565, the Spanish founded St. Augustine EARLY INDIAN-WHITE RELATIONSHIPS among the Timucua Indians. Indians of the Atlantic seaboard did not live in harmony The first permanent English settlement in America was in their original state. Lands were tribally held and de-finally made at Jamestown, Va., in 1607 among tribes of the fended. Every tribe had its No. 1 enemy or set of enemiesPowhatan Confederacy. The Dutch established their colony against whom feelings ran deep. Many of the smaller Algon- on Manhattan Island among a Wappinger tribe, and the quian tribes were wiped out in the raids of the Iroquois, andPilgrims colonized Plymouth in the Wampanoag Indian ter- bitter were the wars between the Cherokees and the Creeks.ritory in 1621. On the whole, Indian warfare resolved itself in assimila- The first white settlements were, in general, welcomed by tion and not annihilation. But, there were many instances ofthe Indians, who soon attempted to enlist the settlers in their wholesale massacre long before the racial, political, religious, individual causes. The Indians adopted and adapted Euro- and commercial complications brought by the whites. pean ways and possessions. It was not long before many Tribal animosities and intertribal politics affected Indian-Indians were partly or entirely dressed in European clothing white relations and influenced the course of history both hereand were building houses similar to those of the settlers and abroad. The Indians became pawns in the great chessfrom the new world. game played by the Spanish, French, English, and Dutch. Violence between Indians and the newcomers broke out Indian friendships were important to have and Indianin a number of places, most notably in 1622 when the emnities or neutralities established a vulnerabilityone fac-Powhatans of Virginia attacked Jamestown, in 1637 when tion was able to use against another. The ultimate losersMassachusetts Bay Puritans warred against the Pequots in were the Indians. southern Connecticut, and in 1675-76 when a New England The Spanish were the first Europeans to explore andalliance of Indians under the Wampanoag Chief Meta- attempt to colonize the eastern coast of what is now the comet, known by the colonists as King Philip, attempted to 6 drive the whites from the country. A Tuscarorawar against settlers occurred in 1711-13. From the early part of the 17th century until the Amer- ican Revolution, the great league of the Iroquois held the "a4 balance and control in any plan for the expansion ofpower in America by the French, who had settled along the St. Lawrence River, or by the English. Stretchingacross what is now New York State, the Iroquois heldsway both to the north and the south during the French and Indian War of 1754-63 and maintained an independent neutrality. .-.11 It was they who prevented the French from coming south ". of the St. Lawrence River, and it was they who held the key

Is; to the interior country. Decisions made in Iroquois councils were discussed in the royal courts of France and England. IA Iroquois chiefs were taken abroad and courted by all the nations vying for a strategic position in the New World, and by all the colonies as well. A schism developed among the Iroquois during the Amer- ican Revolution. The Oneidas and Tuscaroras espoused the revolutionary cause; the rest, led by Thayendanegea,a King Philip, leader of the attempt of the Wampanoags and Mohawk chief known as Joseph Brant, fought beside the other New England Indians to drive out the white man in 1675-76. This drawing shows how a chief of King Philip's British. In 1779, the Iroquois country was invaded by an Period might dress, partly in buckskin and partly in woven American expedition. goods, with a wampum belt and a headdress probably of wamPum. PHOTO: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 7 With the end of the Revolution, the pro-English Iroquois Middle, and Southern. The Congress continued many of the under Brant found new homes in Canada. The rest, led bypolicies of the Colonial times and also creatednew ones. the Seneca Chief Cornplanter, eventually gave their loyalty The first United States treaty with the Indianswas made to the new American Nation. in 1778 with the Delawares. The first land cessionwas made The Albany Congress of 1754 had formed a northern and by the Six Nations in 1784. a southern Indian Department to handle Indian affairs. In Indian conflicts shifted to the Midwest in 1790, where charge of the northern department was Col. William John-"Mad Anthony" Wayne dealt the Indiansa crushing blow son, a former fur trader who had married into the Mohawkin 1794. Again in the Midwest, 15years later, the Indian tribe. leader Tecumseh rallied many tribes which joined the British At the end of the French and Indian War, Englandagainst the Americans in the War of 1812. One of these, declared itself the sole arbiter of Indian affairs. It regarded the Creek, fought Americans throughout , Georgia, Indian tribes as sovereign nations with the right of occu- and Mississippi. In 1814, a treaty with the Creeksgave the pancy to the lands on which they lived. Reservations resulted United States nearly 8 million acres of land. from cessions of land by the Indians. In 1817, the First Seminole War broke out. Thatsame A proclamation by King George III in 1763 defined the year, Andrew Jackson was authorized to enter Spanish "Indian country" to be administered by two superintendents, Florida to subdue the rebellious Indians. Hiscapture of two one north and one south, and set aside "reserved lands" for the Indians. The superintendents tookon the role of diplo- matic agents negotiating with the various tribes ina series of treaties. One of the first acts of the Continental Congresswas to name a Committee on Indian Affairs. In 1775, this Com- James Oglethorpe presenting Tomonchichi, head chief of a Creek town, his wife, and nephew, to the Lord Trustees of mittee produced a report which prompted the Congressto the Colony of Georgia in the 18th century. PHOTO: set up "three departments of Indians"the Northern, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 8 :lot+

