Alina Picu TEZĂ DE DOCTORAT

A Lexico-Semantic Analysis of Military – Military Terms and Language for Special Purposes (O analiză lexico-semantică a termnologiei militare – termeni militari şi limbaj pentru scopuri speciale)

Abstract

Key words: terminology, specialized terminology, military terminology, military language, military discourse, military compounds, military terms, lexicological and terminological units, lexicology versus terminology, linguistic analysis, loans and borrowings, conversion, metaphorical usage, idioms, acronyms, euphemisms, diachronic approach and synchronic approach.

Chapter I: Introduction Our thesis entitled A Lexico-Semantic Analysis of Military Terminology will study military terms in English. The analysis is made from the perspective of linguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and sociolinguistics. The main ideas at the basis of the thesis are: the approach to English military terminology from the point of view of syntactic and semantic analysis, pragmatics and discourse analysis. The analysis is carried out on a corpus made up of a number of military terms extracted from specialized and semi-specialized military texts and fiction (novels). As far as the investigated military terms are concerned, a comparison is made between the definitions given by the general (GD) and specialized dictionaries (SD). An important objective of this research is to understand a specialized text written in English language where the scientific information is a very important tool for any future military specialist in this domain of activity as a means of communication in international military mission and for establishing interpersonal contacts. In the need for development, due to

1 economic, cultural and social-political changes, languages have undergone significant changes, and this is mostly reflected in vocabulary and terminology.

1.1. Field of research The thesis is devoted to the study of military language, being a privileged position of initiating a dialogue at the linguistic and military level. Consequently, there are obviously some advantages which derive from this study, such as the linguistic and the military importance. As regards linguistics, it seems that specialized terms in a language express a lessened interest when they are used. But, all in all, the specific terms of the specialized language, namely specific terminology, the use of some morphological and syntactic structures and the significance of sentences shouldn’t be left unmarked. As regards the military language, ever since the Cold War, foreign language courses have been taught, especially the English language, which in time has become more and more important within the armed forces. One must to take into consideration not only the visible linguistic mechanisms of use but also other types of personal, social, discursive or pragmatic motivations that participants in the conversational event have when selecting a particular discourse.

1.2. Statement of the problem In order to successfully finalize our research, we have set a number of research objectives, as follows: - to carry out a lexico-semantic analysis of military terms, to investigate their syntactic, semantic behavior based on a representative corpus. - to investigate the etymology of some military terms extracted from the corpus by giving a definition using both general and specialized dictionaries, and then by making a comparative lexicographic analysis of these terms. - to set the theoretical coordinates for what terminology is, the principles, representations and characterization of terms belonging to this specialized field. - to do a corpus-based analysis providing an outline of some of the most important theories, relevant for our research topic identified in the corpus represented by specialized military texts and fiction (novels). In the third, the fourth the fifth and the

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sixth chapters we investigate some lexical, syntatic and semantic features of military terms in the economy of our practical analysis. - to perform a comparative analysis of English and Romanian military terms and their behavior both in general (GL) and specialized language (SL). - to demonstrate the necessity to enlarge the research of military terms from an etymological point of view, lexico-semantic and structural point of view.

1.3. Research questions The goals that we established for our research depart from a set of research questions that adjust the content of our thesis. Therefore, the most important questions from which the analysis conducted in this doctoral thesis departs are the following: 1. Is military English (ME) different from general English (GE)? 2. What is the status of military terms in general dictionaries (GL) as compared to specialized dictionaries (SD)? 3. What are the most productive means of the military? 4. What are the most important/frequent structural nominal types of patterns identified in the specialized corpus? 5. What are the most important characteristics in the process of translation from a SL to a TL? These important questions are to be answered by the observations that will be made throughout the thesis and a summary of the arguments that constitute the answer to the five questions will be provided in chapter 8 where we present the results of our research. As mentioned earlier, the answer that we provide to these questions is both theoretical but mostly practical, based on the analysis of the corpus of the military terms in English (and Romanian).

1.4. Significance of the study The solid theoretical background that we offer in chapter 2, in which we present essential theories or quote from reputed linguists, might represent the starting point of any research on the topic of military terms or of other related research objectives such as: an analysis of some widely known military terms, the relation between military terms and general language, the relation between military terms and other specialized terminology (chemistry, biology, etc.). This study

3 focuses as well on the syntactic, lexical and semantic features of military texts as a specialized discourse, the relationships of synonymy, hyponymy relevant to the corpus; the use of metaphor, euphemisms, colloquial and slang expressions in military discourse is another aspect that the corpus based analysis tackles and which, at the same time, contributes significantly to the originality of the thesis. The importance of the study also resides in offering valuable data by identifying some English military terms and then analyzing them from an etymological, structural and semantic point of view. The present study is significant both from the perspective of the theoretical study of English military terms from the perspective of acquiring pragmatic competence.

1.5. Scope and limitations of the study The study is intended for specialists, and not only, in the domains of pragmatics, functional, linguistics, and sociolinguistics. Given its foreign language learning approach to the use of military items, this thesis could also be of interest to specialists in teaching sciences. Students and academics could benefit from the findings presented in this research due to the fact that is touches upon various theories and multiple directions that influence the language over time. Substantial time and energy has been devoted to analyzing military terminology. The reason for this is that military English is becoming more and more widespread across the world and, as a result, it is more important to the armed forces. Moreover, as there is a lack of reliable English military dictionaries and as those which are available often prove to be both unreliable and imprecise, it is hoped that this work will contribute someway to making the grey areas related to military terms transparent and more comprehensible. Due to the multitude of possible military contexts, the corpus-based analysis could be seen as a model of analysis which suggests a different approach to the functional distribution and use of military items and not as a complete account of all the possible texts that the analyzed English military terms could fulfill in casual and formal conversations. The expansion of the analysis conducted in this thesis certainly represents our next research objective.

1.6. The structure and organization of the thesis In point of structure, the thesis is divided into eight chapters and subchapters, each main chapter with its own introduction and conclusion.

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In Chapter 1: Introduction, we set the methodological background of the thesis and state the starting point (research questions, aims) of this research. Being an introductory chapter, we also motivate the importance of investigating the topic of how a military term functions. In Chapter 2: Principles of terminology and Language for Special Purposes, we discuss linguistic units and terminological units as well as the relationships that exist between term and concept in military terminology. The need for terminology is vital for the functioning of sciences, it is an important transfer of knowledge of scientific and technical information, and most of all, it is necessary for the translation of scientific and technical texts. By having a good terminological knowledge, we could improve our communication and through specialized translation which requires mastery of specialized bilingual or multilingual , we give rise to special vocabularies. Here, we include the theoretical background of terminology and theory of LSP, in which useful theoretical tools of analysis provided by the literature on the topic are discussed as well as terminological issues, the lexical study of terminology, its origin and application. Chapter 3. The word-formation and lexical structure of military terminology encompasses an analysis of the primary resources involved, an analysis of some military terms from the point of view of the formation and structure of military terminology. Here, the intention is to explain how individuals communicate and the vocabulary they use. Historical development is of great significance and is mostly characterized by French words used in military affairs (e.g. army, victory), the use of neologisms (e.g. clean bomb) and others to be discussed in detailed are instruments meant for a good communication in a military environment. Within English military compounds, we have compound nouns which are the most productive type of compound (e.g. war planes, Knifefish, Warlock, militiamen), verbal compounds (e.g. carbon-date, ceasefire, to overrun) and adjectival compounds (e.g. white-jaceked). Also, derived forms of military terms with prefixes (e.g. sub-machine gun, unrolled, malreported, counterattack) and suffixes (e.g. gunner, dictatorship, defender, etc) are found in the corpus. Conversion is exemplified by: noun >verb: (to battle, to service, to defeat; verb > noun: (the patrol, and adjective > noun: (the military). The presence of acronyms as a sequence of letters (e.g. U.S.O. troupe (United Service Organizations) and of blends analysed at the end of the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, in a so- called Appendix (SOCENG, INGSOC, RECDEP, MINIPAX) enrich English language vocabulary. Borrowings in the English language are words connected with spheres of social, political and military activity: army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general, colonel, etc.

