MASARYK UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Education Department of English Language and Literature
Terminology of Distributed Generation of Power: Analysis
Bachelor thesis
Mgr. Petra Němcová
Supervisor: Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D.
Brno, 25th November 2012
Declaration
I hereby declare that I worked on my thesis independently and that I used only the sources listed in the bibliography.
2
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D. for his valuable help and advice with which he provided me during my work on this bachelor thesis.
3 Contents
1 INTRODUCTION...... 5 1.1 AIMS OF THE THESIS ...... 5 1.2 STRUCTURE AND METHODOLOGY OF THE THESIS...... 6 2 THEORETICAL PART...... 7 2.1 BASIC TERMS OF LEXICOLOGY ...... 7 2.2 LEXICOLOGY AND TERMINOLOGY ...... 7 2.3 TREATMENT OF SYNONYMY, POLYSEMY AND HOMONYMY IN LEXICOGRAPHY AND TERMINOGRAPHY... 10 2.3.1 Synonymy...... 11 2.4 WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES...... 11 2.5 COMPOUNDING IN ENGLISH ...... 13 2.5.1 Classification of compounds in English ...... 13 3 PRACTICAL PART ...... 16 3.1 WHAT IS DISTRIBUTED GENERATION OF POWER?...... 16 3.1.1 Definition of distributed generation of power...... 18 3.1.2 Terms used to describe small-scale generation ...... 18 3.1.2.1 Embedded and dispersed generation...... 19 3.1.2.2 Decentralised generation ...... 19 3.1.2.3 Decentralised energy ...... 20 3.1.2.4 Distributed energy...... 21 3.1.2.5 On-site generation ...... 21 3.1.2.6 Microgeneration...... 21 3.1.3 Degree of synonymy among the terms...... 21 3.1.4 European Union terminology ...... 23 3.1.5 International Energy Agency terminology...... 23 3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTED-GENERATION TERMINOLOGY ...... 24 3.2.1 Types of compounds found in the analysed texts...... 26 3.2.1.1 Neoclassical compounds...... 26 3.2.1.2 Compound adjectives ...... 27 3.2.1.2.1 Noun + adjective compound adjectives...... 27 3.2.1.2.1.1 Noun (or compound noun) + past participle compound adjectives ...... 28 3.2.1.2.2 Phrasal compound adjectives...... 31 3.2.1.2.3 Preposition + noun compound adjectives...... 31 3.2.1.2.4 Verb + particle compound adjectives...... 32 3.2.1.2.5 Adjective + noun compound adjectives ...... 32 3.2.1.2.6 Noun + noun compound adjectives...... 33 3.2.1.2.7 Adjective + adjective compound adjectives ...... 33 3.2.1.3 Compound nouns ...... 34 3.2.1.3.1 Noun + noun compound nouns...... 34 3.2.1.3.2 Adjective + noun compound nouns...... 34 3.2.1.3.3 Adjective + progressive participle compound nouns...... 34 3.2.1.3.4 Compound nouns in attributive position ...... 35 3.3 CLARIFICATION OF SOME CONFUSING TERMS ...... 35 3.4 DIFFERENCES AND LEXICAL GAPS IN CZECH TERMINOLOGY ...... 39 4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 40 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 42 GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOUND IN THE LITERATURE
4 1 Introduction
The bachelor thesis deals with the topic of terminology in the field of distributed generation of power. Distributed generation of power is one of the terms widely used to name a recent trend towards small-scale and decentralised power generation. This growing tendency could be perceived as a paradigmatic change in the power industry as well as among the consumers reacting to new energy security challenges. Consequently, the specific terminology has not been fully stabilized. This presents us with an opportunity to study the terminology in its development; particularly as far as any differences in usage among various energy-related institutions (namely the European Union energy policy, the International Energy Agency) are concerned.
1.1 Aims of the thesis
The objective of the thesis is to analyse the terminology of distributed generation of power in selected samples of literature dealing with the topic. The chosen texts come from scholarly journals (namely Electric Power Systems Research and Journal of Power Sources) and a technical publication Embedded Generation. Other analysed texts are official documents of institutions which have a substantial influence on world energy policies, i.e. the International Energy Agency and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (a document called Distributed Generation in Liberalised Electricity Markets), and the European Union (two publications; firstly, Decentralised Generation Technologies: Potentials, Success Factors and Impacts in the Liberalised EU Energy Markets, and secondly, a document called Decentralised Energy Systems). The distributed-generation terminology has been chosen because it has not been studied in the Czech Republic. The thesis can therefore serve professionals in the fields of power generation, distributed-generation technologies, economics and other related areas, as well as general public since it attempts to clarify some commonly confused terms. The aims of the analysis itself are as follows: firstly, to explain what distributed generation of power is and briefly describe its terminology; secondly, to determine the degree of synonymity and semantic differences between distributed generation of power and other terms that have been coined to capture the shift towards small-scale power generation. Third goal of the thesis is to compare terminologies used by the European Union and the International Energy Agency, comment on any differences in usage and relate the
5 terminologies to the terminology used within the concept of smart grids. The thesis then focuses on the types of compounds found in the selected samples of literature, clarifies some commonly confused terms and attempts to ascertain whether there are any lexical gaps in Czech distributed-generation terminology with respect to its comparison to English terminology of this field. Finally, it provides a categorised English-Czech Distributed Energy Glossary with Czech translations of the terms and some explanations of the terms.
1.2 Structure and methodology of the thesis
The text is divided into four main sections: the introduction, theoretical part, practical part and conclusion. The thesis is supplemented by an English-Czech Glossary. The introduction states the aims of the thesis and clarifies the division of the text into chapters. The theoretical part introduces basic lexical terms and proceeds to compare and contrast lexicology and terminology. It then focuses on the different treatment of synonymy, polysemy and homonymy in lexicography and terminography. Next chapter concentrates on word- formation processes in English. The following chapter deals with compounding in English language, features of compounds and the classification of compounds. The practical part briefly explains the background and history of distributed generation of power as a phenomenon in the power industry in order to focus later in the text on the definitions of the term used in the selected samples of literature as they are listed above. The term is then compared with other terms that are frequently used to name the same phenomenon so as to determine the degree of synonymy among the terms. Terminologies used in the European Union documents and the International Energy Agency publications are then compared and contrasted. The following chapter generally describes distributed- generation terminology and categorizes it. The terms are further analysed from a formal point of view concentrating on the types of compounds used. The next chapter draws attention to certain commonly confused terms in order to clarify their meanings. The terminology is further analysed in comparison to its Czech counterpart in order to be able to ascertain differences and possible lexical gaps in Czech terminology. The final part of the work summarizes the main points of the thesis, presents conclusions and suggests topics for further analysis of terminology related to power generation.
6 2 Theoretical part
2.1 Basic terms of lexicology
Lexicology is “the study of lexis, understood as the stock of words in a given language, i.e. its vocabulary or lexicon (from Greek lexis which means word, or lexikos which means of/for words)” (Jackson, Amvela 1). Therefore the focus of lexicology is the notion of word. Despite the intuition with which we use the term word in everyday life, there is some ambiguity in linguistic literature concerning a precise and consistent definition of a word (Adams 7). For the purposes of the thesis, we will use the definition of a word provided by Jackson and Amvela who “consider the word as an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes and which typically occurs in the structure of phrases” (50). Jackson and Amvela explain that understanding a word as an uninterruptible unit means that whenever elements are added to a word to modify its meaning, they are always added at the beginning as prefixes or at the end as suffixes, not within the word (50-51). When a word is formed by only one morpheme it is called a simple word, e.g. dog or cat. Words consisting of two or more morphemes may be either complex or compound. Complex words can be divided into one free form (an element which is in other contexts independent (Adams 7) and one or more bound forms (prefixes and suffixes, which are never independent (Adams 7), e.g. un- eat-able or sad-ly. Compound words have more than one free form: e.g. lip+stick. Each word should also belong to a specific word class or part of speech (Jackson, Amvela 51-52). “Lexicography is a special technique, the writing and compilation of dictionaries.” Lexicography may also refer to the principles of compiling and aditing dictionaries, in which sense it can be understood as applied lexicology (Jackson, Amvela 8).
2.2 Lexicology and terminology
The word terminology can be understood in three different meanings: 1. The whole field that studies the naming of concepts of special subjects. 2. The methodology used in terminographic1 work. 3. The set of terms of a particular special subject.
1 Bergenholtz and Kaufman (91) for example understand terminography as a specialised or LSP (language for specific purposes) lexicography.
7 Terminology is an interdisciplinary field which has borrowed its theoretical concepts from applied linguistics, logic, ontology and information science to fulfil its own applied purposes (i.e. the creation of vocabularies, glossaries and dictionaries, and the standardization of designations) (Cabre 32). Since terminology is concerned with dictionaries, it can be regarded as either part of lexicology or lexicography, or very closely related to it (Cabre 34- 35). Pavel and Nolet (Pavel, Nolet xvii) remark that: “the resemblance of these two disciplines is reflected in the recent use of the term specialized lexicography as a synonym of terminology”. Similarly, Bergenholtz and Kaufman suggest that because of “virtually identical objects and aims specialised or LSP lexicography and terminography has been described as synonymous terms” (91). There are, nevertheless, some characteristics that can differentiate terminology from lexicology (see table 1 below for an overview). The differentiating characteristics are: (a) the domain, (b) the basic unit, (c) the purpose, (d) and the methodology. (a) The domain of lexicology, which deals with the whole stock of words of a language, is wider and includes that of terminology which concentrates on the words of a specific field (such as medicine, chemistry, or painting) or a professional activity (such as sports) (Cabre 34-35). (b) Lexicology studies words, while terminology focuses on terms. Cabre (35) states that a term is a word used in a special subject field; for example, the word thermometer is a term used in metrology or meteorology, or the word word is a term used in lexicology. (c) Lexicology wants to explain the meaning of words in general language, whereas terminology, which is interlinked with specialist languages, is not confined to gathering the terms of a particular domain for informative or descriptive aims, but rather the purpose is to “establish certain terminological units as standardized forms, as reference forms, thereby discarding other variants for the same concept. The final goal is achieving precise and unambiguous professional communication” (Cabre 35). (d) The specificity of terminology also lies in its methodology, as can be seen from table 1. Lexicology is based on words, whereas terminology on concepts. Terminology starts with analysis of concepts of a special subject field and then proceeds to their denomination. Entries in terminological works are therefore presented in systemic order as opposed to the alphabetic order found in general dictionaries. This should reflect the conceptual system of a special subject as well as provide a more appropriate layout for multilingual dictionaries, because “in theory the concept is the same in all languages and the difference lies in the designation” (Cabre 33). What is more, words in dictionaries are usually explained with
8 respect to their use in context, there is always connection to grammar. Terminology, on the other hand, is interested in terms on their own (Cabre 33-34).