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.1 Spanish garrisons while subduing the Seminolesso reduced Spain's strength that she signed a treaty in 1819 ceding Florida to the United States. The Second Seminole Warwas THE TRIBES HISTORICALLY not to come until 1835. Maine At first white aggression rarely pushed backan intact and strongly opposing Indian tribe. Both the English andAmer- The tribes of Mainewere the 20 or more that made up ican governments tried to preventany overflow acrossthe Abnaki Confederacy. Therewere an estimated 25,000 recognized Indian frontiers. But when the desire for landAbnakis at the time of the Puritan settlement. became strong, many whites clamored that Indians be The most important tribeswere the Malacites, the Pas- cleared out. samaquoddys, and, largest of all, the Penobscots.Samuel In 1830, the Indian Removal Act slated all Indian tribesde Champlain first won the allegiance of theseIndians in for removal west of the Mississippi. Most of theeastern sea-1604, and from then on the Abnakiswere constantly at war board tribes had already removed themselves beyondthewith the English. With the end of Frenchpower, most of Allegheny Mountains and their further dispersalwas rela- the Abnakis withdrew to Canada. tively simple. The Abnakis carriedon an extensive fur trade. Between In the South, the Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws,Choc- taws, and Seminoles were still resistant. Treaties for removal 1525 and 1775, their city of Pemaquidwas the trade hub for all New England. This site is of the Choctaws were made in 1832 and forthe Chickasaws now under restoration. in 1832 and 1834. The Cherokees' struggle for protectionNew Hampshire under Federal guarantees was lost in 1835 with thesigning of an agreement under which the entire tribe wouldmove be- The Pennacook Confederacy of New Hampshireincluded yond the Mississippi. The Creekswere removed to the West 13 other tribes and the Pennacooksproper. Three of these between 1836 and 1840. In 1845,an agreement was reachedtribes were in Massachusetts territory. In 1633-34,hundreds with the Seminoles providing for settlementin the Okla-of these Indians lost their lives ina plague that swept New homa . England and the Pennacook tribeswere never again strong. Vermont The Wampanoags attended the first Plymouth Thanks- The Missiassik tribe and bands of Mahicans, Pennacooks,giving in America and entered into a peace pact with the and Pocomtucs lived in Vermont along the northern border. Pilgrims that was honored for 40 years. Friendliness, how- ever, ceased with the ascendancy of King Philip, Massasoit's son. Massachusetts Under Philip, the Wampanoags engaged in a war ( 1675 Massachusetts was named for a small Indian confederacy76) which was one of the most destructive in New England said to have had 3,000 warriors and more than 20 villages.for Indian and white alike. Philip and the leading chiefs of By the time European colonists had arrived, the Massachu-the tribes which allied themselves with him were killed and sett Indians had been nearly destroyed, first by the warringthe tribes' few survivors were sold into slavery in the West Abnakis and then by the 1633 plague. In 1660 they were Indies, or joined smaller Indian groups. further decimated by smallpox and with that lost all tribal The Stockbridges were a tribe of the Mahican Confed- identity. eracy. Since they were allied with the English, their village At the time of the Pilgrims, the principal tribe in what iswas constantly marauded by the French during the French now Massachusetts was the Wampanoag, which controlledand Indian War. Only about 200 Stockbridges remained at southern New England from its 30 villages. Massasoit, thethe end of hostilities. By 1785, they had moved to New Wampanoag chief, befriended the colonists after he wasYork where they were taken in by the Oneidas. introduced to them by Samoset, a chief from Pemaquid and In 1660, a reservation was established in Massachusetts the original owner of the site of Bristol, Maine. Squanto, afor Christianized Indians from a number of tribes that sought Wampanoag from the village of Patuxet, also helped thesanctuary. These Indians were known as the Mashpees. Pilgrims. He had escaped from slavery in Spain to England, and thence back to his home. When the Pilgrims were inConnecticut their most desperate time, Squanto appeared to save them Of the Indian groups that lived in Connecticut, the from starvation. Pequots were by far the most important. Originally, the