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Chapter 4: The syntactic/syntagmatic structure of English military discourse is devoted to syntactic and syntagmatic structure of military terms. In everyday usage, people form sentences, which can be questions, requests, statements or exclamations. At the sentence level, LSP has many characteristics differentiating it from the general language. Today researchers agree that the constituents of LSP sentences consist mainly of noun phrases (e.g. adjective attributes - electronic weapons, incendiary bomb; participial attributes - peacekeeping force, banning attacks; genitive attributes - the UN’s light support package). Verb Phrases represent an essential part in understanding the structure of a sentence, its punctuation and grammar (e.g. morphologic modifications - tense, mood, aspect, voice, polarity; and syntactic complementation - intensive, intransitive, monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive). Chapter 5: Lexico-semantic features of English military terms analyses the productivity and flexibility of military terminology and the infiltration of military terminology into specialized vocabularies. We find ephemeral vocabulary associated with specific wars, not only weapons terminology and technical jargon, but also colorful slang that inevitably characterizes every war. A primary focus of this chapter will be the analysis of a number of military terms used during the First and the Second World War. The military vocabulary treated in this corpus is made up of common words (thirty terms, ten for each novel) specifically listed in general and specialized dictionaries. The military terms are abolish, annihilate, attack, battle, catapult, conflict, defend, helicopter, torture and surrender from the novel Nineteen eighty-four by George Orwell; army, aircraft, artillery, bomb, bullet, catch-22, explode, flak, movement, rank from the novel Catch-22 by Joseph Heller and cadet, carbine, combat, fight, gun, invasion, officer, platoon, squad, tank from the novel The Naked and the Dead by Norman Mailer. The terms were analyzed by taking into account three aspects: (i) The etymology and evolution of the term, (ii) The delimitation of the term in a general language , (iii) The delimitation of the term in a specialized language dictionary and (iv) Illustration(s) of use in context, in the corpus represented by fiction/novels and specialized articles. Chapter 6: Semantic and pragmatic features of English military terms discuss some features of word-meaning, contextual understanding and lexical ambiguity. Therefore, we need a semantic relationship at word level and above word level of some military terms used for analysis to be expanded. On the one hand, an investigation of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy and polysemy conclude that military terms have multiple and varying meanings in

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English language. On the other hand, informal language (euphemisms and colloquial expressions) can serve to mask and deemphasize what it is that the words are actually referring to. This type of terminology functions to narrow the potential meaning of particular words. Chapter 7: Aspects of translation of Specialized Military Terminology explains the methods, procedures and the strategies used in translation by finding the most appropriate technique when translating from SL into TL taking into account the cultural aspect. An analysis of the military terms, acronyms and euphemisms is made from the corpus under discussion. The aim of the chapter is to examine how these military terms, acronyms and euphemisms so widely used are translated from English into Romanian. In Chapter 8: Final Conclusions we communicate our final conclusions in which we will make a presentation of the results of our research. Moreover, methods of application for the current results as well as possible directions of future research are envisaged.

1.7. Research methodology The analyses carried out in this research are primarily qualitative since this study is oriented towards the investigation of military terms in the corpus represented by specialized military texts (articles) and fictional texts (novels). Theory is, however, the main methodological tool in the analysis conducted in this thesis. The methodological frame of the thesis is represented by the structural analysis, the semantic analysis (used in studying the acceptance of the terms), discourse analysis, lexicology, i.e. studying dictionaries, a method often used in writing this thesis. The methodological criteria applied to this thesis are represented by the exactness and accuracy of the definitions, the approach of the multiple meanings of the military terms, as well as the relation between their explanations and their importance. In other words, these terminological definitions of the specialized vocabulary (military terminology) seem to have a conventional, strict, univocal and descriptive pattern.

Chapter 2: Principles of terminology and Language for Specific Purposes The present chapter discusses terminology, principles of terminology (theoretical aspects), linguistic units and terminological units, the relationships that exist between term and concept in terminology as well as the relationship between term and concept in military terminology.

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In 2.1. Theoretical Aspects (Principles) of Terms and Terminology, we define the theory of terminology as a part of applied linguistics, a branch of linguistics which includes work in specialized , specialized translation, technical writing and language teaching. In terms of its history and evolution, the rapid development of science of the 19th and 20th centuries brought an abundance (millions) of concepts and terms, and also the possibility of intolerable confusion which requires the presence of only one term corresponding to one concept. Prof. Wüster in 1931 laid the basis of the General Theory of Terminology whose terminological principles and methods derived from practical experience or tested in a so-called pilot project. To define terminology we may say that it is concerned with the study and use of the systems of symbols and linguistic signs employed for human communication in specialized areas of knowledge and activities. This study can be limited to one language or can cover more than one language at the same time (multilingual terminology, bilingual terminology, and so forth) or may focus on studies of terms across fields. Ad-hoc and systematic terminology are the two types of terminology. The first one, ad- hoc terminology, deals with a single term or a limited number of terms (e.g. to find the word to describe a certain concept or to look for the equivalent of a term in another language, you have to carry out an ad hoc term research), while the second one, systematic terminology, deals with all the terms in a specific subject field or domain of activity often by creating structured ontology of the terms within that domain and their interrelationships. We need terminology as it is vital to the functioning of all sciences, it is important for this transfer of knowledge, it is also fundamental for the storage and retrieval of scientific and technical information, and mostly, it is necessary for the translation of scientific and technical texts. The basic principles of terminology have a twofold meaning: first, it attempts to explain the behavior of terms, as it differs from the behavior of words and proper names, and second, it tries to explain the difference between word and term formation and to define the scope of neology, which is the practice of coining new words. 2.2. Wüster’s work is a presentation of the Austrian linguist who is considered to be the founder of modern terminology. With the beginning of 1950s, Wüster was more concerned with developing a theory to account for the principles governing all possible human languages, and less concerned with multiple aspects of language seen as a tool for communication. Among his