Table 1 Overview of differences between lexicology/lexicography and terminology/terminography
lexicology – lexicography terminology – terminography
Words as formal units of general Terms as formal units of a specialist language language form ... form ... the vocabulary of that language, which the terminology of a field, which is studied by ... is studied by ... the science of lexicology, and is the science of terminology, and is documented documented by ... by ... lexicographers, whose goal is said to be terminographers, whose goal is said to be to to explain ... explain ... word meaning, and whose approach is ... referents (objects/concepts), and whose approach is ... 1. semasiological, meaning that they start 1. onomasiological, meaning that they start from from a lexeme an analysis of concepts then look for all the senses of that then look for terms to assign/that are assigned to lexeme, than enter these senses in the that concept, then enter these terms in the entry entry for that lexeme, and ... for that concept, and ... 2. alphabetical, meaning that they 2. systematic, meaning that they represent entries represent entries according to the according to theme/some previously developed sequence of the alphabet. classification. Source: Antia, Bessay. "Lexicography versus terminography: Some practical reasons for dictinction." termnet.org. International network for terminology, n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2011.
9 2.3 Treatment of synonymy, polysemy and homonymy in lexicography and terminography
Another important aspect distinguishing between lexicology and terminology is the treatment of synonymy, polysemy and homonymy. Polysemy means that the same word has two or more different meanings (Jackson, Amvela 58). For instance, the noun court is polysemous because it may mean: 1) the place where legal trials take place and where crimes, etc. are judged; 2) a place where games such as tennis are played; 3) the official place where kings and queens live (“Court” Oxford Advanced). Homonymy is a situation when there are two or more words with the same shape, but which have different meanings and etymologies. For example, lead (metal) and lead (dog’s lead) are spelt the same but pronounced differently – they are homographs, whereas right, rite and write are spelt differently but pronounced the same – they are homophones (Jackson, Amvela 61). Since synonymy is treated in more detail in the following chapter, it suffices to say here that synonyms are words with the same meaning, for example near and close (Jackson, Amvela 92). Synonyms, polysemes, homonyms are dealt with differently in lexicographic and terminographic works. Terminology has a strong prescriptive aspect which lies in the requirement of standardization of terms and it therefore attempts to eliminate synonymy and decrease polysemy and homonymy in order to achieve clear comprehension. This can be reflected in the structure of a terminographic publication where synonyms are usually gathered in the same entry because they are alternative designations of the same concept. Polysemes and homonyms of the same subject field are usually explained in separate entries since they refer to different concepts (Drame). For example the polysemous word socialisation can be understood as either a sociological concept or a political and economic concept with respective definitions. Lexicography, on the other hand, usually presents a polyseme as one headword in one entry. Homonyms are grouped, but synonyms are dispersed throughout the dictionary (Drame).
10 2.3.1 Synonymy
Since terminology seeks to avoid using synonyms, we will investigate the topic more closely. The term synonymy is derived from a Greek word sunonumon which means having the same name and it refers to the sameness of meaning that may occur between words. Jackson and Amvela suggest that the degree of synonymy can vary between strict or absolute synonymy and loose synonymy (93). Strict or absolute synonyms would be those fully interchangeable in all their possible contexts of usage, without the choice of one synonym over the other resulting in any change of meaning, style or connotation. It is nevertheless very often the opposite case; that is, that there are differences in meaning, though sometimes very subtle ones, between identified synonyms. Absolute synonymy could therefore be regarded as non-existent and redundant (Jackson, Amvela 93). Jackson and Amvela also point out that historically, when words should become strict synonyms, one of them tends to shift its meaning or stop being used (93). Taking into consideration what has been written above, this thesis will assume the reasoning suggested by Jackson and Amvela (94), that by synonymy we refer to a certain level of loose synonymy where there is a significant similarity in the meaning between words, but also some contexts where one word cannot replace the other. Hence synonyms are substitutable when their meanings overlaps but not in other cases. Synonyms may exist because the particular words belong to different dialects, levels of formality or differ in their connotations (Jackson, Amvela 94-96).
2.4 Word-formation processes
Word-formation processes are “different devices which are used in English to build new words from existing ones” (Jackson, Amvela 69). The most general word-formation processes are: derivation and compounding2. Apart from these, there are other ways of forming new words in English; they are conversion, blends and shortenings (Jackson, Amvela 69-90).
2 Jackson and Amvela (70) also include inflection in word-formation processes. Inflection is a “grammatical process which combines words and affixes (always suffixes in English) to produce alternative grammatical forms of words” (Jackson, Amvela 69). For example the inflectional affixes s or es are used to produce plural forms of nouns, as in tables or matches, respectively (Adams 11). It can be argued that the process does not lead to the creation of new words and it is therefore not included in the chapter of the thesis dealing with formation of new words in English.
11 Derivation is a “lexical process which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix” (Jackson, Amvela 70). For example, the suffixes - ment and -ion may be added to the verbs improve and elect, respectively, to derive the nouns improvement and election which are different words. A compound word is a fixed “combination of two free forms or words that have an otherwise independent existence” (Adams 30). Some compounds form a single word (with or without a hypen, e.g. breastfeeding, grass-green), whereas others are written as two or more words, e.g. waste paper basket (Jackson, Amvela 80). Conversion occurs when a word that belongs to one word class is shifted to another word class. This word-formation process is so frequent that many linguists consider it as “a matter of syntactic usage rather than as word-formation (Jackson, Amvela 86). Blends, telescope or portemanteau words, are “new lexemes built from parts of two (or possibly more) words in such a way that the constituent parts are usually easily identifiable, though in some instances, only one of the elements may be identifiable” (Jackson, Amvela 87). For example, the word smog is a blend formed by two words: smoke and fog, brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch. Shortening is a group of processess which includes clipping, backformation and initialism. Clipping refers to reducing a word to one of its part, e.g. math (shortened from mathematics), exam (shortened from examination). Backformation is forming of a new word from an older word which is incorretly assumed to be its derivative, e.g. the verb televise was created from the noun television, not vice versa, even though nouns are normally formed from verbs. Initialism consists in creating words by putting together the initial letters or syllables of words, as in VIP (very important person), or NATO (North Atlantic Treaty organization) (Jackson, Amvela 88-89). There are some differences between lexicology and terminology regarding the formation of words and terms. Since terminology diverges from the purely descriptive approach of lexicology, it allows intervention in word formation with the intention of establishing standardised terms. Terminology also accentuates the international dimension of terms and as a consequence favours those methods of term formation that bring historical languages closer to one another, e.g. the preference of terms formed with Greek and Latin roots and affixes (Cabre 33-34).
12 2.5 Compounding in English
The fact that compounds can be written as one word with or without a hyphen between two roots or as two or more words implies that compounds are intermediaries between words and phrases. Yet, the distinction between compounds and phrases stems from certain phonological, syntactic and semantic features of compounds. From the phonological point of view, compounds are distinguished from phrases by having a single primary stress and lacking juncture.3 The syntactic characteristics that distinguish compounds are word order, interruptibility, modification and inflectibility. As far as word order is concerned, some compounds are distinguishable by having unusual word order. For instance, the combination noun + adjective, as in the compound seasick, is not the most frequent grammatical pattern in English as adjectives usually go before, not after nouns. Interruptibility means that the constituent elements of compounds are normally not interrupted by an extraneous component. What is more, compound elements cannot be modified autonomously, but only as a whole unit. For example, in the statement “Jane is very homesick”, very modifies the whole compound, not only the constituents home or sick. The grammatical function of compounds can be altered by using inflections and while a compound may be inflected, its constituents may not be inflected; e.g., a washing machine is inflected for the plural as washing machines, not washings machines. Finally, the semantic characteristic of compounds is that they are inclined to be idiomatic, as their meaning usually cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituent parts literally (Jackson, Amvela 80-81).4
2.5.1 Classification of c ompounds in English
Compounds are usually classified according to whether their function in a sentence is that of a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb (Bauer 201). When all the constituents of a compound are from the same word class (e.g. noun + noun), the compound belongs to the same class. If the elements of a compound do not belong to the same word class (e.g. noun + adjective), then, as a general rule, the word class of the resulting compound is usually determined by the word class of the last element of the compound (Jackson, Amvela 82-83). It must be taken into consideration that the classification based on form classes has a major
3 Juncture refers to phonetic cues that allow to differentiate the sounds between words or sequence of sounds. 4 Adams (103), on the other hand, wtites about compound adjectives being quite transparent in their meaning, as “it is usually not difficult to understand an adjective compound which we have not seen before.” She also emphasizes that this is less true for nominal compounds (Adams 103).