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I. Pequots and Mohegans were one, but they were divided when Uncas rebelled against the Pequot chief Sassacus and withdrew with his followers, who became the Mohegans. The Pequots probably numbered about 3,000. In 1637, about 600 Pequot men, women, and children perished when the Pequot fort on the Mystic Riverwas set on fire by white colonists. Severely beaten, the Indians at- tempted to leave the country. Some tried to finda haven among the Mohawks, but all were put to death by that tribe. The disintegration of the Pequot tribe brought the Mo- hegans into ascendancy. Laying claim to all of the Pequot lands, Uncas strengthened his position with Indians and English alike. With the end of King Philip'swar, the Mo- hegans were the only Indians of prominence in southern New England. Gradually they sold most of their landsand emigrated to Wisconsin where they joined the Brothertons.

Ninigret, a chief of the Niantics of Rhode Island, who managed to keep his tribe out of King Philip'swar. This is probably a copy of one of the earliest direct portraits made of an Indian other than Pocahontas. PHOTO: MUSEUM OF ART, RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN 12 Rhode Island The Narragansets were one of the largest and strongest of the New England tribes. They numbered several thou- sand when the Pilgrims came, and added to their ranks by absorbing the remnants of tribes struck down by the plague. The Narragansets lost many of their number ina later small- pox epidemic. Siding with King Philip in hiswar, the Narragansets suf- fered the same fate that shattered the Wampanoags. The Niantics, another Rhode Island tribe, remained neutral largely because of the influence of their chief, Ninigret, and they accepted into their ranks some of the surviving Nar- ragansets.

New Y ork The predominant Indians in New Yorkwere the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacythe Mohawks, Onei- das, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. The Tuscaroras, 'L refugees from North Carc,lina, were eventually taken inas the sixth nation.

Thayendanegea, or Joseph Brant, the celebrated Mohawk chief who fought with the British in the Revolutionary War. PHOTO: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The Iroquois Confederacy was formed in the 1500's bythe Munsee tribe of most of its land and it begana westward Hayenwatan, the historic Hiawatha, and Dekanawida, fol-trek in 1740. Munsees made several removals and merged lowing a bloody war with the Algonquians and the Huronswith a number of other Indian tribes. The largestgroup of lower Canada. today is in the Stockbridge-Munsee community in Wisconsin. The Iroquois became the undisputed rulers from lower The Shinnecocks, an Algonquian tribe, occupied Long Canada to Tennessee, from the Kennebec River to the Illi-Island. In 1640 their chief, Nowdemoah, meta sloopload of nois. They were held in check by the Chippewas of thecolonists from Massachusetts and sold the group 8 square Great Lakes and by the Catawbas in the Carolinas, but their miles of land. power and influence were never equalled by any other Indians. Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, the District of During the Revolution, Iroquois loyaltieswere divided. Since no agreement could be reached within the confederacy,Columbia, and Pennsylvania it was dissolved and the tribes went their separateways. The Delaware Confederacy was the most important of The Wappingers, a large Algonquian Confederacy,were all the Algonquian groups. Its territorywas the entire basin spread along the eastern shore of the Hudson. One of theirof the Delaware River in eastern Pennsylvania, southeast tribes, the Manhattans, sold Manhattan Island, their hunt-New York, most of New Jersey, and all of,Delaware. ing ground, to the Dutch. The Dutch bought Brooklyn from Aside from the Munsees, the Delawati Confederacy in- the Canarsees. cluded the Unamis and Unalachtigos. Its memberswere The Munsees, a principal tribe of the Delaware, originallyfriends of William Penn and remained at peace as long ai he lived at the headwaters of the Delaware River in New York, lived. Like others living close to the Iroquois, theywere sub- New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These Indians held thewest jugated by the Iroquois and dependent by 1755. Pushed bank of the Hudson River almost to the New Jersey line and from their lands, they moved to Ohio. were a buffer between the Iroquois and the Delawares. In Maryland, the Conoys lived on the Potomac River A fraudulent treatythe "Walking Purchase"deprivedabout 1711. The Susquehanna Indians are generallyasso- 14

