Contribution of Non-Timber Forest Products to Cash and Non-Cash Income of Remote Forest Communities in Central Africa

International Forestry Review Vol.XX(X), 2016 1

Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa

D. ENDAMANA1, K.A. ANGU1, G.N AKWAH2, G. SHEPHERD3 and B.C. NTUMWEL4

1International Union for Conservation of Nature, Central and West Africa Programme, Bastos, PO Box 5506, Yaoundé, Cameroon. E-mail: [email protected] and [email protected] 2International Union for Conservation of Nature, Global Forest and Climate Change Programme, REDD+ office. E-mail: [email protected] 3International Development Department, Ecosystems, Commission for Ecosystem Management, IUCN. E-mail: [email protected] 4Ministry of Environment, Nature Protection and Sustainable Development, Ebolowa, Cameroun. Regional Brigade for Environmental Inspections. E-mail: [email protected]

Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

SUMMARY

This paper evaluates the contribution of NTFPs to cash and non-cash income of local communities within the jointly managed Sangha Tri-National and Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National forest landscapes that lie between Cameroon, Republic of Congo, Gabon and the Central African Republic in Central Africa. Data were collected from respectively 172 and 158 Bantu and IP households by applying the Poverty- Forests Linkages Toolkit method. Ten species of NTFPs that are important sources of cash and non-cash income for the study groups were recorded. More than 45% and 55% of Bantu and IP incomes are respectively derived from NTFPs. NTFPs contribute higher to non-cash income for the Bantu and IP in Cameroon and CAR but contribute more to cash income in Congo. Bantu communities get higher total incomes from NTFPs than IP. In all groups, Bushmeat is the most important income generating NTFP. These results could contribute to resource allocation for implementation of long-term development plans in Central Africa, for instance programmes for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation.

Keyswords: cash-income, Central Africa, household, non-cash income, NTFP

Contribution des produits forestiers non-ligneux aux revenus monétaires et non-monétaire des communautés forestières d’Afrique centrale

D. ENDAMANA, K.A. ANGU, G.N AKWAH, G. SHEPHERD et B.C. NTUMWEL

Le présent article évalue la contribution des produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNLs) aux revenus monétaires et non-monétaires des communau- tés riveraines des paysages de la Tri-National de la Sangha et la Tri-National Dja-Odzala-Minkébé, situés entre le Cameroun, le Congo, le Gabon et la République Centrafricaine (RCA), en Afrique centrale. Les données ont été collectées dans 172 ménages Bantu et 158 ménages des peuples autochtones (PA) par l’application de la boîte à outil forêt-pauvreté. Dix espèces de PFNLs importantes sources de revenu monétaire et non-monétaire des riverains ont été enregistrées. Les PFNLs contribuent respectivement au revenu de plus de 45% et 55% des ménages Bantu et PA. Au Cameroun et en RCA, les PFNL contribuent plus au revenu non-monétaire des ménages Bantus et PA. Par contre, ils contribuent plus au revenu monétaire des ménages au Congo. Les Bantus génèrent plus de revenu total que les PA. La viande de brousse est le PFNL qui génère le plus de revenu pour les Bantu et PA. Ces résultats pourront contribuer à guider la répartition des ressources dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre des mécanismes de développement en Afrique centrale à l’instar du programme de réduction des émissions dues à la déforestation et à la dégradation des forêts.

Contribución de los productos forestales no leñosos a las rentas monetarias y no monetaria comunidades forestales de África central