13 drawback which stems from the very high frequency of conversion in English. Hence it is not always clear what word class a particular element belongs to (Bauer 202). We can distinguish four major categories of compounds, compound nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, to which neo-classical compounds can be added due to their predominance in the vocabulary of technology. The first base of compound nouns may be a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb, while the second element must be a noun, as in the following examples. NOUN + NOUN: football, six-pack, ashtray VERB + NOUN: daredevil, washing machine, swimming pool ADJECTIVE + NOUN: greenhouse, hardcover, software ADVERB + NOUN: afterthought, onlooker, upgrade The second base in compound verbs must be a verb, the first base can be a noun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, as in the following examples. NOUN + VERB: babysit, brainwash, housekeep VERB + VERB: dive-bomb, drop kick ADJECTIVE + VERB: dry clean, greenwash, sweet-talk ADVERB + VERB: overthrow, overdo, upgrade Compound adjectives have a noun, an adjective, or an adverb as the first root and the second root is an adjective, as in the following examples. NOUN + ADJECTIVE: mouth-watering, eartbound ADJECTIVE + ADJECTIVE: north-west, blue-green ADVERB + ADJECTIVE: long-sighted Compound adverbs are formed by two adverbs, as in the following examples. ADVERB + ADVERB: thereupon Apart from free and bound forms, there are also elements which Bauer (213) calls combining forms whereas Jackson and Amvela (82) write about bound root morphemes. These elements, usually of Greek or Latin origin, can function as affixes in some cases, or compound constituents in other cases. Instances are astro-, electro-, hydro-, -phile, -phobe, - crat, -naut, and so on. Compounds that are formed by these constituents are known as neo- classical compounds, such as astronaut, holograph, xenophobia (Bauer 213-216). Neo- classical compounds are very productive in English as they form a large part of scientific, medical and technological terminologies. There are several other ways how to classify compounds. Compounds can be subordinate where one constituent (the modifier) modifies the other (the head), e.g. washing
14 machine, or coordinate where both constituents of the compound have equal status, e.g. Czech-Slovak. As for orthographic features, compounds can be solid, i.e. spent as one word (windfarm), hyphenated (carbon-intensive), or open (wind park). Endocentric compounds are those that remain in the same category as its elements: formally endocentric compound stays in the same word class as its head (e.g. windfarm is a noun, as well as farm is a noun), semantically endocentric compound is semantically related to its head (e.g. washing machine is a kind of machine). Formally exocentric compound does not remain in the same word class as its head or both constituents and semantically exocentric compound “refers to an entity different from those referred to by its constituent elements” (e.g. redneck denotes a person, not a kind of neck) (Vogel 18).
15 3 Practical part
3.1 What is distributed generation of power?
Distributed generation of power is a term for what is considered to be a new approach that has been developing in the electricity power industry. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy even defines the term as being the name of a new paradigm:
The newest paradigm in power industry is known as distributed generation (DG) or, more generally, distributed energy resources (DER). Here, small scale power generation and storage equipment is located at the distribution – not transmission – level of interconnection. DER/DG includes such technologies as reciprocating engines, micro-turbines, fuel cells, and small solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays (413).
In order to understand the reasons for the change of the paradigm and thus the content of the term distributed generation of power, we must explore the development of the power industry in the 20th century. The 20th century, particularly the second half of the century, experienced a massive increase in the consumption of energy (see fig. 1) the consequence of which was a considerable growth of energy imports and a gradual industrial concentration.5 Whereas in 19th century most people utilised energy resources from their immediate surroundings, at the present time the provenance and source of the energy we use on daily basis is often not known. Energy supply has been dominated by generation in large power plants producing hundreds of megawatts of energy that are transferred from these production centres to consumers, often over very long distances. Apart from the production, the deliveries of fossil fuels are also significantly concentrated. They are extracted at a limited number of sites, processed in a small number of industrial complexes and transported via several pipelines (Polanecký et al. 2). Whereas economic theory refers to such domination of a business sector by a few large firms as industrial concentration, literature dealing with energy prefers the term centralisation to name the same phenomenon.
5 "Industrial concentration refers to a structural characteristic of the business sector. It is the degree to which production in an industry – or in the economy as a whole – is dominated by a few large firms ("Industrial Concentration").
16 Figure 1 Population growth and global primary energy consumption from 1850 to 2000
Source: "Future Energy Demand and Supply." openlearn.openi.ac.uk. The Open University, n.d. Web. 26 May 2011.
As it was explained above, centralised energy systems are characterised by transporting large quantities of electrical energy from power plants to customers. This process is divided into two stages, or networks. Firstly, the electricity from the generator is converted to a very high voltage to be conveyed through transmission lines to transmission substations. This is called the power transmission system, or the grid. The power is then conveyed to the low-voltage distribution system. The distribution system delivers the power to users "Electric Power Transmission"). Lovins et al. (3) suggest that the trend towards centralisation of energy systems was inverted in 1990’s when the concept of largely distributed or decentralised power generation became significant. This change is understood as a "shift of scale". It means that the large scale transmission-based power systems are increasingly being viewed as obsolete and economicly and environmentally ineffective. At the same time, smaller scale, lower-voltage power generation at distribution system level is gaining predominace. This shift toward distributed power generation is interconnected with the use of energy sources that are environmentally benign, including both renewable and non-renewable energy sources (Lovins et al. 3-4).
17 3.1.1 Definition of distribu ted generation of power
Since distributed power generation is a relatively new trend, the term itself is not used consistently in the literature. In its broadest sense, distributed power generation can be defined as small-scale generation. This definition can be narrowed by listing the technologies that can be applied, which nevertheless still leaves substantial space for free interpretation of the term distributed power generation. As summarised in Pepermans et al., some countries define the term according to its voltage level, other place more stress on the principle that "distributed generation is connected to circuits from which consumer loads are supplied directly". Still other countries regard as distributed generation those systems that have some characteristic, e.g. the use of renewable energy sources or cogeneration (Pepermans et al. 16). The International Energy Agency for example excludes wind energy from its conception of distributed power generation ("International Energy"). Pepermans et al. (16-19) provide a very good overview of the different definitions of distributed generation of power proposed in the literature. The authors conclude that the best definition is that proposed by Ackermann et al. who, based on a thorough analysis of the concept of small-scale generation, state that: "Distributed generation is an electric power source connected directly to the distribution network or on the customer site of the meter" (201). Pepermans et al., nevertheless, suggest further narrowing of the definition according to the following criteria: voltage level at grid connection, generation capacity, services supplied, generation technology, operation mode, power delivery area, and ownership (17-18).
3.1.2 Terms used to de scribe small-scale generation
The previous chapter stated that distributed generation of power can be very loosely defined as small-scale generation. From the terminological point of view, the relation can be seen reversely. Small-scale power generation is a new concept applied in the power industry for which the term distributed generation of power is often used. There are, however, a number of other terms used to give a name to the concept of small-scale generation. As it is implied in Ackermann et al., cultural factors may play role in coining them, as "Anglo- American countries often use the term ‘embedded generation’, North American countries the term ‘dispersed generation’, and in Europe and parts of Asia, the term ‘decentralised generation’ is applied for the same type of generation" (195). Apart from the previous terms, the Wikipedia matches other expressions to the term distributed generation, they are: on-site
18 generation, decentralized energy and distributed energy ("Distributed generation"). The last term the meaning of which requires to be explained in connection to small-scale generation is microgeneration. It should be clarified that all the terms mentioned in this chapter refer to the generation of electrical and thermal power. As there is no clear evidence of synonymy among the terms, the following chapters will examine them in order to determine the degree of synonymy.
3.1.2.1 Embedded and dispersed generation
The term embedded generation is an abbreviation of generation embedded in the distribution network which was, similarly to distributed or decentralised generation, an attempt to connect generation to distribution level, rather than transmission level. The adjective dispersed in the term dispersed generation is used to distinguish it from central generation. Apart from the previous specification of the meanings of the used adjectives, there is no generally accepted definition of embedded or dispersed generation, nor is it clear how they differ from conventional generation. Jenkins et al., nonetheless, list characteristics frequently considered to be related to embedded or dispersed generation. The atributes are as follows: embedded, or dispersed, generation are not centrally planned, or despatched by a utility, on the other hand, they are usually connected to the distribution system and their capacity is normally smaller than 50-100 MW (1). The International Energy Agency defines dispersed generation as distributed generation (defined as in Ackermann et al. 201) plus wind energy based generation ("International Agency).
3.1.2.2 Decentralised generation
Decentralised generation is a term used mainly within the European Union. It started to be used in the process of researching possibilities to reach the targets that had been set for the European Union in the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which had been adopted to combat climate change. Since the aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce CO2 emissions, the idea was to increase the use of generation technologies with no or low environmental impact in terms of their CO2 emissions. As a consequence of such technologies bringing a new decentralised structure to the generation network (i.e. more and smaller generators on the European energy markets that are closer to the final energy consumers), the term decentralised generation has been favoured.
19 The analysed literature clearly considers decentralised generation to be very close to the terms distributed generation, embedded generation, distributed energy resources or embedded resources (Joerss et al. 3). Joerss et al., nevertheless, remark that "there is no generally accepted definition of decentralised generation, since the objectives of the stakeholders are very different". The definition of decentralised generation in the European Union was influenced by its political and economic background, namely the Kyoto aims and the process of liberalisation of national energy markets. Therefore decentralised-generation technologies are those regarded as environmentally benign, namely photovoltaics, hydropower, wind power, biomass, natural-gas-fired combined heat and power installations and fuel cells. As for the impact of liberalisation on the definition of decentralised generation, the size of the generating unit or the operating company gained relevance in terms of transaction costs and market entry procedures. Thus the research that supported a new energy policy development in the European Union defined decentralised generation as "all generation installations that are connected to the distribution network or on the customer side of the meter, and that are based on the use of renewable energy sources or technologies for combined heat and power
(CHP) generation not exceeding a size of approx. 10 MWe. (Joerss 4)." It must be made clear that the previous characterization is not a legal definition and there has not been any, since the term decentralised generation has been applied only descriptively in legal documents (Altmann et al. 19). It has also been used in communicating energy policy issues in its broader sense, as a power generation which is close to the place where the produced power is consumed ("European Commission").