1_ ciated with Pennsylvania and the river that bears the tribalCapt. John Smith is a classic that has made these Indians name. Because of Susquehanna warfare with surroundingfamiliar to most Americans. groups from 1630 to 1644, Maryland colonists declared the An uneasy peace was maintained in Virginia until the tribe a public enemy and it was soon forced to cede all ofdeath of Wahunsonacock and the assumption of leadership its territory. by his brother Opechancanough. A deadly foe of the colo- The Nanticoke Confederacy in Maryland was connectednists, Opechancanough began a general rebellion in 1622. with the Delaware but separated from it in early times. TheEvery settlement was destroyed with the exception of those Piscataway Indians were assigned in 1675 a tract of landclose to Jamestown. The English, in turn, vowed a war of believed to have been the present site of Washington, D.C.extermination. Hundreds of Indians were slaughtered and Lord Baltimore's colonists established a mission among thesetheir villages burned. The war wenton for 14 years and Indians. However, harrassed by the Conestagas of Pennsyl-ended in a peace agreement only because both sideswere vania, the tribe gradually left its Potomac lands and movedexhausted. into Pennsylvania and New York. In 1641, the Indians were again roused to resistance by new encroachments. With Opechancanough's death the The Virginias following year, the Powhatan Confederacy also ended. In- The Powhatan Confederacy, of the Algonquian family, dividual tribes made their own treaties ofpeace and were was the strongest group in Virginia. It had about 200placed on reservations. villages. The Chickahominys belonged to the Powhatan Confed- In 1570, the Spaniards established a Jesuit mission amongeracy and signed a treaty of peace with the English when the Powhatans which failed, and the Indians had little con-Pocahontas married John Rolfe in 1613. tact with Europeans until the settlement of Jamestown. The The Kanawha Indians gave their name to the chief river story of the Powhatan chief whose proper name was Wahun-in West Virginia. These people are believed to be the same sonacock and his daughter Pocahontas who saved the life ofas the Conoys, who were part of the Piscataways.

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Oa: The Carolinas a Thirty known tribes lived atone time in , e; but of these the sole survivorsare the Catawbas. At the time of the first contact with whites, this tribeis said to have num- bered 6,000. Only the Cherokeeswere larger. At least 23 tribes formed the Catawba Nation. When the Catawba Indians entered intoa treaty with England in 1763, theywere allowed to retain 144,000 acres of land, a mere fragment of theirdomain. The Catawbas aided the colonists in the French andIndian War and in " the Revolution. By the close of the18th century, this once A4P strong tribe had been destroyed by attacks ofenemies and epidemics of smallpox. The Shawnees were another leadingtribe of South Caro- 4. lina. A constant threat to the colonists,the Shawnee Indians IMP began to move from thearea and into Pennsylvania and Ohio around 1677, at which timethey became closelyasso- ciated with the Delaware. Therewas scarcely a tribe in the East that dividedso much or moved so often as the Shawnees. The fortified town of Pomeioc,present State of North Carolina, as Painted by John White,governor of the ill- fated Roanoke colony. The thatchedquonset-style houses are typical of Indian communities of the southeast. PHOTO: UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 16

_ The Cherokees were a powerful, detached tribe of the The Creeks occupied some 50 towns. Since De Sotoper- Iroquoian family. Cherokees held all of the southwest Alle-petrated great cruelty upon these Indians, the Creekswere gheny Mountain region in Virginia, the two Carolinas,forever hostile to the Spanish. They allied themselves with southern Georgia, and parts of Tennessee. The only Chero-the English and aided these colonists in South Carolina and kees in the Carolinas today are on a reservation in easternGeorgia. In 1813-14, they were defeated by the Americans North Carolina. and ceded the greater part of their lands to the United The Tuscaroras were first encountered by the whites inStates. North Carolina, where in the early part of the 18thcentury they had approximately six towns and 1,200 warriors. TheyFlorida fought against encroaching settlers in 1711-13, and after their defeat fled north to become a part of the Iroquois The Timucuan Confederacy occupied the greater part Confederacy. of northern Florida. The Hichitis and the Yamaseeswere along the northern boundary of the State and immediately to Georgia the south of the Timucuans were the . The The Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Creekswere all important were in the control of the west coast, and the Ms tribes noted from remote times for their bravery, andtheand Tequestas of the east coast. Other principal tribeswere Choctaws and Creeks in particularfor their warlikethe Saturibas, the Yustagas, the , and the Toco- natures. bagas. According to legend, the Chickasaws and Choctawscame In 1513, Ponce de Leon's ships were repulsed by a fleet from a region near old Mexico andwere once united. Theyof 80 war canoes of the Calusas. The Caluses acquiredcon- separated when they crossed the Mississippi. The Choctaws siderable wealth from the wrecks of Spanish ships in the were more inclined to agriculture than the Chickasaws andFlorida Keys and 200 years later had become pirates. The were defensive rather than offensive fighters. In 1700,Creeks and other English allies drove the Calusas from the they were said to number 15,000 to 20,000. mainland of Florida and they settled in the Keys.