8 objectives, we can underline the most important ones: he tried to eliminate ambiguity from technical languages by standardization to make them efficient tools of communication; he wanted to convince all users of technical languages of the benefits of standardized terminology and, to establish terminology as a discipline for all practical purposes. Innovative contributions have been brought to the theory of term whose purpose was to concentrate all the efforts on the unification and legitimation of this new discipline. In 2.3. Linguistic units and terminological units, we try to outline the central objectives of terminology, the terminological units which are units of knowledge, units of language and units of communication. The description of a terminological unit must necessarily cover these three components: a cognitive component, a linguistic component and a socio-communicative component. The specificity of terminological units in contrast to other units of the same structural level (words) and the same mode of meaning, resides in the fact that they fulfill restricted conditions in each of their cognitive, grammatical and pragmatic constituent components. The aim of this part of the thesis is to consider the nature of the context-free word meaning which is as well the starting point for the pragmatic processes of the specific meaning (the word, the term, the concept). In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind either. On the other hand, the term is a linguistic symbol which is assigned to one or more concept. It can be a word or a group of words; it can also be a letter or a graphic symbol, an abbreviation, an acronym, a notation, etc. Terms have a rather limited set of morphological and lexical structures: generally, terms are nouns (simple, derived or compound), but sometimes a verb, adjective, noun phrase, verb phrase or adjective phrase proves to be a term. And not last, concepts may be the representation not only of beings or things (as expressed by nouns), but in a wider sense, also of qualities (as expressed by adjectives or nouns), of actions (as expressed by verbs or nouns), and even of locations, situations or relations (as expressed by adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions or nouns). The relation term-concept-symbol in terminology is aimed at both researching and inventoring technical vocabulary. This does not deal with coining new terms or words; it is rather focused on finding new equivalents for the words of foreign origin. The methods which

9 terminology relies on - identification, analysis, creation of new terms - turn it into a practical application, rather than a science, and it works by making the difference between term and concept. It is the language discipline devoted to the scientific study of the concepts and terms used in specialized language. The relationship between term and concept in the military terminology it is not less important but the precise use of the defined terms, as these terms should be first used and understood properly. There will always be a need to create new terms or even modify the existing ones. Most of the terms coined decades or centuries ago are still valid; some are modified by not altering the meaning of the existing term. In most of the cases, the original meaning of the term goes with the new meaning. Neology and phraseology can be viewed as factors of a more general sociolinguistic requirement, i.e. the effectiveness of specialized communication. This new role of phraseology as terminology maker takes root in the view that thematic propositions or hypotheses embody increasingly complex theoretical and experimental variations on the relatively unchanged basic themes found at the origins of scientific thought (e.g. stability vs. change, order vs. disorder, and evolution vs. devolution).

Chapter 3: The word-formation and lexical structure of military terminology The purpose of this chapter is to give you an overview of the English vocabulary and its development over time. Secondly, it aims to provide an outline of types of word-formation in military English (productive and non-productive) in order to highlight the range of patterns that exists in the language. In 3.1. Development of the English vocabulary, attempts to explain how individuals seek to communicate more effectively be searching for a richer vocabulary to use. Once words are used alone, they do not provide the full meaning, but only by depending upon the surrounding words and context can they take on different, additional or expanded meanings. Historical development of the English vocabulary is of great significance and, consequently, three periods of time are identified: Old English, Middle English and Modern English. The first period, Old English, was mostly characterized by fifty or sixty thousand words of Anglo-Saxon origin (Germanic, Scandinavian) as well as Celtic and Latin. In the second period, Middle English, the influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066 was

10 very strong. French words are found in every section of the vocabulary (for example in military affairs: conquer, sergeant, battle, peace, general, colonel, etc.) And not the last, Modern English, a period which brought great changes to the vocabulary (mostly through borrowings from Latin and Greek). Present day vocabulary (after Second World War) was dominated by the faster appearance of neologisms due to the progress of science and technology (e.g. radioactivity, overkill, etc.). 3.2. English military compounds – a structural classification focuses on the fact that the vocabulary of military English constitutes a challenge for the English language; military vocabulary becomes an instrument meant to serve the final purpose of communication in a military environment. Here, we can find some expressions related to the names of military personnel, compounds made up of a word that describes a certain characteristic feature of military equipment (e.g. bombshell, battlefield, etc.) The normal way of classifying compounds is by their function in the sentence as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. The vast majority of military compounds in English are nouns. Compound nouns are the largest subgrouping of compounds, the most productive type of compound. Within this category, we have identified endocentric compounds, exocentric compounds, and appositional compounds. Examples of endocentric compounds can be: warplanes, sandbags as in: Today six mortar shells and 20 rockets were fired from Gaza into Israel. Israeli warplanes raided terrorist targets in Gaza. (Israel: Hamas Needs a War, 2014). Knifefish and Warlock are exocentric compounds as in the following example: The autonomous Knifefish uses side-scan sonar to detect floating or buried mines. (9 Tools That Will Change the Future of War, Pappalardo). Appositional compounds can be illustrated by: C.I.D. man, militiamen and oilman as in: In a way the C.I.D. man was pretty lucky, because outside the hospital the war was still going on. (Heller:1961). Compound verbs are formed by back-formation or conversion from compound nouns (e.g. It was an old, rabbit-bitten pasture, with a foot-track wandering across it and a molehill here and there) (Orwell:39). The most productive pattern within verbal compounds is the particle + verb compounds such as: undertaken, outbreak, overjoyed, overhang, overpitched, etc. Adjectival compounds are formed according to a large number of different patterns: (1) noun + adjective (e.g. charcoal-black, charcoal-dull, etc.); (2) adjective + adjective (e.g. black-

11 haired, white-jacked, blackwhite, etc); (3) adverb + adjective (e.g. overjoyed, overworked, overcast, overwhelmed, etc.) and (4) adjective + noun (e.g. black-marketers, etc.). From the category of compounds, the most flexible ones are the noun compounds, the endocentric ones. In 3.3. Derivation in military terminology we define derivation as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, suffix or combining form to an already existing word; the derived word is often of a different word class from the original. Prefixes do not normally alter the word class of the base word: (out-, sub, etc. as in sub- machine gun). There are (1) negative prefixes (un-, non-, in-, dis-; e.g. unrolled, nonmilitary, inequality, disobey, etc.), (2) reversative prefixes (un-, de-, dis-; e.g. unopposed, debased, disloyal, etc.), (3) pejorative prefixes: mis- and mal-; e.g. misprints, malreported, etc.), (4) prefixes of attitude: counter- and anti-; e.g.: counterattack, Anti-Semiten (They were just a bunch of Anti-Semiten, he told himself.) (Mailer:219). As it can be seen, the examples given are mostly from the category of negative and reversative prefixes. The class of suffixes is identified by: (1) inflectional suffixes, endings used for expressing grammatical relationships (e.g. –s, -ed, -ing); and (2) derivational suffixes used, unlike inflectional suffixes to change both the meaning and the word class. Unlike prefixes, suffixes frequently alter the word-class of the base; for example, the adjective explosive, by the addition of the suffix -ness, is changed into an abstract noun explosiveness. Within this category, we have identified: (1) suffixes forming nouns: (a) from nouns: -dom (e.g. martyrdom), -ness (e.g. kindness), -er (e.g. gunner), -hood (e.g. manhood), -ism (e.g. Hitlerism) –ship (e.g. dictatorship); (b) from verbs: -er (e.g. defender), -ment (e.g. agreement); (c) from adjectives: -cy (e.g. accuracy), -dom (e.g. freedom); (2) suffixes forming verbs: from nouns (the most productive one) –ify (e.g. falsify) and –ize (e.g. neutralize); (3) suffixes forming adjectives (a) from nouns: -al (e.g. conflictual), -esque (e.g. burlesque), -less (e.g. motionless), -ese (e.g. Japanese-islands), -ous (e.g. dangerous); (b) from verbs: -able (e.g. respectable), -ive (e.g. impressive); (4) suffixes forming adverbs: -ly (e.g. wisely) - added to adjectives; -ward (e.g. upward) - added to particles; -wise (e.g. boy-wise). In the case of affixes, the most frequent prefixes are the negative ones (un, non-, in-, dis-) and the less expressed are reversative prefixes (un-, dis-), pejoratives (mis-, mal-), and, of course, of attitude (counter-, anti-).