D. ENDAMANA, K.A. ANGU, G.N AKWAH, G. SHEPHERD y B.C. NTUMWEL

El artículo presente evalúa la contribución de los productos forestales no leñosos (PFNLs) en las rentas monetarias y no monetarias de las comunidades ribereñas de los paisajes de Selección - Nacional de Sangha y Selección - National Dja-Odzala-Minkébé, situadas entre Camerún, el Congo, Gabón y la República Centroafricana (RCA), en África central. Los datos han sido recolectados en 172 gobiernos de la casa Bantu 2 D. Endamana et al. y 158 gobiernos de la casa de los pueblos autóctonos (PA) por la aplicación de le cojea a herramienta bosque-pobreza. Diez especies de PFNLs que importan para la renta monetaria y no monetaria de los ribereños han sido registradas. PFNLs contribuyen respectivamente a la renta de más del 45 % y el 55 % de los gobiernos de la casa Bantu y EL PA. En Camerún y en RCA, PFNL contribuyen más a la renta no monetaria de los gobiernos de la casa Bantus y PA. En cambio, ellos contribuyen más a la renta monetaria de los gobiernos de la casa en el Congo. Bantus generan más renta total que PA. La carne de selva es PFNL que genera la más renta para Bantu y PA. Estos resultados podrán contribuir a guiar la repartición de los recursos en el ámbito de la puesta en marcha de los mecanismos de desarrollo en África central a semejanza del programa de reducción de las emisiones debidas a desforestación y a la degradación de los bosques.