17 The Seminole Indians, a group of the Creeks,were origi- Penobscot River islands from the falls of the riverat Old nally immigrants from the lower Creektowns along theTown north to Mattawamkeag. About 600 Penobscots live Chattahoochee River. They movedacross the Florida-on Indian Island, at Old Town. The Passamaquoddyreser- Georgia border to escape the clash of Spanish andBritishvations consist of Pleasant Point,near Perry (100 acres and interests. about 350 residents) and Indian Townshipnear Princeton (18,000 acres and about 250 residentsat Peter Dana Point THE SEABOARD TRIBES TODAY and the Princeton strip). Each reservation elects The few seaboard Indians who remain in their a Tribal Governor, Lieutenant old habi-Governor, and a Tribal Council. The tat operate largely without Federal support, with theex- two tribes each send ception of the Cherokees in North Carolina and a representative to the State Legislature, bothare without the Semi-voting or other privileges. noles and Miccosukees in Florida. Work opportunities are best for the Penobscots,whose Maine tribal members are employed in nearby mills, businessfirms, and in the shipyards. Some of the Passarnaquoddysfind Maine created a State Department of IndianAffairs bylogging work. No farming is carriedon by either group. Legislative action in 1965, with responsibility for general About 1,000 Malecite Indians live in AroostookCounty on supervision over resident Maine Indians. It conducts a gen-the Canadian border. They do notcome under the jurisdic- eral assistance program and givessome technical and finan-tion of the State Department of Indian Affairs cial help in the areas of reservation and are con- housing, water, and siderably mixed with Penobscot and PassamaquoddyIndians. sanitation. Maine Indian educationrests with the State Department of Education. New Hampshire Many Penobscot and Passamaquoddy tribal members live A very few Pennacook Indians still live in NewHamp- on three reservations reserved for their use in exchange forshire near the town of Manchester. TheseIndians are with- all of what is now Maine. The Penobscotsown all of theout either State or Federal supervision. 18 Massachusetts Rhode Island Massachusetts has a number of Indian settlements, and Two groups of Narragansets, numbering less than 1,000, its Indian population is estimated at a little over 2,000. live in Washington and Providence Counties (along the In Barnstable County, the Mashpees have three com-southern coast near Kingston and in the northernpart of munities (Mashpee, Yarmouth, and Waquoit) and a com-the State). munity in Bristol County near Fall River. About 200 Wam- panoags live in Martha's Vineyard at Gay Head. They ownNew Y ork their own small town. Some pottery and beadwork is made by the Gay Head New York State has had directed programs for Indian 1 Indians and some of the men are artists. welfare for its six Indian reservations for wellover a cen- Nipmuc Indians live in "le central part of Massachusettstury. Approximately 10,000 Indians live on 87,000 acres of around Grafton, Worcester, Gardner, and Mendon. A fewreserved land located in Erie, Chautauqua, and Cattaraugus Indians that are remnants of several tribes live in PlymouthCounties (Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas), Niagara County and Norfolk Counties. (Tuscaroras), Erie and Genesee Counties (Senecas), Onon- daga County (Onondagas, Oneidas, Cayugas) and Franklin and St. Lawrence Counties (Mohawks). Connecticut Supervisor for the New York reservations is the Interde- A few Pequot Indians still occupy their own lands in Newpartmental Committee on Indian Affairs under the State London County at Ledyard Town and Stonington and Department of Social Services. Services that relate to public Mohegans live near Norwich. In Litchfield County are de- health, education, highways, social welfare, and mental hy- scendants of the Scaticooks on Schaghticoke land. Somegiene are undertaken by specific State departments in these remnants of Indian tribes live at Niantic, near New London.fields. Local welfare departments are reimbursed in full by They probably include Niantic Indians. the State for the cost of services to reservation Indians.