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Derivational affixes are bound , they differ from compounding, by which free morphemes are combined (e.g. fireplace, facecrime, gunsights, etc.) but they also differ from inflection which does not create new but new word forms (e.g. invade → invaded → invading, etc.). Within derived forms of military terms we found that through the process of derivation the meaning of the original form and that of the grammatical category can be changed. An example of this type would be the adjective/noun military (soldiers of war, of military service): with the suffix –ly, we have the adverb militarily. The adverbs pseudomilitarily and unmilitarily are formed by using the prefixes pseudo- and un-, and, of course, the suffix –ly. The noun of this adjective is formed with the help of the suffix –ness, militariness. By the use of derivational prefixes anti-, non-, pre, pro-, pseudo-, quasi-, super and un- the adjectival forms are: antimilitary, nonmilitary, premilitary, promilitary, pseudomilitary, quasimilitary, supermilitary (which is also a noun), and unmilitary. Derivation can also occur without any change of form; for example attack (noun) and to attack (verb), torture (noun) and to torture (verb). This type is known as conversion or zero derivation. In 3.4. Conversion we define conversion as a word-formation process where a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. There are two types of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion (a word of one word class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class in examples as: the running, a march, a fight, etc.). It is an extremely productive way of giving new words in English (compounds, derivatives, acronyms, etc.) All form classes seem to undergo conversion and at the same time conversion seems to be able to produce words of almost any form class, particularly the open form classes (noun, verb, adjective, and adverb). The major kinds of conversion are noun > verb, verb > noun, adjective > noun and adjective > verb. Here are some examples of conversions identified in our corpus: (1) -noun >verb: (e.g.: to paw, to battle, to service, to defeat; (2) verb > noun: (e.g.: an attack, a surrender, the shell, and (3) adjective > noun: (e.g.: a movement, the white, the dark). Apart from the three major types of word-formation - compounding, derivation and conversion, there are also some minor types of word-formation, such as acronyms, blending, back-formation, reduplication, neoclassical formation, etc.

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3.5. Acronyms deals with those words formed from the initial letters of words or of constituents in a compound. Two main types of acronyms are exemplified in my thesis: acronyms pronounced as a sequence of letters (also called alphabetisms: B.B., I.B.M., P.F.C., U.S.O. troupe, etc.) and acronyms pronounced as words (SOP, PEG, GESTAPO, NAZI, etc.). The first type of acronyms pronounced as letters are more frequent than those pronounced as words, one main important reason for using acronyms as letters might be for a fast pronunciation. 3.6. Blends, deals with the action of abridging and then combining various lexemes to form a new word. The difficulty comes when determining which parts of a new word are recoverable, roots that can be distinguished. (e.g. SOCENG, INGSOC, RECDEP, MUSDEP, etc.). In this section, we analyze a couple of blends which are worth mentioning found at the end of the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, in a so-called Appendix where the Principles of Newspeak are explained. 3.7. Borrowings, explains as an external means of enriching the vocabulary the consequences of cultural contact between two language communities; it is point out that goes in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Apart from Latin elements, it is the principal means of enriching vocabulary in Old English due to external borrowings. Another language in succession which enriched as well the vocabulary of the English language of the time is the French language. After the Norman Conquest, the subsequent history of the country left deep traces in the English language, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connected with such spheres of social, political and military activity: army, battle, peace, victory, general, colonel, lieutenant, major, artillery, captain, company, corporal, defense, enemy, marine, sergeant, soldier, volunteer, etc. In Modern English, French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings of war and military terms - bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, bayonet. German loanwords of the 20th century have been directly or indirectly to the war: Black Shirt, Brown Shirt, Gestapo, Hitlerism, Nazi. Borrowings in the English language are significant in that they enrich its vocabulary and help the development of word formation.

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3.8. Tendencies in English military word-formation. The military language is exceptionally productive since each world crisis creates its own vocabulary. The development of technology and communicative processes provided the appearance of new terms in all sciences. These terms form the most important level of vocabulary. Some new terms were brought to life by military technologies, e.g. sonic and ultrasonic weapons (USW). There are several modern tendencies in the English term formation: the process of terminologization which is considered to be the most widespread among them, transterminologization, borrowings and conversion. Terminologization is a very productive way of term formation, referring to the transition of everyday word into a term, when a non-characteristic linguistic unit from common language is used for special purposes. For example, in the lexical structure of the term «confrontation» the primary meaning was quarters, collation, and comparison. Lately this word has been used in military term combinations (confrontation of armed forces) and acquired the meaning contiguity of armed forces. Now the word confrontation has acquired the meaning collision, opposition. Any investigation and deep analysis of the formation of the English term is an important tool of communication for every specialist.

Chapter 4. The syntactic/syntagmatic structure of English military discourse When people form sentences, they ask questions, make requests, make statements, or they exclaim a powerful feeling or emotion. Because sentences convey statements, requests, strong emotion, and questions these can be categorized into four different types of sentences; declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Imperative sentences in the English language are the sentences that make a command or request. In this paper, we analyzed interrogative sentences that convey the speaker’s emotion of anger. The result from the user study shows that rhetorical questions with Wh-words who and why are statistically significant. We believe that patterns from such sentences with the help of emotion-embedded expressions could be utilized as a high quality resource to identify anger. However, the correlation between these sentences with other utterances that use different sentential forms in the context may also affect the speaker’s emotions. In addition, emotions resulting from the relative meaning of verbs or adjectives depending on the individual’s point of view may influence the identification in real utterances.