3.1.2.3 Decentralised energy
The term decentralised energy, sometimes called decentralised energy systems is in comparison to decentralised or distributed generation a slightly more recent expression. While decentralised and distributed generations were already in use in 1990’s, decentralised energy was started to be used at the beginning of the 21st century. 6 Similarly to decentralised generation, decentralised energy is used as a descriptive, not a legal term, particularly in the European Union and by World Alliance for Decentralized Energy a research and advocacy non-profit organization created within the UNFCCC. The main difference that distinguishes
6 The European Union used the terms decentralised and distributed generations in its 5th Research Framework Programme at the end of 1990’s (Joerrs), more recent publications use the term decentralised energy (Altmann et al.).
20 decentralised energy is that it involves broader range of technologies; not only production technologies, but also consumption and storage-related technologies, for example industrial energy recycling, or electric vehicles ("WADE").
3.1.2.4 Distributed energy
Distributed energy is used as an absolute synonym for distributed generation, or distributed energy generation (Pepermans).
3.1.2.5 On-site generation
On-site generation is not a synonym for small-scale or distributed generation. It is one of possible production methods within distributed generation which consists in generating energy on-site, that is on or in buildings, or on premises, for example in hospitals, or hotels where the power is also consumed (Joerrs 175).
3.1.2.6 Microgeneration
The term microgeneration is narrower than small-scale generation or distributed generation. Similarly to on-site generation, it is a production method. It refers to very small generation units connected to the low-voltage network, for example capacities below 50 kW in the European Union (Altmann et al. 19).
3.1.3 Degree of synonymy among the terms
One of the aims of this thesis is to determine the degree of synonymy among the terms distributed generation, decentralised generation, embedded generation, dispersed generation, microgeneration, on-site generation, distributed energy and decentralised energy. Synonymy is a semantic relation between naming units. Synonyms are words or phrases with the same or nearly the same meaning. The degree of synonymy can be expressed on the scale ranging from absolute synonyms (words agreeing in denotation, connotation and distribution) to close synonyms (words differing in a single seme). Generally, there are few absolute synonyms (Cruse 266-270).
21 The analysed terms are supposed to designate a new trend in energy industry which can be described by the application of small-scale technologies and shortening of the distance between the site of power generation and the point of its final consumption. The previous chapters examined the contents of the analysed expressions and found that two terms (on-site generation and microgeneration) are not synonymous with the others, because they designate particular generation methods within the new concept of small-scale energy generation, not the concept itself. The analysis showed that important defining characteristics are the employed technologies and their connection to the grid. The terms distributed / embedded / dispersed / decentralised generation and distributed energy utilise the same type of generating technologies which are usually connected to the distribution network. The technologies are those using locally available resources that can be converted to energy at the point or near the point of final consumption. Such sources are very often, but not necessarily, renewable. There might be other defining features, such as maximum capacity of the applied generating technologies to identify what is considered to be small-scale technology, however, these only specify, but do not change the least common denominator of the definition. On a descriptive level the previously mentioned terms have the same denotation (i.e. the application of small-scale technologies and shortening of the distance between the site of power generation and the point of its final consumption). They nonetheless differ in particular national legislative definitions and also in their connotations. Ackermann et al. conclude that type of ownership is not relevant to the definition of distributed generation of power. On the other hand, they also admit that other authors frequently argue that distributed generation must be owned by independent power producers or by the customers themselves, to be regarded as distributed generation (200). Since distributed generation as a new approach to power generation has been gaining dominance in the context of the liberalisation of energy markets, decentralised generation and dispersed generation could be viewed as a more appropriate terms. Both terms can be associated with more economic entities involved in power generation. Distributed and embedded refer to the distribution network, but lack the associative meaning concerned with market liberalisation and the change of the structure of the energy industry. To conclude, the previously analysed terms are near synonyms that have the same denotation, but differ in their connotations. The remaining term decentralised energy (sometimes called decentralised energy systems) is not synonymous with the previous expressions, since the meaning of the term includes the previous terms and also additional
22 technologies and approaches. Decentralised energy (systems) is a hypernym of all the previous terms.
3.1.4 European Union ter minology
The European Union (EU) was at first (i.e. in the late 1990s´ within its 5th Research Framework Programme) using the term decentralised generation (Joerss et al.). The term is still in use, but, as explained by Altmann et al. (19), is not defined per se in the recent EU directives as it is used more in its descriptive sense to emphasize a desirable decentralised structure of generation network as opposed to a centralised structure. The legal term used within the EU is distributed generation, defined as “generation plants connected to the distribution system where the distribution system is the high-voltage, mediumvoltage and low-voltage network as opposed to the extra high-voltage and highvoltage transmission system” (qtd. in Altmann et al. 19). Altmann at al. also specify the meaning of distributed energy resources that seem to include distributed generation and energy storage and demand response (19). This reflects a recent trend called smart-grids which are interactive, adaptive and proactive grids which enable the deployment of distributed generation and for end-users to become energy producers and active participants in network balancing processes (59). This is also why the EU is beginning to prefer the term decentralised energy instead of decentralised generation. For example, the latest EU report on the topic is called Decentralised Energy Systems (see Altmann et al.). It deliberately avoids the word generation, because it includes not only generation technologies, but also other technologies deployable within a smart grid, such as climate responsive buildings or electric vehicles.
3.1.5 International Ener gy Agency terminology
Since the International Energy Agency (IEA) acknowledges that there are not commonly accepted terms in the field of distributed generation, it has formed its own definitions. The underlying notion of the terms is that they want to describe energy that does not come from large generators exporting electricity into a high voltage network. The IEA thus defines distributed generation as a “generating plant serving a customer on-site or providing support to a distribution network, connected to the grid at distribution-level voltages ("International Energy Agency" 19).” The IEA also specifies that its notion of distributed generation generally does not include wind energy, because that is in majority of
23 cases produced on wind farms rather than for on-site power requirements. Wind power and “other generation, either connected to a distribution network or completely independent of the grid” plus distributed generation then form another term: dispersed generation ("International Energy Agency" 19). There are other three terms defined by the IEA; they are distributed power (e.g. “distributed generation plus energy-storage technologies such as flywheels, large regenerative fuel cells, or compressed air storage”), distributed energy resources (e.g. “distributed generation plus demand-side measures”) and decentralised power (e.g. “a system of distributed-energy resources connected to a distribution network”) ("International Energy Agency" 20). Comparing EU and IEA terminologies, it could be assumed that the IEA term dispersed power is near to the meaning of the EU term distributed generation and the IEA term distributed energy resources is quite near to the meaning of the same EU term. The term dispersed generation seems to be redundant and to a certain extent confusing.
3.2 Characteristics of distributed-generation terminology
When it comes to characterising distributed-generation terminology, it is necessary to divide the terms into two large subgroups: one being formed by technical terms the use of which has been stabilised in technical publications and national legislations; and the other consisting of descriptive terms which specify the used technologies and resources. This thesis is mainly interested in the descriptive part of the terminology, since there is high occurrence of compounds that can be studied. According to Adams (103), the reason for the frequency of compounds, or technical formations as Adams calls them, “may be the need for the economy and clarity which is desirable in technical descriptions and instructions.” This applies chiefly to compound adjectives, which can carry a lot of semantic information (Ptáčková 31) and are much more compact than relative clauses (Adams 103). Additionally, their meanings are quite transparent since “it is not usually difficult to understand an adjective compound which we have not seen before (Adams 103).” For example, the compound adjective waste-to-energy (as found in the analysed texts in a phrase waste-to-energy generation) is much shorter than the relative clause which produces energy from waste, from which was the compound clearly derived. What is more, the need for economy of language is further enhanced by the necessity to express certain changes that are currently in progress in the power industry. For instance, the compound adjective producer-to-consumer, which was
24 found in a phrase producer-to-consumer power system, attempts to convey a rather complex notion of a top-down power system that is uni-directional, i.e. it enables the flow of energy only from the energy producer to the final consumer, as opposed to a power system in which energy can flow in all directions, i.e. from the producer to the consumer and vice versa and also among the consumers who thus assume the role of producers. The economy, in the sense used by Adams (103), of using a compound adjective instead of an explanatory clause is quite clear from this example. Other compounds found in the analysed text are described in more detail in the next chapter. The effort to make the language as economical and clear as possible can also be seen from a large number of abbreviations and acronyms used in the texts about distributed- generation of power. There are several very frequent abbreviations and acronyms, the most common of them being the acronym RES which stands for renewable energy sources. The acronym is very often used to make language less complicated, as in RES-E (acronym for renewable energy sources - electricity) which replaces the whole phrase electricity generated from renewable energy sources or renewable energy based electricity. There are numerous, theoretically unlimited, other uses of the acronym usually in compounds, such as RES developer, or RES-industry. Renewable energy sources are also abbreviated by a reduction renewables, where only the initial part of the original expression and the final inflection -s are preserved. Apart from RES, combined heat and power, which refers to the simultaneous generation of useful heat and electricity (i.e. cogeneration) is also very often shortened by the acronym CHP. Thus, complex expressions, such as natural gas based combined heat and power installation, can be reduced to natural gas based CHP installation, or even natural gas based CHP. CHP also combines with other expressions to create various compounds, such as CHP unit, CHP facility, CHP system or micro-CHP system. Other commonly used acronyms are: PV (acronym for photovoltaic, or photovoltaics), BIPV (acronym for building-integrated photovoltaics), LFG (acronym for landfill gas), GHG (acronym for greenhouse gas). Finally, the term distributed generation itself tends to be shortened by the acronym DG with the same usage as the acronym RES. All the mentioned acronyms are alphabetisms, which means that they are pronounced as sequences of letters. As for the technical part of distributed-generation terminology, the terms can be divided into the following categories: resources and types of energies, technologies, types of production and economics. As it was written at the beginning if this chapter, they are quite stable technical terms. There is nonetheless certain degree of confusion concerning the names
25 of some technologies among the general public, which is caused by fast development in the renewable energy industry resulting in new products being launched quite frequently. The example could be biomass products, such as biofuels, bioliquids, such processes as cogeneration and trigeneration or the latest trends such as smart grids or virtual power plants. The commonly confused terms are clarified in the following chapters.