Introduction organised in such a way that the communities derive sustainable benefits from the sales of their harvested products, with The African continent as a whole has the highest proportion strict respect of the national forestry regulations in force. This of people in the world who live on less than 1.25 US dollar a is one of the reasons why countries from Central Africa day (Anderson et al. 2006, OMD 2013). The proportion of endorsed REDD+ during the seventeenth conference of those living in extreme poverty has declined from 56.5% in parties of the United Nations convention for the fight against 1990 to 48.5% in 2010 (OMD 2013). With its 2.8 million km2 climate change in Durban, South Africa and have placed of diversified and rich forests, the Congo Basin offers the one REDD+ as a tool to achieve sustainable development. In option for local populations to meet their daily livelihood Cameroon, involving civil society and local communities in needs. Forest people have developed a multitude of tech- identifying livelihood enhancement options as part of REDD+ niques to exploit forest lands and the related resources. Today, strategies helps both governments and local communities besides other sources of income, the harvesting of Non- to understand the potential for REDD+ as a development tool. Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) is not only one of the most It allows communities to gain ownership of REDD+ pilot important income generating activity for local people, but projects and feel more motivated to help with the implementa- equally a source of food, medicines and serves other multi- tion of the national REDD+ strategies in the region (Angu purpose values. Yet, a major challenge persists in the accurate Angu and Endamana 2015). evaluation of NTFPs as a revenue component for the liveli- Within the implementation of this mechanism, knowledge hoods of local people (Ngalim 2011). The importance of of cash and non-cash income derived from NTFPs is impor- NTFPs in household’ income is not well known due to the tant in guiding the allocation of financial assistance in par- absence of a systematic and rigorous data collection system at ticular and, benefit sharing and decision making in general. the country levels (FAO 2001). Generally, only a part of the For the REDD+ mechanism to succeed in Central Africa, NTFPs traded in markets is recorded and the proportion of there is an urgent need to evaluate accurately the cash and NTFPs consumed in the household and used for other non- non-cash income values of NTFPs, and the other related commercial purposes are little known. Similarly, the products income generating activities that contribute to the livelihoods of illicit trade is not considered (Ingram et al. 2010). The of the local communities. This paper evaluates the contribu- non-cash income values of NTFPs for local people have tion of NTFPs to cash and non-cash income of local commu- rarely been incorporated in official land use planning and sus- nities within the jointly managed Sangha Tri-National (TNS) tainable development schemes (CBD 2001). More recently, and Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) forest there has been a growing interest in the economic potential of landscapes that lie between Cameroon, Congo and the CAR NTFPs. This is because of the role they can play in reducing in Central Africa. poverty levels and promoting sustainable development. Supporting programs to develop certain NTFPs for larger commercial markets, could provide more equitable income BACKGROUND redistribution on the long term (Peters 2000). At the same time, a number of Central African countries, including In Africa, more than two-thirds of the population rely partly Cameroon, Congo and the Central Africa Republic (CAR) are on forests products to satisfy their livelihood needs (Arnold currently engaging in long-term development mechanisms 2001, CIFOR 2005, Kaimowitz 2003). Aside from timber, like Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest NTFPs play an important role in providing between 29–39% Degradation (REDD+) in order to improve the livelihoods of of food, medicine and income needs to about 80% of the local local people and implement sustainable forest management populations living in forest areas of Central Africa (Loubelo practices (Sjaastad et al. 2005). REDD+ is an international 2012; Levang et al. 2015). NTFPs are goods of biological mechanism aiming at encouraging developing countries to origin other than timber, derived from forests and agro-forest- protect and upgrade their carbon stock levels (Mogba 2013, ry areas (FAO 1999, Loubelo 2012). They are equally used as PROFOREST 2011) by supporting actions that reduce defor- trophies, for making ethno-musical instruments, jewellery, estation and forest degradation. It seeks to reduce the pressure for decoration, magico-religious issues and offer multipur- on forest resources meanwhile upgrading the benefits derived pose services (Alison 2007, Bobo et al. 2015, Lohani 2010, by people living on the resource. Local communities harvest- Mallesson et al. 2008, Timko et al. 2010). Bushmeat is the ing and living on NTFPs for example will be legalised and main NTFP of animal origin (Ngoye 2010), meanwhile those Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa 3 of plant origin include raffia palm, mushrooms, seeds, wild Congo and the CAR are located at the periphery of the Nki vegetables, medicinal plants and all plant related derived national park, Nouabale Ndoki national park and the Dzanga products (oils and silk) (Adjanahoum et al. 1996). A number Sangha reserve, respectively. The TNS and TRIDOM are of studies have tried to ascertain the effective contribution of located between 3°32′12″–0°40′29″ latitudes North and NTFPs to the revenue of local communities in Africa (Ndoye 15°28′26″–17°34′8″ longitudes East, and between 3°29′53″– et al. 1999, Ruiz et al. 2000, Tieguhong and Zwolinski 2009). 