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At the sentence level, LSP has many characteristics differentiating it from the general language. Today researchers agree that the constituents of LSP sentences consist mainly of noun phrases (NPs), those groups of related words that do not include a subject and a verb. It comprises a noun and any associated modifiers. Characteristic attribute constructions in NPs are adjective attributes (electronic weapons, incendiary bomb, sonic grenades, civilian massacre, territorial domination, etc.), participial attributes (peacekeeping force, boarding operation, firing operation, exploding rats, banning attacks, killing fields, etc.), genitive attributes (the UN’s light support package, Soviet Union's military's tanks, etc.). The structure of NPs is made of four major components included in the Determining System + Head: determiner + premodifiers + head + postmodifiers. Usually, the Head of the NP is realized by a noun or pronoun. The Head can indicate concrete entities such as persons (soldiers, cadets, prisoners, etc), objects (detonator, weapon, timer, etc), animals (cattle, dogs, etc.), places (America, U.K., etc.), institutions (government, department, etc.), materials (nuclear, chemical, barrel, etc.), names of actions (fighting, firing, exploding, detonating, skyroscketing, etc.), relationships (oppression, etc.), qualities (beauty, speed, etc.), emotions (happiness, joy, etc.), phenomena (rain, death, luck, etc.), concepts (justice, truth, etc.) Verb Phrases represent an essential part in understanding the structure of a sentence, its punctuation and grammar. They have been studied taking into account their morphologic modifications (tense, mood, aspect, voice, polarity, etc.) and syntactic complementation (intensive, intransitive, monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive). The internal structure of the VP is the Main Verb (the Head of the VP most of the times is realised by a lexical verb (invade, fight, annihilate, attack, explode, defend, etc.) and the Auxiliary System. The main function of this internal structure is to establish various relations with the elements in the sentence. Apart from modifying the Main Verb, the auxiliary system gives English speakers numerous possibilities to change the meaning of the verb grammatically. All these modifications are important because all of them modify the Head of the VP being in a relation of coordination: the Main Verb is the Head which in turn is changed by the marked or unmarked form of these modifications. The relation beween the military terms and general language/lexis. In this part of the thesis, all the military terms that we have analysed at the syntagmatic level are included in general English language dictionaries mentioned (Oxford English Dictionary, Cobuilt English

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Dictionary, and Mcmillian Dictionary). A specialized term is included in general dictionary if it has a high frequency of occurrence in various texts, these terms should show tendencies of extension of meaning in other fields or domains and develop new figurative, metaphoric senses to express specialized senses of the word in general language. According to these criteria, the military terms analysed in our thesis meet all these criteria (high frequency of occurrence in the texts used as corpus, tendencies of extension of meaning in other fields). For example, the term war: thus the collocation anti-terror war is used both in the military discourse and in the political one. As far as the third criterion is concerned, the military terms chosen for analysis have developed metaphoric senses (cold war has lost in time the metaphorical character because it has denoted a historical reality in the life of mankind) or the more recent examples of the terms weapon, war and attack in the collocations political weapon, mediatic war and political attack. (see Fabiszak, 2005).

Chapter 5. Lexico-semantic features of English military terms This chapter briefly outlines the development of the English military vocabulary from the perspective of historical sociolinguistics. We will underline some aspects regarding the incredible productivity and flexibility of military terminology, with the chapter culminating in some considerations about the infiltration of military terminology into everyday vocabulary and into other specialized vocabularies. In discussing this linguistic creativity, a number of military terms will be given with a primary focus on the terms coined during the First and the Second World War. This research is meant to be both a paradigmatic and syntagmatic approach, considering descriptive nouns, adjectives, verbs and collocations (adjective-noun, verb-noun) as part of military vocabulary. The corpus analyzed comprises sets of lexical items sharing a stem, a linguistic feature, referent or hyponym. They are equipped with their definitions of various types from etymological dictionaries, general language dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, encyclopedias, and corpora. In 5.1. The etymology and evolution of the terms, a first step to make up a corpus was to list some military terms identified in the three novels. The next step, in chapter six, was to build semantic fields and distribute the other terms in the selected fields according to hyponymy, synonymy and metonymy.

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The military terms chosen for the corpus are to be analyzed from general to specific according to the definitions found in the general and specialized dictionaries. Thirty terms were investigated in this research, ten for each novel: the following military terms have been selected from the novel Nineteen eighty-four by George Orwell: abolish, annihilate, attack, battle, catapult, conflict, defend, helicopter, surrender and torture; the terms: army, aircraft, artillery, bomb, bullet, catch-22, explode, flak, movement, rank from the novel Catch-22 by Joseph Heller and cadet, carbine, combat, fight, gun, invasion, officer, platoon, squad, tank from the novel The Naked and the Dead by Norman Mailer. Considering this corpus, for each of the thirty lexical items, four aspects are taken into consideration: (i) The etymology and evolution of the term, (ii) The delimitation of the term in general dictionaries, (iii) The delimitation in specialized dictionaries and (iv), Illustration of use in context (from the novels). In sections 5.1.1 - 5.1.3 specifications regarding the meanings of the terms were given with reference to the four above- mentioned criteria. Unfortunately, I was not able to find extensive dictionaries which would provide useful accurate definitions for all the military terms I analyzed in this thesis. This section also provides some points of grammatical information, the grammatical behavior of the thirty terms, their use as verbs and nouns, the patterns in which they occur, we have collected some terms used as nouns (e.g. attack, battle, catapult, conflict, torture, helicopter, army, aircraft, artillery, bomb, bullet, Catch–22, flak, movement, rank, cadet, carbine, combat, fight, gun, invasion, officer, platoon, squad, surrender, tank) and terms used as verbs (abolish - transitive verb, annihilate - transitive verb, attack - transitive/intransitive verb, conflict - transitive/intransitive verb, defend - transitive verb, surrender - transitive/intransitive verb, explode - transitive/intransitive verb, fight - intransitive/transitive verb). 5.2. The productivity and flexibility of military terminology demonstrates that the military language (and the language of warfare) has greatly impacted the English language. We find ephemeral vocabulary associated with specific wars, not only weapons terminology and technical jargon, but also colorful slang that inevitably characterizes every war. The coining of military words reflects wider trends in English word formation, by having their own specialized vocabulary. Several factors contribute to the development of military terminology; the influxes of new technology that the new terms are created rapidly while they no longer adopt the same older terminology and the use of neologisms which help you to simply reduce a complex subject or action to a single word or phrase. Humorous military terms are the more ephemeral slang and

18 this aspect leads to another possible factor impacting the coinage of new military terminology, meaning the relief of psychological tension through humor. Characteristic features of the military vocabulary are words and expressions containing emotivity which can be found mostly among the military personnel of English and American armed forces and then borrowed by other countries. This type of vocabulary is used both in spoken and written form, it is a category of words which can be unclear and confusing most of the times for non- military people or for those people who have no specific connection with soldiering, army or military surrounding. In 5.3. The impact of military terminology on the English language we analyse the abundance of military associated vocabulary in everyday speech. The Oxford English Dictionary has compiled a list of military terms originating in the First WW which is still in use by the military today. One well-known term is “conchise,” an abbreviation of “conscientious objector.” First WW saw the birth of tank warfare, many may not be so aware of the fact that “tank” can be used as a military verb, a term for attacking with such a vehicle. These are just a few among many military terms which were cultivated by WWI culture. Many of the words were created by soldiers to describe their unfamiliar surroundings and circumstances. While they had to come up with names for new items like “trench coats” and “duckboards”, other, more descriptive phrases were also developed. “Lousy” and “crummy” both referred to being infested with lice, while “fed up” emerged as a widespread expression of weariness among the men. The brutality of life at the front also gave rise to many euphemisms, to describe death and fear. Comrades who were killed were said to be “pushing up daisies”, or to have “gone west” “snuffed it”.