19 The ultramodern decor of the interior of the Seneca Community Center on the Allegany Reservation, N.Y., built at a cost of more than half a million dollars. This building houses the offices of the tribal government and Bureau of Indian Affairs and is a tribal meeting place and recreation center. PHOTO: BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS

Governmental agencies work through the elected tribalEducation Department carries out the compulsory school governments, although there are also the traditional andattendance law for them, finances the education ofreseiva- ceremonial tribal governments headed by hereditary chiefs.tion Indians at the elementary and secondary school levels, The only State-directed community house, adjacentto and aids qualified high school graduates who want higheror the Tonawanda Reservation, isrun by Indiadirectors. technical education. Reservation Indiansare also included New York Indian children attend public schools, andthein assistance programs for adult education. 20 Among other services, the State constructs and maintains The Cayugas also receive an annual interest of $21,670, highways and bridges on reservations, cooperates in forestbeing 5 percent on a principal of $433,400 held in trust from fire control and prevention and in enforcing fish and gamea claim settlement based on land sales prior to 1800. The laws, apportions water supply resources, provides employ-Federal Government makes cloth distribution amounting to ment placement and counseling services, and Indian litiga-$2,700 to all of the New York Iroquois tribes but the Mo- tion services. By legislation in 1948 and 1950, the Congresshawks, and an annual payment to the Seneca Nation and of the United States conferred both civil and criminal juris-Tonawanda Band of Senecas of $6,000. diction over all New York Indians to the State. The Mohawk Indians are renowned high steel construc- Federal services have been extended to the Seneca Indianstion workers and have worked on such major projects as displaced from their homes because of the building of Kin-the Mackinaw and Verrazano bridges and the Empire State zua Dam. The Senecas were awarded approximately $3 Building. million in settlement for their seized lands and another $12 A small group of Abnakis are settled around Lake George million for a development program. and in Rensselaer, Columbia, Orange, and Rockland Coun- The Seneca Nation has had a constitutional form of gov- ties. In some places along the Hudson River there are rem- ernment incorporated under New York State since 1849. nants of Indian tribes which are largely mixed with other It is said to be the only Indian tribe that owns a city. Sala- races. manca townspeople have signed 99-year renewable leases for city property owned by the Senecas. New York has five Indian groups that live on Long Is- In accordance with various treaties and State Indian law,land. The Poosepatucks are near Brookhaven, the Montauks some of the Iroquois tribes receive annuities as follows : have two settlements on Montauk Point, the Setaukets are Cayugas $2,300 in Suffolk County, and the Matinecocs in Nassau County. Mohawks 2,132 The Shinnecock Reservation, which juts out into the Atlan- Onondagas 2,430 tic Ocean near Southampton, is said to be worth at least Senecas 500 $45 million. 21 New Jersey gany Reservation in New York State owned by the Senecas About 1,600 people with Indian ancestryare scatteredbut in no way related to it, and isnow unoccupied because of in Essex County, N. J. They are probably "mixed Delawares." the Kinzua Darn. A few Indians, remnants of several tribes, live inBradford Delaware County and around Towanda anda small band, thought to be Cherokees, are in the mountainsnear Harrisburg. Two groups of people each claim Indian origin in the Indians in the State numbera little over 2,000. State of Delaware. These are the "Moors" of Kent County (310 persons) and the Nanticokes (411 persons) of Sussex County. Virginia Only two Indian tribes, the Pamunkey and the Mattaponi Maryland of King William County, liveon reservations in Virginia. Maryland Indians numbersome 3,500 people. TheThe State provides members of these tribesdental services Nanticokes are found in Frederick and Washington Countiesand maintains roads entering their reservations. Itpays tui- and in the Blue Ridge area. Several thousand Lumbee Indi-tion for their children in public schools. Membersof these ans, historically from North Carolina, live in the Baltimoretwo tribes pay no taxes and live by hunting and fishing. They area. make some pottery and beadwork which theysell to tourists and find off-reservation employment where theycan. Pennsylvania The Chickahominys are the largest Indiangroup in Vir- ginia. They live on both sides of the Chickahominy River The Cornplanter Reservation isa tract of land given toin New Kent and Charles Counties and maintaintribal in- the Seneca Chief Cornplanter and his heirs by the Com-tegrity and have their own chief. Members of the tribepay monwealth of Pennsylvania in recognition of Cornplanter'staxes, vote, own their own land, and send their childrento services in the American Revolution. It isnear the Alle-public school. 22 ;41/it v. Other Virginia Indians are the Rappahannocks, primarily in Carolina and King and Queen Counties, Potomacs,in Stafford County, Accohanocs, Nansemonds, and and Blue Ridge mixed bloods.