3.2.1 Types of compounds found in the analysed texts
3.2.1.1 Neoclassical compounds bio- (bioenergy, bio-feedstock, biofuel, biogass, bioliquids, biomass, biocrude, biodiesel, bio- electricity, biorefinery) hydro- (hydroenergy / hydro energy, hydropower / hydro-power / hydro power, hydroelectric, hydroelectricity, hydro-resource, hydro-generation, hydro plant) photo- (photovoltaic, photovoltaics) micro- (micro turbine / micro-turbine, micro-CHP system, microgeneration) geo- (geothermal)
Five groups of neoclassical compounds were identified, namely those containing the combining forms bio-, hydro-, photo-, micro-, geo-. The most productive category is that starting with bio which consists of ten compound nouns. Bio comes from the Greek word bios which means one's life, course or way of living, lifetime, but in modern science it has been extended to mean organic life (Harper). These compounds therefore refer to using organic life, i.e. organic matter, to produce electricity or heat. The compounds are mostly solid, sometimes hyphenated. They are used in attributive position (e.g. biomass fuel, biogass plant, biogass installation, biomass application, biomass heating system, etc.). The electrical power generated by the means of the force of falling or flowing water is called hydroelectricity. The compound consists of two bases: hydro + electricity. Hydro (before vowels hydr-) comes from the Greek word hydor which means water. Electric comes from Greek electron which means amber, a word that described materials that, like amber, attract other substances when rubbed. Since electricity was first generated by rubbing amber, the name for the force was derived from electron. The adjective electric, which means charged with electricity, came to English language through modern Latin electricus which
26 means resembling amber and it was coined in 1600 by English physicist William Gilbert. The compound adjective hydroelectric has been in use since 1827. The short form hydro has been used since 1916 (Harper). The category of hydro-compounds has seven members, six nouns and one adjective. Unlike compounds with bio- which are usually solid, compounds with hydro- are solid (hydropower), hyphenated (hydro-power), or even open (hydro power). These compounds are also used in attributive position (e.g. hydroelectric energy, hydroelectric resource, hydropower installation, hydroelectric facility, hydroelectric power plant, hydropower turbine, hydroelectric dam, etc.). Photo (from the Greek word phôs), which means light, is mostly used in combination with the base voltaic to create the compound adjective photovoltaic (very often abbreviated as PV). The adjective voltaic was first used in 1813 to designate electricity produced by chemical action. It was formed in allusion to Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, who perfected a chemical process used in electrical batteries (Harper). The meaning of the combining form micro (small, microscopic) comes from the Greek word mikros, i.e. small, little, petty (Harper). It usually informs about the electrical capacity of a piece of machinery (e.g. micro turbine). The last neoclassical combining form discovered in the analysed texts was the Greek word geo, which means Earth (Harper), and combines with the adjective thermal to refer to the use of Earth´s heat energy.
3.2.1.2 Compound adjectives
3.2.1.2.1 Noun + adjective compound adjectives climate-friendly (climate-friendly energy sources)
CO2-neutral / carbon neutral (used in a predicative position: e.g. biomass combustion is CO2- neutral; and also in an attributive position: e.g. CO2-neutral generation) carbon-intensive (used in an attributive position: e.g. carbon-intensive industrial installations; and also in a predicative position: the installations are carbon-intensive) climate-responsive (climate-responsive design) electricity-only (electricity-only plant) heat-only (heat-only boiler)
27 According to Bauer (209), compound adjectives consisting of a noun and adjective are the most frequent type of compound adjectives, which was also true for the studied texts where these formed majority of compound adjectives. Formally, it is possible to divide these adjectives into two groups: compounds containing past participles and other adjectives. Apart for formal connections, the adjectives within these two groups are also semantically connected, which is why this chapter concentrates on the latter category and the former group (compound adjectives formed by past participles) is the focus of the following chapter. The first four compound adjectives written at the beginning of this chapter have one common characteristic: they evaluate the impact of energy production on the climate in the context of a growing public concern over climate change. Climate-friendly means having the property of not being harmful to the climate. CO2 or carbon neutral means that the volume of
CO2 produced as a result of biomass combustion is the same as the amount of CO2 that is absorbed by the biomass from the air during its growth. Carbon-intensive (a recent variant of economic terms labour-intensive or capital-intensive) describes an industry, business, process or product that produce a lot of CO2 emissions during its life cycle. Climate-responsiveness is the ability to make a positive and quick reaction to climate in terms of reducing impact on climate. The last two compounds are complementary, since they emphasise that the generator in question produces only one type of energy (either electricity or heat) in contrast to applications that generate electricity and heat simultaneously (i.e. combined heat and power systems).
3.2.1.2.1.1 Noun (or compound noun) + past participle compound adjectives
All noun + past participle compound adjectives identified in the analysed materials are formed by combining a noun or compound noun with one of the following past participles: based, related, fired, fuelled, derived, driven, connected, integrated, and mounted. From the semantic point of view there can be distinguished four categories among the terms, namely those referring to the source utilised in the production (e.g. biogass-based technologies), the place of generation itself (e.g. building-integrated photovoltaics), the type of energy produced (e.g. heat-related technologies) and the type of generation (e.g. grid- connected wind turbine) (see box 1 below). Since there is a clear semantic relationship, the
28 expressions geothermal based electricity and renewable-based electricity generation can be included in this category of compound adjectives. The most productive group is that containing the base based which can be used quite universally with all the previously mentioned modifying elements (i.e. source, place, energy and type of generation), followed by -related compounds which also specify the source, point of generation and type of generation produces. Compound adjectives ending in -fired, -fuelled or -derived are modified only by the source of generation (e.g. biomass-fuelled or coal-fired), whereas -integrated and -mounted define only the location of generation,-connected specifies the type of generation (namely, whether the generation is connected to the grid) and -driven points out whether useful heat or electricity (i.e. which type of energy) is produced (e.g. heat- driven CHP) (see box 1 below). As far as orthographic forms are concerned, these compound adjectives are almost always hyphenated, in very few cases (only with -based and -driven) also open (e.g. household based energy generation or heat driven CHP). There were no solid compounds of this type in the researched materials. All the compounds of this type were found in attributive position; with the exception of ocean-based (e.g. the primary source is ocean-based).
29
Box 1 Overview and classification of compound adjectives that contain a past participle
-based • compounds referring to the type of source (natural gas based CHP, fossil-fuel based power system, nuclear-power based power system, the source is ocean-based, coal- based power plant, biomass-based technologies, biogas-based technologies, geothermal based electricity, renewable-based electricity generation) • compounds referring to the place of generetation (household based energy generation system, land-based wind turbine, building-based energy generation) • compounds referring to the type of energy produced (non-electricity-based RES, heat- based CHP) • other compounds containing -based (carbon tax-based strategies) -related • compounds referring to the type of source (energy-related greenhouse gas emissions) • compounds referring to the place of generation (building-related energy) • compounds referring to the type of energy produced (electricity-related technologies, heat-related technologies) -fired • compounds referring to the type of source (fossil fuel-fired CHP plant, natural-gas- fired CHP installation, coal-fired plant) -fuelled • compounds referring to the type of source (biogas-fuelled CHP, biomass-fuelled CHP)
- derived • compounds referring to the type of source (refuse-derived fuel) -integrated, -mounted, -connected, -driven • compounds referring to the place of generation (building-integrated photovoltaics ground-mounted PV system) • compounds referring to the type of energy produced (heat driven CHP) • compounds referring to the type of generation (grid-connected wind turbine)
30 3.2.1.2.2 Phrasal compound adjectives plug and play / plug-and-play (plug-and-play CHP unit) plug and generate (plug and generate CHP unit) run-of-the-river (run-of-the-river hydroelectric power plant) combined heat and power (combined heat and power unit) waste-to-energy (waste-to-energy generation) top-down, uni-directional, producer-to-consumer (top-down, uni-directional, producer-to- consumer power system)
This type of compound adjectives, the name of which the thesis borrowed from another thesis by Ptáčková (31), is formed by converting a phrase or even a whole clause into an adjective in attributive position. These are exocentric, always hyphenated and are characterised by carrying a large amount of semantic information. They are nonce formations typically found in advertising, literature and some kinds of journalism (e.g. women´s magazines) (31). Phrasal compound adjectives found in the analysed materials were created from various phrases. Plug-and-play originally described a feature of a computer system which allows an electronic device to be used as soon as it is connected to a computer. The meaning has been extended to involve a grid-connected power generating unit used usually for household-scale generation. Plug-and-generate is synonymous with the previous adjective. Run-of-the-river specifies a kind of a hydroelectric power plant which uses the force of river current to produce electricity. Combined heat and power refers to simultaneous cogeneration of useful heat and electricity. Producer-to-consumer describes a power system in which energies flow uni-directionally from energy producers to end-users in order to accentuate the difference of such a system in comparison to a system characterised by two-way flows of energy within a smart grid (i.e. from producers to consumers and vice versa).