0°26′28″ latitudes North and 11°51′54″–15°57′21″ longitudes But, these studies have been limited to evaluating only the East, respectively (EDF 2006). The TNS and TRIDOM are cash income derived from the sales of NTFPs and omitting identified as high priority conservation areas for their rela- the non-cash value derived from the non-commercial use of tively intact forest, and as habitat for many threatened species. NTFPs. Specific research methods for collecting and evaluat- The TNS forest extends over approximately 44,000 km2 ing the contribution of NTFPs to household economies were (TNS 2009), meanwhile TRIDOM covers 141,000 km2 (EDF initially developed by Tabuna (1999), and have been widely 2006). They lie within the Guineo-Congolian lowland rain- implemented (Medicinal Plants Specialist Group 2007, forest in the Congo basin and are characterised by semi- Ndoye et al. 1999, PROTA 2008, Ruiz et al. 2000). More deciduous, swamp forest with patches of wet savannah known recently, Loubelo (2012) assessed the impact of NTFPs on as Bais. The climate is typically of the equatorial with annual household economies and food security in the Democratic rainfall that ranges between 1600 and 2000 mm in the Republic of Congo, and Ingram et al. (2010) reported on the TRIDOM and, 1450 and 1600 mm in the TNS. In the last two contribution of NTFPs in national economies and strategies decades, logging activities have increased because of the for sustainable resource management in Central Africa. growing demand for timber and progressive opening up of the Nowadays, the need for accurately evaluating the contribution area. Wildlife in the area is very rich and diversified. Species of NFTPs to the revenue of rural peoples at both the regional like the Bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus Isaaci), giant forest and national levels is highly discussed (Ingram et al. 2010, hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni Thomas), giant pangolin Ngoye 2010, Noubissie et al. 2008, Tieguhong et al. 2008, (Manis gigantea Illiger), and a number of threatened species Tieguhong and Zwolinski 2009). Both CIFOR's PEN project like African forest elephant (Loxondonta africana cyclotis and PROFOR and IUCN's Poverty-Forests Linkages Toolkit Matschie), lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla Savage), and the (FPTK) have been developed to facilitate the evaluation and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes Blumenbach) occur in the area. consideration of the non-cash value of NTFPs in calculating The area is rich in biocultural diversity and encloses a total income (Angelsen et al. 2014, Wunder et al. 2014). multitude of ethnic groups having different socio-economic The TRIDOM and TNS forest landscapes in Central orientations. The most important and widely distributed Africa lie between Cameroon, Congo and the CAR, where ethnic group across the three studied countries in the TNS and local people directly use NTFPs for both commercial and TRIDOM landscapes, are the Bantu people. In the study area, non-commercial purposes. They enclose several land use the Bantu were the Mpiemou, Kounabeemb, Mpou’mpong, systems that are managed as a common entity between the Bangando and Bakwele in Cameroon (CEES and UICN three countries (Endamana et al. 2010, Fondjo 2013, Ngoufo et al. 2012, TNS 2009) and offer the best chance to evaluate, 2010), and the Gbaya, Sangha-Sangha, Mpiemo, Oubanguien the cash and non-cash income generated from NTFPs, while and Ngbaka in CAR (APDS 2011). The area equally encloses using scientifically proven methods. Communities living more than 12,000 indigenous people (IP) who live perma- within the TRIDOM and TNS forests are comprised of the nently in the villages. The common languages of communica- Bantu and the Indigenous people (TNS 2009). The similarity tion among the study communities are Kouna-mbembe, Kako in ethnicity between the communities in the three Central and Bangando in Cameroon, Bomassa and Pomos in Congo, African countries allows for cross comparisons of the contri- and Ngbandi, Gbanu, Kaba and Banda in CAR. Population 2 2 bution of NTFPs to the income of the local people. This study densities are estimated at four people/km and one person/km is based on the hypothesis that the evaluation of the sum of the in the TNS and TRIDOM areas respectively (EDF 2006, cash and non-cash income derived from NTFPs contribute TNS 2009). significantly to the total income of the Bantu and IP in the The main subsistence activities practiced by local people study area. are agriculture and the harvesting of NTFPs of both plant and animal origin. In the area, agriculture faces the problem of crop destruction by wildlife and the unavailability of farm- METHODOLOGY to-market roads because the area is particularly remote and isolated. People rely on the harvesting of Bushmeat, NTFPs Study area of plant origin (e.g. Irvingia gabonensis Aubry-Lecomte ex O’Rorke, Gnetum africanum Welw, Baillonella toxisperma This study was conducted in six villages in the TNS and the Pierre, Ricinodendron heudelotii Baillon) and fishing to meet TRIDOM forest landscapes that encompass portions of south- their daily livelihood and income needs. NTFPs have been eastern Cameroon, north-western Congo, and the southwest- reported as vital for the social development of these commu- ern part of the CAR (Figure 1). These are Massea and Gribe nities (Endamana et al. 2013). The area has little to no physi- (Cameroon), Kabo and Bomassa (Congo) and Moussapoula cal infrastructure and facilities, making it very remote and and Lindjombo (CAR) (Table 1). The villages in Cameroon, underdeveloped. Among the Bantu people, forest resources 4 D. Endamana et al.