North Carolina The Federal Reservation in North Carolina is a 56,000-acre tract. The Indians onit are governed by a chief and a 12-member elected tribal council. The Cherokees have a "model" reservation. They have seven civic clubs, own and operatetheir own fleet of school buses, and have an auto mechanic shop. A unique farm club

.,7,4 1. Ir*14.7; for young people gives training in practical leadership. .'440" ;.;40r, 1,46 r,* j;". " ofpfcar, The reservation is in mountain country. Although farm- 1.1 ,125'42. . ing is not extensive, what there is yields fine crops. The 1 71 forest is haxvested by the Tribe on a sustained yield basis. PZ: The Bureau of Indian Affairs employs a forrester, a soil , 4. II conservationist, and real estate specialists who help the Indians with land and resource management. A descendant of a member of the Powhatan Confederacy sits in a thatched hut at Jamestown Festival Park, Va., and The Indian Bureau, using revolving credit funds and rattles dried gourds to frighten birds away from newly tribal monies, has provided facilities for three industrial seeded ground, in the manner of his ancestors. Two plants that employ Indian labor. The Tribe has invested squaws cultivate the earth near an Indian lodge. PHOTO: JAMESTOWN FOUNDATION more than $230,000 in these, and has promoted athriving 23

IMO 0 4, tourist business. It owns a high-grade motel andpresents a historical pageant in its mountainside theater during the a summer months. A craft shup is an importantsource of revenue. The Cherokees make fine splint baskets and have developed wood carving to a high degree. The Bureau maintains a school at Cherokee, but the 'N\ children of the reservationare increasingly attending near- by public schools. The Bureau alsosponsors a job-placement service. The U.S. Public Health Serviceoperates a hospital and a clinic and the Tribe is given the help of the Housing As- sistance Administration. The Bureau provides socialcounsel- ing and child welfare services, foster homeplacement, and adoption services. Some of the Cherokees receiveSocial Security and other financial assistancecomes through the Bureau of Indian Affairs. (See the booklet Indians ofNorth Carolina.) A large number of Lumbee Indians live inRobeson County. Traditionally theyare considered to be the de- scendents of the lost colony of Roanoke and theCroatan Sim jessan carves Cherokee Booger masksat the Oconaluf- Indians, who are thought to have captured theseEnglish tee Indian village on the Cherokee Reservation, N.C. The settlers. Today there is little trace of Indianculture among masks were used by Cherokee Indians in early times in various ceremonials. PHOTO: BUREAU OFINDIAN them. Their namecomes from the and was AFFAIRS 24 given them at their request by legislative enactment. There also appropriated $12,000 for medical fees and other use and are said to be 45,000 Lumbees scattered through the State.the Catawbas were declared citizens of the State of South There are also a few other "submerged" groupstheCarolina. "Cubans," in Person County, descendants of the Macha- Federal aid consisted of education, health, and loan pro- punga in Dare and Hyde Counties and on ,grams. The newly purchased lands were divided among 88 the "Lasters" in Perquimans County, and a remnant groupindividuals for homesites and garden purposes, with one of Indians which is unidentifiable in Rockingham and Nash portion reserved for timber and cattle range. Water, mineral, Cou nties. and timber rights were held for the whole tribe. South Carolina In 1954, it was said that the Catawbas had progressed more in the preceding decade than any other tribe in the In 1763, the Catawbas were granted a reservation 15 milesUnited States. In 1961, the Catawbas severed their ties with square. By 1841, all of its South Carolina land was soldthe Federal Government and are no longer eligible for special except for 1 square mile on which the Indians eked out aIndian services. Tribal lands of an estimated value of $190,- miserable existence. Moved by their terrible plight, the Fed-000 were divided among tribal members along with $6,000 eral Government took action to put them under its super-from the sale of the beef herd and $5,000 in trust funds. vision. These Indians now pay taxes. A few of the older women In 1943, an understanding was reached between the State,make some pottery, but this is the only vestige of the former the Indians, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Stateculture. provided $75,000 for the purchase of lands which would be tax exempt, and for expenditures on the Catawbas. TheGeorgia State also agreed to provide $9,500 a year for 2years to be Hundreds of people in Georgia are of Cherokee descent, used by the Bureau for the start of a rehabilitation program.but they are not a distinct social group. There is, however, The Indian children were to be admitted to public schoolsa small settlement of Cherokees and Creeks in Burke County, at all levels on the same basis as white children. The Statenot far from Augusta.

25 XI*

Florida 4

en:v. The Seminoles have threereservations in southern Flori- da, and the Miccosukees,a branch group, have theirreserva- tion on the Tamiami Trailnear Miami. These Indians are descendants of the survivors of theSeminole Wars who hid in the isolated Everglades. The U.S. Court of Claims in 1967upheld a 1964 decision by the Indian ClaimsCommission that the Seminoles of - Florida and Oklahomaare entitled to additional payment vo from the Federal Governmentfor sizable portions of lands once held by the Indians in Florida. Many of the Seminoles stillwear their colorful native dress and live in the old styleopen chickee. On the reserva- tion near Hollywood, theTribe has reproducedan authentic Seminole village and hasa large craft shop. The Miccosukees havea restaurant and plans for other tourist business expansion. (Seethe booklet Indians of the .11 Gulf Coast States.)