Chapter 6. Semantic and pragmatic features of English military terms In this chapter, we have discussed some important features of word-meaning, the problems involved in contextual meaning and lexical ambiguity. Military terms have multiple and varying meanings in the English language. In 6.1. Semantic relationships at word level we analyse synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy and polysemy. Synonymy is that semantic equivalence that exists between lexical items, words which share semantic features or properties (e.g. abolish – abate, annul, decimate, demolish, etc.; combat - action, conflict, contest, encounter, engagement, fray, hostilities, shoot-out, struggle,

19 war, warfare, etc.; defend - contend, fight (for), guard, hold, maintain, oppose, preserve, prevent, resist, retain, safeguard, shield, uphold, etc invasion – assault, intrusion, conquering, etc.; tank – barrel, storage, repository, etc.; surrender - give in, give up, concede, submit, quit, crumble, abandon, abdicate, etc; torture - torment, abuse, afflict, martyr, scourge, molest, crucify, ill-treat, maltreat, distress, worry, trouble, pain, rack, afflict, harrow, agonize, etc.) There are no absolute , i.e., pairs of words that have the same meaning (or share the same semantic features) in all the situational and syntactic contexts in which they can appear. Even these few examples show that true or exact synonyms are very rare. For example, the nouns torture and torment are synonymous in the expression. The torment/torture we’ve been through was terrible.; however, only torture can be used in the following sentence: They could be tracked down by enquiry, they could be squeezed out of you by torture. (Orwell:210). If we used torment, the sentence would sound awkward because torture means extreme physical pain caused by someone or something, especially as a punishment (Macmillan Dictionary:1519) while torment means severe physical and mental pain that someone suffers often caused deliberately by someone (Macmillan Dictionary:1518). Antonymy, the semantic relationship that exists between words that have meanings, can be morphologically unrelated (one of the elements of the pair does not derive from the other: light/heavy, temporary/permanent) and morphologically related (one of the members of a pair of antonyms is derived from the other member by the addition of a negative word or an affix, e.g. as in attack-counterattack, measures – countermeasures, terrorism – counterterrorism, violent – nonviolent, action – inaction, armed – unarmed, positively – negatively, etc. (the prefix counter combined with a noun describes an activity that opposes another activity) The relationship that exists between two (or more) words in such a way that the meaning of one word includes/contains the meaning of other words is called hyponymy. The specific term is referred to as hyponym, while the generic term is hypernym, superordinate. (e.g. gun - air gun, air rifle, shotgun, etc.). Homonyms represent those unrelated senses of the same phonological word. These are to be found in military terminology (e.g. ball, ball, bawl - different category, different , missal, missile - same category, different spelling, troop, troop, troupe, troupe - different category, different spelling).

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Another category of words is represented by polysemes, which share the same spelling and distinct but related meanings. The distinction between polysemy and homonymy is often subtle and subjective, and not all sources consider polysemous words to be homonyms. Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (e.g. a word, phrase, etc.) or signs to have multiple meanings (), i.e. a large semantic field. It has a range of different senses (and/or uses) that any dictionary will have listed under a considerable number of its entries. For example catch-22 as a noun has the following senses: 1. a. a situation in which a desired outcome or solution is impossible to attain because of a set of inherently illogical rules or conditions: "In the Catch-22 of a closed repertoire, only music that is already familiar is thought to deserve familiarity" (Joseph McLennan). b. The rules or conditions that create such a situation. 2. A situation or predicament characterized by absurdity or senselessness. 3. A contradictory or self-defeating course of action: "The Catch-22 of his administration was that every grandiose improvement scheme began with community dismemberment" (Village Voice). 4. A tricky or disadvantageous condition; a catch: "Of course, there is a Catch-22 with Form 4868 you are supposed to include a check if you owe any additional tax, otherwise you face some penalties" (New York). The adjective military is frequently used in the military domain as follows: 1. of or relating to the armed forces (especially the army), warlike matters, etc. and 2. of, characteristic of, or about soldiers. 6.2. Semantic relationships at phrase or sentence level deals with the nonliteral meaning of words, namely euphemisms, idioms, metaphors and slang. They are part of informal language being often used in colloquial speech. Euphemisms and taboo expressions can serve to mask and deemphasize what it is that the words are actually referring to. Military terminology has taken on a wide range of forms, some of them being mostly for internal use, and others meant to represent the military to the outside. In Orwell’s novel Nineteen eighty-four euphemisms are prevalent the language used being a distorted one. Doublespeak refers to euphemisms used by government, military, or other institutions in an attempt to confuse and conceal the truth (e.g. friendly fire as a euphemism for being attacked by your own troops; joycamp –forced labour camp, duckspeak - to speak without thinking, etc). The elements found in Catch-22 try to make the horrors of the war bearable and more intense to the reader, while creating a distance which allows the reader to draw parallels with

21 modern society (e.g. the Soldier in White represents the lack of identity and individualism of the men in the war; the Hospital serves as a place of refuge and safety for the soldiers, rather than being a place of sickness, it is a safe zone for the soldiers; the concept of Time Machine, which is a flashback of the lives of the men before the war and further exploration of their characters, etc.) These euphemisms modify the addressee's perception of reality and language becomes corrupt, deceitful, and treacherous. We have investigated a corpus of written texts (articles) pertaining to the military fields, most of them being newspaper articles, political or military documents in order to identify military euphemisms. For example, collateral damage instead of the savage bombing and strafing of a funeral procession or a wedding party; footprints - to indicate the evidence of America’s powerful presence throughout the world; lily pad - describes not that beautiful manifestation of nature but the new version of America’s over 1000 military bases and garrisons spreading across some 150 countries of planet Earth; waterboarding - among the most egregious of the past administration’s interrogation techniques, etc.) Colloquial, idiomatic and slang expressions are usually part of informal English. They have a figurative meaning and are considered to be language and culture-specific (they have meaning or sense mostly among the speakers of a given language or members of a given culture). Idioms and colloquial expressions cannot often be translated word for word from one language into another as they generally appear in informal speech and writing. These idiomatic expressions are fixed sequences of words with a fixed meaning that is not composed of the literal meaning of the individual words. In English we have numerous examples of idiomatic expressions on war, weapon or conflict(s): to bite the bullet, battle of nerves, been in the wars, to dodge the bullet, drop a bombshell, don’t kill/shoot the messager, etc. Most idioms are language and culture-specific; they make sense or meaning mostly to the speakers of a given language or members of a given culture. Slang, the style of language that consists of terms that can substitute for standard terms of the same conceptual meaning, has stronger emotive impact than the standard terms. In Norman Mailer’s novel, The Naked and the Dead, we have the noun mail meanings money; Big Brother (Nineteen eighty-four) – is a slang phrase for the government; bombshell – a military slang; Milk run (from Catch-22) - is a trip taken late at night by train that makes many stops along the way; tank – prison cell, etc. In order to avoid the use of taboo words (terms often used in public