3.2.1.2.3 Preposition + noun compound adjectives off- (off-grid, offshore generation) on- (on-land, onshore, on-grid, on-site generation) near- (nearshore wind farms)
31 In these compound adjectives a prepositional phrase is converted to a modifier (Bauer 211) in order to localise the power generation (e.g. nearshore wind farms operate in water near the shore) or to specify the mode of generation as far as grid-connection is concerned (e.g. off-grid photovoltaics is not connected to the grid, while on-grid photovoltaics is). The compounds are solid or hyphenated, formally exocentric and used only in attributive position.
3.2.1.2.4 Verb + particle compound adjectives buy-back (buy-back rate) feed-in (feed-in tariff, feed-in scheme, , feed-in scheme) stand-alone (stand-alone application)
This type of compound adjectives is formed by converting phrasal verbs (e.g. buy back) or verbs and prepositions (feed + in) or verbs and adverbials (stand + alone). The spelling of these compound adjectives has been quite stabilised; they are always written with a hyphen. The reason for this is the fact that they are mostly legal terms (especially feed-in tariff / scheme / agreement) the meaning of which is determined by national legislations. Thus a feed-in tariff refers to the price which renewable energy producers receive for their energy production; and similarly a feed-in agreement is a legal contract concluded between the producer and the institution which buys the its energy production within. A feed-in scheme is consequently the officially organised plan within which feed-in tariffs and agreements work.
3.2.1.2.5 Adjective + noun compound adjectives green field (green field photovoltaics) thin-film (thin-film photovoltaics, thin-film technology) intelligent energy (intelligent energy systems) pumped-storage (pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant) real-time (real-time pricing) single power (single power plant) falling water (falling water hydroelectric power plant)
Bauer (211) points out that most of these compounds are noun phrases and have to be used in an attributive position to become compound adjectives. They tend to take a hyphen
32 when used attributively, although as can be seen from the above written examples, this is not a reliable criterion.
3.2.1.2.6 Noun + noun compound adjectives household-scale (household-scale energy producers) end-use (end-use customers)
Noun + noun, as well as adjective + noun, compound adjectives are formally exocentric, because their second element is not an adjective. There is therefore a question whether they function as adjectives or form a three-term compound? Bauer (210) states that the argument to support the view that noun + noun compound adjectives really function as adjectives is that “such modifying compounds become institutionalized and lexicalized as units, independent of their constituent parts, and in some cases are only ever used attributively, while in other cases they have very different connotations from the same forms used as non-attributive compound nouns.” For example, back-street (as in back-street abortion) does not mean an abortion done in back streets of a town, but an illegal operation done by someone who is not medically qualified. Since such lexicalisation is not apparent in the analysed terms, they can be regarded as three-term (e.g. sewage treatment plant) or even four-term (e.g. sewage treatment plant gas) compounds (or compound nouns), rather than compound adjectives.
3.2.1.2.7 Adjective + adjective compound adjectives solar thermal (solar thermal electricity, solar thermal power)
There was only one example of this type found in the texts, namely a formally endocentric and coordinate compound solar thermal, which refers to the use of sun energy to produce useful heat.
33 3.2.1.3 Compound nouns
3.2.1.3.1 Noun + noun compound nouns distribution network, island-mode, wind energy, wind farm, windmill, wind park, wind power plant, wind turbine, collector panel, fuel cell, land-turbine, end-user, generation system, self- generation
These compound nouns are formed by two common nouns and are formally endocentric. They are all established technical terms with fixed meanings.
3.2.1.3.2 Adjective + noun compound nouns green power (retailer), dispersed energy (resources), distributed energy (resources), embedded resources, energy crop, intermittent energy (source), non-renewable resource, wood chips, embedded generator, embedded generation (plant), renewable energy (technology), solar cell, solar collector, solar module, solar collector (panel), smart grid, smart meter, combined system, decentralised generation, dispersed generation, distributed generation, embedded generation, green price
Bauer (205) stresses that it can be quite problematic to decide if a given adjective + noun collocation is a compound or a noun phrase. He suggests stress as a distinguishing criterion: if nuclear stress is pronounced on the adjective, the collocation is a compound; nuclear stress on the noun, on the other hand, indicates a noun phrase. As could be seen from the list above, a lot of these compounds can be used attributively.
3.2.1.3.3 Adjective + progressive participle compound nouns smart-metering / smart metering (used as a noun, e.g. smart-metering is in a very early developmental stage) intelligent metering
There were only two compound nouns of this category found in the analysed texts, namely smart-metering / smart metering and its full synonym intelligent metering which refer
34 to the employment of smart meters for recording household electricity consumption. Both compounds can be used in attributive postion, e.g. smart-metering support / system.
3.2.1.3.4 Compound nouns in attributive position
The common feature of compound nouns presented in previous chapters is that they are very frequently used attributively as premodificators of nouns (e.g. wind energy production, distributed-generation technology, green power retailer, embedded generation plant). Since they are not gradable in their attributive position and have been established as lexical items with fixed meanings in technical terminology, they can be regarded as compound nouns that strongly tend to be used attributively to form three-term or four-term compounds. It could be assumed that the reason for this tendency lies in an effort for language economy and clarity that can be achieved by combining compound nouns and adjectives freely, which is enabled by quite a high level of semantic transparency of such expressions.
3.3 Clarification of some confusing terms
Even though the terminology of energy sources and generators is quite stable, there are some confusing expressions, particularly when differences between English and Czech terminologies are taken into consideration. This chapter therefore concentrates on explaining the terms in comparison to Czech vocabulary. The overview is categorised according to energy resources.
Wind energy There is some uncertainty concerning the difference between a windmill, a wind turbine and a wind farm. In English language, a windmill is a device that converts wind energy to some form of useful energy. Those windmills used to produce electricity are called wind turbines. A wind farm or a wind power plant is a group of wind turbines in the same location. A wind farm can consists of numerous, sometimes hundreds, of wind turbines ("Turbine, wind").
35 In Czech language a wind farm is usually called větrný park (wind park) or park větrných elektáren (park of wind turbines)7. The word větrná farma (wind farm) is sometimes used in media as well, apparently as a translation from English.8 The terms větrná farma, větrný park or park větrných elektráren can also be referred to as větrná elektrárna (wind power plant). The expression větrná elektrárna (wind power plant) is the most general and the most frequently used in Czech language. Apart from meaning a group of wind turbines (wind farm or wind park), it is very often used to mean a single wind turbine; i.e. větrná turbína. In English, a wind power plant does not usually refer to a single wind turbine, but to a group of turbines. The term větrná elektrárna (wind power plant) is favoured in the language of general public in the Czech Republic, thus if, for example, a village owns one wind turbine it is preferred to say that it owns a wind power plant. When a village owns two wind turbines it is said that it has two wind power plants. The word větrná turbína (wind turbine) seems to be used more in technical texts. There are several expressions which specify the sittings of wind turbines. Onshore refers to the construction of wind turbines on land, whereas offshore refers to the construction of wind turbines in water. Czech terminology assumed the adjectives. It is therefore possible to say větrný park postavený na pevnině (wind farm constructed on land) as well as its shorter synonymous counterpart onshore větrný park (onshore wind farm), or větrný park postavený mimo pevninu (wind farm constructed outside land) as well as offshore větrný park (offshore wind farm).
Solar energy The adjective solar comes from Latin word solaris which means of the sun (from Latin sol, meaning sun). Another term used in connection to solar energy is photovoltaic. The compound adjective photovoltaic consists of two bases: photo (from the Greek word phôs) which means light and voltaic which was first used in 1813 to designate electricity produced by chemical action. It was formed in allusion to Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, who perfected a chemical process used in electrical batteries (Harper). It is very often abbreviated as PV. As follows from what have been written above, photovoltaic refers to the conversion of sunlight to electricity (photovoltaics). Photovoltaic and solar can be therefore used as
7 The names of wind farms in the Czech Republic usually contain the word park, for example, Větrný park Kryštofovy Hamry ("Atlas zařízení"). 8 See for instance the article Největší větrná farma Roscoe o výkonu 781,5 MW stojí v USA (Schuhová).
36 synonyms only in cases concerning generation of electricity. The use of solar energy for heating can therefore be referred to only as solar or solar thermal, not photovoltaic. Since solar and photo- refer to the same source of energy, namely sun light, they should not be used together, since solar would become redundant. Nevertheless, it is often the case that they are combined in one expression, as for example in solar photovoltaic panels or solar photovoltaic generation.
Photovoltaics There are several English terms used for photovoltaic technologies which are frequently confused; they are: photovoltaic (PV) cell, solar cell, PV module, solar module, PV panel, solar panel, PV collector, solar collector, PV array, solar array. The basic difference between the expressions is illustrated in picture 2 below. Photovoltaic cell or solar cell is the smallest unit of photovoltaic / solar module / collector. Several photovoltaic modules form a photovoltaic / solar panel (sometimes called an array or collector) or photovoltaic system ("Solar Energy").
Picture 2 Photovoltaic technologies
cell module panel / array
Source: "Solar Energy." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. 1st ed. 2001. Print.
The same division is applied in Czech terminology with two exceptions. Firstly, the term solární / sluneční / fotovoltaický panel (solar / photovoltaic panel) is used synonymously to solární / sluneční / fotovoltaický modul (solar / photovoltaic module). Secondly, similarly to the terminology concerned with wind energy, elektárna (power plant), or more precisely solární / fotovoltaická / sluneční elektrárna (solar / photovoltaic power plant), is the most frequent Czech term, used in a general sense to mean any of the following devices: a single
37 module, panel, array, collector or a group of those. The term elektrárna (power plant) in English usually refers to large-scale photovoltaic applications.
Solar thermal energy The word collector is preferred in relation to solar thermal power. The device used to collect sunlight to heat water is called a solar thermal collector and is synonymous with solar collector, or solar collector panel. These expressions are also used in Czech language: solární tepelný kolektor (solar thermal collector), sluneční kolektor (solar collector). Czech also uses expressions sluneční panel or solární panel (solar panel) to mean solární tepelný kolektor (solar thermal collector).