SEABOARD TRIBESAWAY FROM HOME A Seminole Indian roofsa "cbickee" with palm fronds. Abnakis, Iroquois, anddescendants of the Delawares and T be classic Florida Indiandwelling is open to tbe breeze, Munsees are found in Canada.The Oneidas have yet provides shelter fromsun and rain. PHOTO: NA- a reserva- TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 26 tion not far from Green Bay, Wis., and close to them are the the Massachusetts Bay Colony for the Nipmucs, near Stockbridges and Munsees. The Brothertons, made up of Grafton. remnants of New England tribes, also have a settlement inThe old Mashpee Meeting House, Mashpee. Oneida County, Wis. The statute of Massasoit, Plymouth. Delawares, Munsees, Shawnees, and Senecas are inThe Wampanoag community of Gay Head. . Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Chero-Connecticut keesalso know as the Five Civilized Tribesare found inTantaquidgeon Indian Museum, Uncasyille. This is oper- large numbers in Oklahoma, where they were moved in their ated by direct descendants of Uncas. entirety as tribes (except for the eastern Cherokees). Rhode Island PLACES TO VISITTHINGS TO SEE Site of the Great Swamp Battle which ended the King Maine Philip War. The spot has been dedicated by the Indian as a shrine of brotherhood. Every year (fourth Friday in The restoration site of the Abnaki city of Pemaquid. September) a pilgrimage is made to the monument and New Hampshire the Indians circle it holding flowers to form a living wreath. Indian Head, a nationally famous rock profile on Pemige- wasset Mountain, Franconia Notch. New York Johnson Hall, Johnstown, the home of Sir William Johnson Massachusetts who was the first superintendent of Indian Affairs for the The Longhouse Museum on the grounds of the original British Crown. Johnson married Molly Brant, a Mohawk, Hassabanisco Reservation which was set aside in 1748 by and strongly influenced the Iroquois tribes. His home was 27 a headquarters for the Mohawks and decisions madethereWest Virginia shaped Indian-white destiny foryears to come. The Six Nations Museum, Onchiota. Museum, Moundsville. The last Seneca Council House, Letchworth State Park. Tennessee The home of Mary Jemison,a white captive of the Senecas, who refused to return to herown people, LetchworthChucalissa Indian Village,near Memphis. State Park. Georgia The home of James FenimoreCooper, the author of The Last of the Mohicans, and other Indianclassics, Coope:3- Restoration ofCherokee capital, Calhoun. town. Etowah Indian , Cartersville. Mohawk-Caughnawaga Museum, Fonda. Museum, Blakely. Museum of the American Indian, NewYork City. Creek Indian Museum, IndianSprings. Owasco Stockaded Indian Village,Auburn. Home of Chief McIntosh, IndianSprings. The site of Grannagaro, theSeneca capital, Victor. Ocmulgee National Monument,Macon. Chief Vann Home, Spring Place. Virginia Chief John Ross Home, Chattanooga. The Jamestown Restoration,Jamestown. Chickahominy Powwow, James River,near Richmond (lateAlabama September). Mound City, Moundville. North Carolina Florida Museum of the Cherokees, Cherokee. Seminole Indian Village and craftshop, Hollywood Reserva- Oconaluftee Indian Village,Cherokee. tion, Hollywood. ,Mount Gilead. Small pow-wows are held throughoutNew England during The Cherokee Indian Fair,Cherokee (in September) . the summer months. The datesare announced each year. 28 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :IN7-0-2711-03111 Indian Village at Memphis, Tenn., is a restored village of the Tunica Indians managed by Memphis State University. PHOTO: STATE OF TENNESSEE

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, ;10 " - - CREATED IN 1849, the Department of the Interiora Depart- ment of Conservationis concerned with the management, con- servation, and development of the Nation's water, fish, wildlife, mineral, forest, and park and recreational resources. It also has major responsibilities for Indian and Territorial affairs. As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Depart- ment works to assure that nonrenewable resources are developed and used wisely, that park and recreationalresources are con- served for the future, and that renewableresources make their full contribution to the progress, prosperity, and security of the United Statesnow and in the future.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OFTHE INTERIOR BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402- Price 15 cents