22 because the things they refer to are seen as offensive, obscene, or disturbing to listeners or readers), people use euphemisms. In 6.3. Rhetorical figures in military discourse we discussed some genres of speech represented by metaphors and metonymy. Metaphors in order to describe or refer to a person, object, place, concept, etc. by likening them to other persons, objects, places, concepts, etc. in certain particular contexts. For example, the metaphor vaporising criminals (a metaphor for execution) is based on the Soviet word “liquidation”, a vague term that usually meant execution or "Internal Exile" to the gulag labour camps (Nineteen eighty-four). Another metaphor is used in chapter five of Joseph Heller’s Catch-22, where Yossarian talks about the tight crawl space which led to the plexiglass bombardier’s compartment. The soldier in white symbolizes the inhumanity with which the army treats its soldiers. This "soldier in white" has no name, nor face; the army views its men not as individuals, but as anonymous, disposable playthings. Nobody in the novel knows whether or not the soldier in white is dead or alive. We also found metonyms in the novels, those figures of speech in which a part expresses the whole or the whole expresses the part. From the very beginning, it can be seen that this use of metonymy in the novel Nineteen eighty-four having the figure of Big Brother as equivalent of the Party is somehow different from most of the cases. Big Brother is the totalitarian dictator of the world, but is much more intimate than the Party, and is therefore used to replace the Party. In this case, Orwell uses metonymy to communicate the awfulness of the situation; one man has taken over the entire world and rules it harshly, scrutinizing every movement so that even thoughts should not go unpunished. The main idea of Newspeak was to remove all shades of meaning from language and leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes), but changes are sometimes advanced when a group tries to replace a word/phrase that is politically unsuitable (e.g. civilian casualties) or offensive (e.g. murder) with a politically correct or inoffensive one (e.g. collateral damage). In the above mentioned novel there are numerous other examples of metonymies, such as the names of buildings and places, as well as the Party slogans (e.g. Victory Mansions, WAR IS PEACE, FREEDOM IS SLAVERY, and IGNORANCE IS STRENGTH. BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU, etc.)

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In Catch-22 there are also examples of metonymies, such as the title of Heller’s antiwar novel, which is so intriguing that it is now in dictionaries as the name for any tricky problem, especially one for which the only solution is denied by a circumstance that is inherent in the problem. Yossarian’s Catch-22 is similar to the Catch-22 of soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan, as their numbers of deployments are increased, and the time of their deployments is also increased. 6.4. Pragmatic features of military terms introduces the concept of formality of linguistic expressions an important dimension of variation between styles or registers. The concept of formality can be divided into two types: deep formality and surface formality, distinguishing language that is considered as formal from language belonging to informal styles of expression. The contextual behavior of military terms tries to examine the constraints on the language use in a specific speech domain, the military one. The scrutiny of military language presents two distinct categories of context. These are the context of speech and the context of situation. Context of speech refers to elements within an utterance that provides a basis for the interpretation of the utterance. In the area of style, several peculiarities can be identified which condition the manner of expression in relation to the contextual variables of a military setting. The style is characterized by a language with short phrases performing sentential functions; and which are normally accompanied with unusual noise and assertive tone but with a directive illocutionary force.

Chapter 7. Aspects of translation of Specialized Military Terminology 7.1. A bilingual/parallel corpus is concerned and is based on a collection of three novels, military novels, written by George Orwell, Joseph Heller and Norman Mailer. In order to illustrate cultural aspects in literature, we analyse i. military terms, ii. acronyms, and iii. figurative language (euphemsisms) found in the three novels, the English version (the Source Text) and the Romanian version (the Target Text). 7.2. Translation methods and procedures describes the translation strategy in which a transparent, a fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL reader. Culture specific terms are neutralized and re-expressed in terms of what is familiar to the dominant culture. If the translation is done from a culturally dominant SL to a minority status TL, domestication protects SL values. Therefore, the following classification must be taken into consideration when translating words, phrases: a SL emphasis : word-for-word translation, literal

24 translation, faithful translation, semantic translation and a TL emphasis: adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation, communicative translation A semantic translation is likely to be more economical than a communicative translation. As a rule, a semantic translation is written at the author’s linguistic level, a communicative translation at the readership. In the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation, T. Vîlceanu (2003:60-61) states that a conclusion to be drawn here is the fact that semantic translation is personal, individual, searching for nuances of meaning; it tends to over- translate, yet it aims at concision. On the other hand, communicative translation is social, it concentrates on the message (the referential basis of the truth or information is secured), it tends to under-translate, to be simple and clear, yet it sounds always natural and resourceful. Semantic translation may sound awkward and quite unnatural to the target language reader as the language used is often figurative). Within the field of translation, an increased interest has been shown to finding strategies for maintaining the linguistic, semantic and pragmatic equivalence between languages. In 7.3. A bilingual military corpus we have chosen as a corpus that includes military- oriented texts and serves basically for military departments. The corpus is based on a collection of three novels, military novels, written by George Orwell, Joseph Heller and Norman Mailer. In order to illustrate cultural aspects in literature, we analyze (i) military terms, (ii) military acronyms and (iii) euphemisms found in the three novels, in the English version (the Source Text) and the Romanian version (the Target Text). 7.3.1. Translation of military terms confirms that the military sphere is not permanent because technology advance and terms change in the course of time due to the reorganization of military force and military new techniques of warfare. The creation of military terms is fulfilled in accordance with the practice of word-building: morphological, affixation (racketeer, warlordism, luncher, missilery), word formation (wartime, machine-gun fire), conversion (to bomb, to mortar, to peace, to officer), abbreviation (radar, JCREW), lexico-semantic shift changes (originally, the verb to land was defined as disembarking on land, but nowadays is defined as carrying out landing on any (including water) surface), borrowings from other languages (maneuver, coup d’état, bunker). For example, we have the military term artillery in the examples:

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Engl. The General established a front line a few hundred yards beyond the airstrip, and listened that evening to the Japanese artillery bombarding the field. (Mailer:1948) Ro. Generalul stabilise linia sa de front la câteva sute de megtri îndărătul de aviație și în seara aceea putuse auzi artileria japoneză bombardând aerodromul. (Mailer:1968) The noun artillery in the English form is placed after the noun Japanese and is translated into the target text with the articulated form artileria with a change in word order of the noun japoneză after the noun artileria. 7.3.2. Translation of military acronyms shows that military acronyms are numerous. It should be emphasized that the language does not always exist in two forms: the original, full name and abbreviations acronym. Sometimes combined with the reduction is not complete form, as in some cases, the lexical reduction may eventually become an independent word, the main way of expressing this notion. In the novel Catch-22, we will try to identify how the dominant translation norms are present in translations. The analysis made identified some changes to the syntax in its translation. Most of these changes do not have serious effects on meaning and usually not even on style. For example AWOL: Engl. Each time he went AWOL, he was caught and sentenced to dig and fill up holes six feet deep, wide and long for a specified length of time. (Heller:1961) Ro. De fiecare dată când trăgea chiulul, era prins şi pedepsit să sape şi să umple gropi adânci, late şi lungi de doi metri. (Heller:1997) In the above example, we have the acronym AWOL which stands for Absent Without Leave, absent from military duties without authorization, a prisoner of war who has managed to escape. The translated version of the acronym shows that syntactically and semantically there can be one-to-one correspondence between the source constructions and the target ones being translated with the Romanian phrase trăgea chiulul. 7.3.3. Translation of military euphemisms presents different types of euphemisms used in different contexts and then analyzed. It is shown that some, those for which there is a one‐to‐one equivalency in both the SL and the TL, may be readily translated in a formally equivalent manner; others, for which there is no such equivalency, can at best be translated in a functionally equivalent manner; and yet for others, such as those that are culturally or ideologically laden, explication, interpretation, and transformation become more relevant. For example BIG BROTHER:

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Engl. It appeared that there had even been demonstrations to thank Big Brother for raising the chocolate ration to twenty grammes a week. (Orwell:1995) Ro. S-ar părea că au avut loc chiar şi demonstraţii în semn de mulţumire adusă Fratelui cel Mare pentru majorarea raţiei de ciocolată la douăzeci de grame. (Orwell:2002) In the novel, Big Brother is the enigmatic leader of the ruling party who demands blind loyalty and knows everything. The literal translation, Fratele cel Mare, seems to miss both the denotation and the connotation of the original. An accurate back‐translation would be ‘older brother’, which is clearly not what is intended. The fact that Orwell sometimes uses capitalization or an abbreviation –BB for ‘Big Brother’ – does help the English reader figure out that the literal is not the intended meaning. The cultural specific associations of the expression are also different in both the source and target language. ‘Big Brother’ has become lexicalized in English in such a manner as to almost lose its Orwellian concept. This is not the same in Romanian, where the big brother is someone who supports, cares and protects. In Romanian, fratele cel mare, creates a different effect from the one intended in the ST, i.e. a positive rather than a negative one. Lexical equivalents, such as the quantitative phrase, the translator resorts to a host of lexical and syntactic expressions with more descriptive or explanatory power than the source ones, in order to be faithful to the source meaning, and, presumably – to obtain the same pragmatic effect.

8. Final Conclusions 8.1. The result of the research Along the years, the investigation of military terms has attracted numerous students due to the various forms a military term can take. Our approach defines and clarifies at the same time several concepts of theoretical framework of military terminology with the aim of making an analysis between general and specialized definitions of some military terms. One aim of the thesis was to try to describe the general linguistic principles concerning term formation, namely the pragmatic framework of terms formation as linguistic units both in SL and TL. Our theoretical research has proved that through various studies of word formation the only way of understanding how word formation works is to ignore the lexicalized forms and to concentrate on the productive processes. Knowledge of word-formation is one of the most

27 effective aids to the expanding of one’s vocabulary and is of great value in inferring word- meaning. Terms have a rather limited set of morphological and lexical structures: generally, terms are nouns (simple, derived or compound), but sometimes a verb, adjective, noun phrase, verb phrase or adjective phrase proves to be a term. There is a need to create equivalent terms in order to ensure the proper transfer of specialized data through language communities as well as a good communication among them. For the proposed term to be acceptable and valid, it must be based on sound knowledge of the target language’s rules of lexical formation, must be harmoniously integrated into the existing set of terminology. We also investigated abbreviations, an integral part of military English, taking into consideration their rules and characteristics. They could be frequently ambiguous; they save precious space and time and reduce chances of miscommunication generated by the usage of non-native speakers of English without a proper knowledge of technical and military terminology. Another objective of our thesis has been to look for some important features of word meaning, the linguistic difficulties that can be encountered in contexts as well as cases of lexical ambiguity. Through analyzing several types of lexical relations (synonymy, homonymy, hyponymy, etc.), we managed to give some characteristic examples of the networking of the military vocabulary. The diachronic and synchronic perspectives on the terminological fields stood as evidence of the development of the military English through the centuries. As for the English idioms, they are often found in the language of the military as part of the informal English having a figurative meaning; they have meaning or sense especially among the speakers of a given language or members of a given culture. Idioms and colloquial expressions cannot be translated word for word from one language into another as they generally appear in informal speech and writing. It has been shown that the majority of military slang and colloquial expressions originated in tandem with the political situation of the time. Military conflict leads to a surge of technical invention, weapons development and mass production as well as an explosion in official terms for these creations. The majority of military slang expressions originated during wars, especially during World Wars and the Gulf War.

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The slang and the vulgar expressions reflect the situation of soldiers, their suffering in trenches and in combat areas. Moreover, the long-term remoteness of soldiers from their families and everyday casual social life contributed to the creation of slang expressions as well. Many slang terms involve some kind of semantic shift from an existing English word, especially through metaphor or generalization. With regard to military area of interest, it is a broad and diversified sociolinguistic domain. It reveals idiosyncratic sociolinguistic peculiarities like interlanguage transfer, short and witty expressions, clipped words, status influence, etc. We have noticed that military terms are incredibly flexible; different military groups and different wars are characterized by particular vocabularies, while military terminology infiltrates the language of civilians and, in return, this is impacted by a number of specialized civilian vocabularies. This underlines the fact that there is a clear impact on the development of the English vocabulary in the military discourse.

8.2. Originality of the thesis The originality of our thesis, A lexico-semantic analysis of military terminology resides in our ability to put forward a coherent framework for the linguistic terminology in the investigation of military terms. We have attempted to make a contribution not only to the practical application of analyzed theories but also in the theoretical part of our paper by filtering, associating and applying the theories we found more relevant for our approach. Our contribution regards both the theoretical and the practical part of our research. First, in the theoretical part we succeeded in creating a coherent framework for the military terminology in every day usage. We put together several theories and notions in the domain of terminology and we constructed a theoretical basis for our research. The first element denoting originality is the choice of the corpus, as well as a parallel made between general and specialized definitions of military terms extracted from the three novels. A second aspect would be the contribution that was brought in the practical part of the thesis by a corpus analysis in terms of usage and meaning of military terms. Finally, the uniqueness of our corpus resides in the association of the two languages with a different status: English and Romanian, a fact that this research contributes substantially to the innovative character of the analysis conducted and to the originality of our thesis.

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8.3. The value and possibility of application of the results Our thesis will benefit students, teachers and any other future researcher in this field of the military. The value of this thesis resides in the possibility of applying the discovered functions of military terms and in the observations made concerning any loss or gain of information during the translation process of military terms from English into Romanian, the impact of military terms on the English language as well as its flexibility and productivity. At the same time, our thesis could be of great use to translators due to the presentation of some translation procedures and techniques proposed by various linguists and the way in which these military terms have been translated into Romanian.

8.4. Suggestions for future research For the future research, it would be interesting to use more military terms in order to see if other tendencies that those used here have been noticed. The corpus could be as well enriched in order to have a greater variety of uses. Besides studying the way the English military verbs have been translated into Romanian, it is also worth exploring the manner in which military terms are translated into other Romance languages, for example, French. An analysis of a more significant number of military verbs than the basic ones and mostly known in everyday usage would be also motivating to perform.

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