FIGURE 1 Location of the study area showing the Sangha Tri National (TNS) and the Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-National (TRIDOM) landscapes

TABLE 1 List of the villages and number of households interviewed by country and ethnic groups

Number of households interviewed per ethnic group Countries Villages Bantu IPs Total Cameroon Malea Ancien 40 40 80 Gribe 40 40 80 Republic of Congo Bomassa 20 13 33 Kabo 22 15 37 Central Africa Republic Mousapoula 20 30 50 Lindjombo 30 20 50 Total 172 158 330

are often locally managed at the village level by the tradi- interviews. In the study area, about 66% of the HRs went to tional council that is headed by a chief. Meanwhile for IP, school. Among those, about 57% of Bantu HRs and 45% the resources are managed, allocated and redistributed at the of IP HRs had completed primary education. About 26% of family level by the head of the household. Bantu HRs and 1% of IP HRs had attained secondary education level. About 65% of HRs manage large families (aver- Socioeconomic profile of household respondents agely five persons per household) because they are legally engaged. About 84% of HRs lived as husband and wife in The interviewed household respondents (HRs) were mainly Cameroon, 32% in the CAR and 69% in Congo. In the study adults between 40 and 44 years old (i.e. the mean age of HRs area as a whole, the major economic activities are made up of in Congo, Cameroon and CAR was 40, 42 and 44 years, agriculture (4%) livestock breeding (5%) and harvesting of respectively). They represented the active age group in all NTFP (32%). The total number of households varied between sites and were the eldest persons found per household during 33 and above per village. Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa 5