Hydroelectric energy The electrical power generated by the means of the force of falling or flowing water is called hydroelectricity. The compound consists of two bases: hydro + electricity. Hydro (before vowels hydr-) comes from the Greek word hydor which means water. Electric comes from Greek electron which means amber, a word that described materials that, like amber, attract other substances when rubbed. Since electricity was first generated by rubbing amber, the name for the force was derived from electron. The adjective electric, which means charged with electricity, came to English language through modern Latin electricus which means resembling amber and it was coined in 1600 by English physicist William Gilbert. The compound adjective hydroelectric has been in use since 1827. The short form hydro has been used since 1916 (Harper). The terminology of hydroelectricity consists of a number of compounds formed by the combining form hydro-, or compound hydroelectric (for example, hydroelectric resources, hydropower, hydroelectric dam, or hydroelectric facility). As for types of hydroelectric power plants, pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant (přečerpávací vodní elektrárna) is a power plant that requires two water sources, each located at different level, one above the other, so that water can be released from the higher reservoir into the lower one in order to use its kinetic energy. The water is then pumped back to the higher reservoir. A hydroelectric power plant which needs only one water reservoir is called falling water hydroelectric power plant (akumulační vodní elektrárna). The term used for a facility with small or no water reservoir capacity is run-of-the-river hydroelectric power plant [průtočná elektrárna] which usually uses only the force of the river current to produce electricity ("Hydroelectric energy").
38 Biomass Biomass is a neoclassical compound noun and adjective (translated to biomasa, biomasový in Czech) created in 1980 from bio + mass. Bio comes from the Greek word bios which means one's life, course or way of living, lifetime, but in modern science it has been extended to mean organic life. Biomass therefore refers to organic matter, any dead plant and animal material suitable for using as a fuel. The energy produced from such biofuels is often called bioenergy. There are numerous expressions containing the combining form bio- related to the production of bioenergy, such as biodiesel, biogas, biocrude or biorefinery (see the glossary) ("Biofuels").
3.4 Differences and lexical gaps in Czech terminology
Czech terminology does not use the term distributed generation, the term rozptýlená výroba energie (dispersed generation) is applied instead. Resources utilised in such production are called rozptýlené zdroje or disperzní zdroje (dispersed resources). Embedded generation and embedded resources do not have Czech translations. Since there is a strong influence of European energy policy, the terms decentralizovaná výroba energie (decentralised energy generation) or decentralizovaná energetika (decentralised energy system) are predominant in reference to various aspects of the energy industry. There is no Czech equivalent of the term bioliquids which refers to liquid biofuels used for heating and production of electricity, but not for transport. Neither is there a Czech translation of a photovoltaic array. Czech does not use the adjective kombinovaný (combined) to refer to CHP applications. The adjective kogenerační is applied in the place of combined. There are English loan words in Czech terminology, for example onshore; as in onshore větrný park (onshore wind farm) and offshore; as in offshore větrný park (offshore wind farm). The word větrná elektrárna (power plant) is used in Czech terminology generally and more frequently than in English to mean any device or group of devices generating electricity. In conclusion, there are no significant lexical gaps in Czech generated-distribution terminology.
39 4 Summary and conclusions
This thesis sought to analyse terminology used in the field of distributed-generation of power. Its theoretical part dealt with basic lexicological terms, the distinction between lexicology and terminology and the differences in the treatment of synonymy, polysemy, homonymy and lexicography and terminography. It also explained the basic features of compounding in English language within the framework of word-formation processes. The practical part of the thesis outlined the context and content of the term distributed- generation of power in order to better understand any semantic differences between this term and other terms that tend to be used as its synonyms, namely embedded generation, dispersed generation, decentralised generation, on-site generation, decentralised energy, distributed energy and microgeneration. The conclusion of the analysis was that on-site generation and microgeneration are not synonymous with the remaining terms, because they signify particular generation methods within the concept of distributed-generation or small-scale generation in general, but not the concept itself. The terms distributed / embedded / dispersed / decentralised generation and distributed energy are near synonyms that have the same denotation (i.e. the application of small-scale technologies and shortening of the distance between the site of power generation and the point of its final consumption), but differ in their connotations (i.e. associations to market liberalization, etc.). The term decentralised energy (sometimes called decentralised energy systems) is a hypernym of all the previous terms. The usage of distributed-generation terms was also examined as far as any differences between the European Union (EU) and the International Energy Agency (IEA) were concerned. Is appears from the definitions stated in official EU and IEA documents that the IEA term dispersed power is near to the meaning of the EU term distributed generation and the IEA term distributed energy resources is quite near to the meaning of the same EU term. The term dispersed generation seems to be redundant and to a certain extent confusing, because the same term is used in some countries as a synonym of distributed generation. For example Czech language prefers the term rozptýlená výroba energie (dispersed generation) to the term distributed generation. The examined terminology could be described as one that in a large degree applies means of language economy, namely acronyms, compounds and combinations of both. There were found many cases of those types of compounds that are difficult to determine as one particular kind (i.e. adjective + noun compound adjective, noun + noun compound adjective,
40 adjective + noun compound noun) and can be very often used in an attributive position to form three-term or even four-term compounds. These expressions are more compact and thus more economical than their corresponding relative clauses and at the same time seem to be semantically transparent enough to be intelligible (see the glossary). This leads to the final conclusion. There were not found any significant lexical gaps in Czech generated-distribution terminology compared to English terminology. On the contrary, it appears that many English expressions have found its way into Czech terminology for they allow for more compact expression of the meaning; e.g. using offshore in offshore větrný park (offshore wind farm) instead of a longer phrase větrný park postavený na zemi (wind farm constructed on land). The influence of English terminology on its Czech counterpart could be a topic for a related bachelor thesis, as well as the economic part of distributed-generation terminology which was examined only very briefly in this thesis.
41 Bibliography
Ackermann, Thomas, Göran Andersson, and Lennart Söder. "Distributed Generation: a Definition." Electric Power Systems Research 57.3 (2001): 195-204. Web. 15 May 2011. Adams, Valerie. An Introduction to Modern English Word-formation. London: Longman, 1973. Print. Altmann, M., et al. Decentralised Energy Systems. European Parliament: Brussels, 2010. Print. Antia, Bessay. "Lexicography versus terminography: Some practical reasons for dictinction." termnet.org. International network for terminology, n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2011. "Atlas zařízení využívajících obnovitelné zdroje energie." calla.ecn.cz. Calla – sdružení pro záchranu prostředí, n.d. Web. 25 March 2012. Bauer, Laurie. English Word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Print. Bergenholtz, Henning, and Uwe Kaufman. “Terminography and Lexicography. A Critical Survey of Dictionaries from a Single Specialised Field.” Hermes, Journal of Linguistics 18 (1997): 91-127. Print. "Biofuels" Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. 1st ed. 2001. Print. Cabre, Maria Teresa. Terminology: Theory, Methods and Applications. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co, 1999. Print. "Court." Oxford Advanced Learner’s dictionary. 6th ed. 2001. Print. Cruse, Alan. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Print. "Distributed generation." en.wiki.org. Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia, n.d. Web. 25 March 2012. Dondi, P., et al. "Network Integration of Distributed Power Generation." Journal of Power Sources 106.1 (2002): 1-9. Web. 14 May 2011. Drame, Anja. "Terminography and lexicography. What is the difference? Summary." termnet.org. International network for terminology, 1st June 2006. Web. 10 Oct. 2011. "Electric Power, Generation of." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. 1st ed. 2001. Print. "Electric Power Transmission and Distribution Systems." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. 1st ed. 2001. Print. European Commission DG Environment News Alert Service. Biomass tops decentralised energy on emissions cuts. Brussels: European Commission DG Environment News Alert Service, 2008. Print.
42 Future Energy Demand and Supply." openlearn.openi.ac.uk. The Open University, n.d. Web. 26 May 2011. Harper, Douglas. Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, n.d. Web. 1 April 2012. "Hydroelectric Energy." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. 1st ed. 2001. Print. "Industrial Concentration." The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. 2nd ed. 2007. Web. International Energy Agency. Distributed Generation in Liberalised Electricity Markets. Paris: IEA Publications, 2002. Print. Jackson, Howard, and Etienné Zé Amvela. Words, meaning and vocabulary : an introduction to modern English lexicology. London, New York: Continuum, 2007. Print. Jenkins, Nick, et al. Embedded Generation. London: The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2000. Print. Joerss, Wolfram, et al. Decentralised Power Generation in the Liberalised EU Energy Markets: Results from the DECENT Research Project. Springer-Verlag: Berlin, 2003. Print. Lieber, Rochelle and Pavol Štekauer, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Compounding. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print. Lipka, Leonard. An Outline of English Lexicology: Lexical Structure, Word Semantics, and Word-formation. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1992. Print. Lovins, Amory, et al. Small is Profitable. The Hidden Economic Benefits of Making Electrical Resources the Right Size. Snowmass: Rocky Mountain Institute, 2002. Print. Schuhová, Tereza "Největší větrná farma Roscoe o výkonu 781,5 MW stojí v USA." Pavel, Silvia, and Diane Nolet. Handbook of terminology. Trans. Christine Leonhardt. Gatineau: Translation Bureau, 2001. Print. Pepermans, G., et al. "Distributed Generation: Definition, Benefits and Issues." Energy Policy 33.6 (2005): 787-798. Web. 15 May 2011. Polanecký, Karel, et al. Energie na dosah. Bezpečnostní, sociální a ekonomické výzvy decentralizované energetiky. Brno, Praha: Zelený kruh, 2008. Print. Ptáčková, Eva. "Compound Adjectives in Women´s Lifestyle Magazines." BC thesis. Masaryk University, 2008. Print. "Solar Energy." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. 1st ed. 2001. Print. Vogel, Radek. Basics of Lexicology. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2007. Print. WADE. World Alliance for Decentralised Energy, 2012. Web. 1 April 2012.
43 Glossary of terms found in the literature
RESOURCES AND ENERGIES • bioenergy - bioenergie • bio-feedstock - biosurovina • biofuel - biopalivo • biogass - bioplyn, bioplynový • bioliquids - no Czech translation; it refers to liquid biofuels used for heating and production of electricity, but not for transport • biomass - biomasa, biomasový • biomass fuel - biomasové palivo • climate-friendly energy source - zdroj energie šetrný ke klimatu
• CO2-neutral - CO2 neutrální • dispersed energy resources - rozptýlené / disperzní zdroje energie • distributed energy resources - rozptýlené zdroje energie • embedded resources - no Czech translation, they refer to resources integrated in the distribution network • energy crop - energetická plodina • geothermal resource - geotermální zdroj • GHG (an acronym for greenhouse gas) - skleníkový plyn • green power9 - zelená elektřina • hydroenergy / hydro energy- vodní energie; syn. hydro-power/ hydropower / hydro power - vodní energie • hydro-resource - vodní zdroj • hydroelectric energy - hydroelektrická energie • hydroelectricity - hydroelektřina • hydroelectric resource - hydroelektrický zdroj • intermittent energy source - přerušovaný zdroj energie • landfill gas (acronym LFG) - skládkový plyn
9 Green power is used in two senses. Firstly, it refers to electricity which is labelled by the CO2CUT initiative, the only green power label acknowledged Europe-wide (Altmann at al. 42). Secondly, in general sense, it refers to electricity produced from renewable energy sources.
44 • non-renewable resource - neobnovitelný zdroj • ocean wave energy - enegie mořských vln • renewable energy source - obnovitelný zdroj energie energy • renewables (a clipping from renewable energy sources) - there is no Czech equivalent • RES (an acronym for renewable energy sources) - Czech translation: OZE (an acronym for obnovitelné zdroje energie) • RES-E (an acronym for renewable energy sources - electricity) - there is no Czech translation • solar energy - sluneční energie • sustainable energy source - udržitelný zdroj energie • tidal energy - energie přílivu; syn. tidal power
• wind energy - větrná energie; syn. wind power • wood chips - štěpka
TECHNOLOGI ES, PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS • distributed-generation technology - technologie rozptýlené výroby energie • decentralised generation technology - technologie decentralizované výroby energie • embedded generation plant - zařízení na výrobu energie integrované do distribuční sítě; synonym: embedded generator • embedded generator – zařízení na výrobu energie integrované do distribuční sítě; synonym: embedded generation plant • renewable energy technology – technologie využívající obnovitelné zdroje energie
Photovoltaics • building-integrated photovoltaics (acronym BIPV) - fotovoltaika integrovaná do budovy • green field photovoltaics - fotovoltaika umístěná na zelené louce • ground-mounted PV system - fotovoltaický system umístěný na zemi • photovoltaic (acronym PV) - fotovoltaický (Czech acronym FV) • photovoltaics - fotovoltaika • photovoltaic cell - fotovoltaický článek; synonym: solar cell • photovoltaic module - fotovoltaický modul; synonyms: solar module, solar collector
45 • photovoltaic panel - fotovoltaický panel; synonyms: solar panel - solární panel, photovoltaic collector - fotovoltaický kolektor, solar collector - solární kolektor, photovoltaic array - no Czech translation, solar array - no Czech translation, photovoltaic system - fotovoltaický system • solar cell - solární článek • solar collector - solární kolektor; synonyms: solar module, photovoltaic module, photovoltaic panel • solar module - solární modul; synonyms: solar collector, photovoltaic module
Solar thermal systems
• solar collector / solar collector panel - sluneční kolektor; synonym: solar thermal collector • solar thermal collector - solární tepelný kolektor; synonyms: solar collector, solar collector panel • solar thermal system - solární tepelný system, it refers to a system for heating and water heating • solar water heating system - solární system na ohřev vody
Wind • floating wind turbine - plovoucí větrná turbína or plovoucí větrná elektrárna • wind farm - větrná farma; synonym: wind park • windmill - větrný mlýn • wind park - větrný park or park větrných elektáren; synonym: wind farm • wind power plant - větrná elektrárna; synonym: wind turbine • wind turbine - větrná turbína or větrná elektrárna • land-turbine or land-based wind turbine - větrná turbína /elektrárna postavená na pevnině • micro turbine - větrná mikro elektárna • nearshore - postavený blízko pevniny • offshore - postavený mimo pevninu or offshore, it refers to the construction of wind turbines in water; e.g. offshore wind farm - větrná farma postavená mimo pevninu or offshore větrná farma (similarly: offshore wind turbine, offshore wind, offshore wind power, offshore siting, offshore site, etc.)
46 • on-land - postavený na zemi; on-land wind turbine - větrná elektrárna postavená na zemi (similarly: on-land wind sitings, on-land wind site, etc.) • onshore - postavený na pevnině or onshore; e.g. onshore wind farm - větrná farma postavená na pevnivě or onshore větrná farma (similarly: onshore wind turbine onshore wind, onshore wind power, onshore siting, onshore site, etc.)
Hydropower installations • hydro plant - vodní elektrárna; synonyms: hydropower plant, hydropower installation, hydroelectric facility, hydroelectric power plant • hydropower turbine - vodní turbína • hydro-generation - výroba elektřiny z vodní energie • hydroelectric dam - hydroelektrická přehrada • hydroelectricity - vodní elektřina • pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant - přečerpávací vodní elektrárna • falling water hydroelectric power plant - akumulační vodní elektrárna • run-of-the-river hydroelectric power plant - průtočná elektrárna
Biomass applications • biocrude - no Czech ; it refers to organic liquid that resembles crude oil • biodiesel - bionafta • bio-electricity - bioelektřina • biomass heating system - biomasová kotelna or biomasová výtopna • biorefinery - biorafinérie • co-firing plant - elektrárna spalující společně biomasu a uhlí, nebo jiné palivo • co-combustion - společné spalování biomasy a dalších paliv; it refers to the combustion of biomass with coal, peat, RDF (refuse-derived-fuel) or other fuels
Combined heat and power • biogas-fuelled CHP - bioplynová stanice; synonyms: biogass installation, biogass plant • biogass installation - bioplynová stanice; synonyms: biogas-fuelled CHP, biogas plant
47 • biogass plant – bioplynová stanice; biogas-fuelled CHP, biogass installation • biomass-fuelled CHP - kogenerační jednotka využívající jako palivo biomasu • fossil fuel-fired CHP plant - kogenerační jednotka spalující fosilní paliva; synonym: fossil CHP application • CHP plant - kogenerační elektrárna • CHP unit - kogenerační jednotka • CHP facility - kogenerační zařízení; synonym: CHP installation • CHP system - kogenerační systém • micro-CHP system - mikro kogenerační jednotka; it revers to a household appliance • natural-gas-fired CHP installation - kogenerační jednotka spalující zemní plyn; synonym: natural gas based CHP installation • natural gas based CHP installation - kogenerační jednotka využívající jako palivo zemní plyn; synonym: natural-gas-fired CHP installation
Non-renewable technologies • fuel cell - palivový článek
TYPES OF PRODUCTION • cogeneration - kogenerace; it refers to simultaneous production of electrical power and useful heat; synonyms: combined heat and power, CHP, combined system • combined heat and power (acronym CHP) - kombinovaná výroba tepla a elektřiny; synonyms: cogeneration, combined system • combined system - no Czech translation; it refers to simultaneous production of electrical power and useful heat; synonyms: cogeneration, CHP • decentralised generation - decentralizovaná výroba energie • dispersed generation - rozptýlená výroba energie • distributed generation - no Czech translation; the term rozptýlená výroba energie is used instead of distributed generation • embedded generation - no Czech translation; it refers to generation integrated in the distribution network • grid-connected - připojený k síti; e.g. grid-connected application (similarly: grid- connected wind turbine, etc); synonym: on-grid
48 • islanding operation - ostrovní provoz; synonym: island-mode • island-mode - ostrovní provoz; synonym: islanding operation • microgeneration - mikrovýroba energie or mikrogenerace • off-grid - nepřipojený k síti; e.g. off-grid PV panel; synonym: stand-alone • on-grid - připojený k síti; synonym: grid-connected • on-site generation - výroba v místě spotřeby • plug and play /generate - zařízení které stačí zapojit do elektrického vedení, aby produkovalo energii, it refers to packaged generating units for domestic use; e.g. plug and play / generate CHP unit • renewable-based electricity generation - výroba elektřiny z obnovitelných zdrojů energie • self-generation - samovýroba • smart grid - chytrá or inteligentní síť • smart meter - chytrý or inteligentní elektroměr; it refers to a meter which controls household appliances and can communicate with power supplier • stand-alone - samostatný; e.g. stand-alone PV system; synonym: off-grid • trigeneration - trigenerace; it refers to simultaneous production of electrical power, useful heat and cooling • virtual power plant - virtuální elektrárna
ECONOMICS • autoproducer - samovýrobce • biomass economy - ekonomika biomasy • buy-back rate - výkupní tarif • eco-tax - ekologická daň • energy payback time - energetická návratnost • feed-in tariff - garantovaná výkupní cena • feed-in agreement - dohoda o garantovaných výkupních cenách • feed-in scheme - system garantovaných výkupních cen • green price - zelená cena • green power retailer - maloobchodník se zelenou energií • green power trader - obchodník se zelenou energií
49 • independent power producers (an acronym IPPs) - nezávislí výrobci energie • RES developer - developerská firma podnikající v oblasti obnovitelných zdrojů energie • RES-industry - obnovitelná energetika; energetika využívající obnovitelné zdroje energie
50