Data collection communities were recorded in a table, which was later used to produce a score chart. From the list of all NTFPs identified Data were collected in two villages of each of the three during the group discussions, groups of NTFPs were consti- countries covered by the TNS and TRIDOM between March tuted. For example, all NTFPs of animal origin were grouped 2012 and April 2012 using the Poverty-Forests Linkages under the Bush meat category. NTFPs that are used for tradi- Toolkit (FPTK) (PROFOR 2009). PROFOR developed a tional medicines made up the group of medicinal plants and FPTK to facilitate relevant data collection and analysis. The all NTFPs that were used as vegetables made up the group of Toolkit was conceived from the partnership with CIFOR, wild vegetables. The most common NTFPs identified as the IUCN, ODI, and Winrock International. The Poverty-Forest most important sources of income in Cameroon, Congo and Linkages Toolkit includes a set of rapid appraisal methods for the CAR are presented in Table 2. gathering information on economic as well as other contribu- Heads of households were then sensitised on the data tions of forests to household livelihoods. This method of ana- collection process to be held during the following day. Sepa- lysing field data facilitates the evaluation of the role of forests rate discussions were held with the IP and Bantu households in reducing poverty and vulnerability. The toolkit suggests in order to avoid the influence of one group on the other. how to frame the results in order to make them relevant to planners, government agencies and other institutions and The scoring exercise organisations, at both local and national levels. It equally The following day, heads of households were grouped into explains the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) the previously identified wealth categories. The four groups process and it identifies the required strategies and skills for constituted were separated from each other during the data influencing the PRSP process (including potential entry collection process. points for forestry) (Shepherd and Blockhus 2008). A researcher and one assistant facilitated each of the The FPTK was chosen because it has been proven effi- groups. The scoring process was explained to each group cient in collecting information on the role of forest goods and member and the conceived score chart per village was spread services in the livelihoods of rural households (Mayers et al. as a large table on the ground. Twenty seeds each were given 2013). The toolkit equally enables the collection and analysis to every member of the group (each representing a house- of data on the contribution of NTFPs, timber forest products, hold). Each household was invited to distribute the 20 seeds cash crops, food crops, fishery and livestock products to the as a function of the level of contribution of each product to his revenue of households as well as other livelihood services total income. The household representative was free to put as (temporal and permanent jobs, cash transfers etc.). In this many seeds on a given product such that the sum of distrib- paper, only an assessment of the different NTFPs that contributed seeds among the list of product equalled 20. The same ute to cash and non-cash income, their percentage contributions exercise was repeated for non-cash income for each product and the related monetary values for all the HRs (irrespective of with the exception of services. At this stage, the proportion wealth rank, gender or age) per ethnic group is documented. of a product that generate cash income (PrI) and/or non-cash The data collection process consisted in organising focus income (PrNI) could be evaluated. The total number of seeds group discussions with Bantu and Indigenous peoples sepa- per product per household was reported on a score sheet. Cash rately, grouping categories on the main sources of income income was understood as income resulting directly from the in the village (NTFPs, agriculture, livestock and others), sales of a product at the local market. Non-cash income was performing a scoring exercise and household interviews. understood as part of the product that is consumed in the household, offered as a gift to a tierce person or used for Focus group discussion other non-commercial purposes. From the scoring exercise, In each village, the purpose of the study was first presented to it was possible to determine the number of households the chief who assisted in producing a list of all the households in the village. The chief then gathered between 15 and 20 permanent village residents including men, women and the TABLE 2 The most common NTFPs identified as the most young people. Group discussions were performed to facilitate important sources of cash income in Cameroon, Congo and the classification of households according to local wealth the CAR criteria. The Rich and Poor local wealth criteria classes were identified. After the classification exercise, 40 sample house- NTFP Cameroon Congo CAR holds were selected randomly and distributed into four groups Bush meat yes yes yes (A for rich men, B for poor men, C for rich women, and D for Honey yes yes yes poor women). The sample rate varied between 33% to 76% of Medicinal plants yes yes yes the total households of IP and 34% to 62% of the total house- Okok yes yes yes holds of Bantu. Through continuous group discussions, the Bush Mangoes (Irvingia ssp.) yes yes yes understanding of the village landscape and the identification Cola nuts yes yes no of timber forest products, NTFPs, agricultural products and Palm wine and mat yes yes yes services that accounted for the cash and non-cash income of Caterpillars no yes yes households in the previous year was mapped. The twenty Mushrooms no yes yes most important NTFPs that are sources of income for the Marantacae leaves no yes yes 6 D. Endamana et al. obtaining cash and non-cash income from each product percentage contribution of NTFPs to the total household and the percentage contribution of each product in the total income per ethnic group in Cameroon, Congo and the CAR is revenue of the household. At the end of the exercise, a semi- presented in figure 2. structured interview was administered to each household. Estimation of cash and non-cash income in the total Household interviews household income A questionnaire was addressed to each of the households The cash and non- cash income derived from NTFP in each chosen by simple random sampling among households in the ethnic group, per country per year was evaluated in US dollars four wealth groups. Questions were asked about the socio- in the SPSS 20.0 software. The value of a US dollar was demography and socio-economic characteristics of house- approximately 500 F CFA. The following process was used: holds such as age, level of education, membership in a formal group etc. Similarly, HRs were asked to estimate the annual - The value (Pi) of cash income of each product in the cash income for the previous year derived from each source total income of the household is the value obtained by of income including NTFPs. The score of each product that is the number of seeds allocated by the HR to the list of sold (source of cash-income) and that is consumed or offered products based on their respective contribution to the as gift (source of non-cash income) was obtained from the income of the household surveyed. The sum of the scoring exercise and all the scores for all the products were values allocated is equal to 20. recorded in the datasheet of the interviewed household. - The annual revenue (RAj) of one of the products A total of 330 HRs from the six studied villages of contributing to the cash income of the household Cameroon, Congo and the CAR participated in the exercise is declared by the respondent during the individual (Table 1). survey. - The estimation of the household’s annual gross cash Data analysis income (CI) is obtained by the rule of three: CI = (RA *20)/P . Data from group discussions, scoring exercise and household j i - The estimation of the annual gross cash income for interviews were compiled in Microsoft Excel 2007. The cross each product contributing to household revenue (CI ) table analysis tool was used to evaluate the percentage of i is obtained from CI by the rule of three: CI = household obtaining cash and non-cash income from each i (CI*P)/20. Note that the sum of all CI is equal to CI NTFP and the contribution of NTFPs to the total household i - The same operation is done for each household with- incomes. It also permitted for the evaluation of the relative in the wealth criteria groups A, B, C and D. The sum proportions of NTFPs that are important revenue components of cash income of each NTFP per group is done and their contribution to total household income. Details of to obtain the contribution of each NTFP to the cash the calculations of the cash and non-cash income obtained income of the sampled households per village. from NTFPs is presented in table 3. - Given that PrI, is the proportion of the category of a Percentage of household obtaining cash and non-cash product sold in the market for cash income and PrNI income from each NTFP is the proportion of the category of a product that is Products were considered when they contributed to the cash not sold and generate non-cash income, the annual income and non-income of the household on the score chart. non-cash income (NCIi) of the product is obtained by The scores per NTFP were converted to dichotomous values. the rule of three: [NCIi = CIi* PrNI/PrI]. The score took the value 1 if it is different from zero means - The annual total income (ATI) of the product is the that the NTFP contribute to the household revenue, and zero sum of the cash income + the non-cash income [ATIi otherwise. For each product, a mean value was calculated. = NIi + NCIi]. This mean value represented the proportion of households - If “n” is the number of households participating in the who obtain cash income from the product. The same method collection of data, the total income of the group (RTg) was applied to calculate the proportion of households who is the sum of the ATIi for each household. obtain non-cash income from the product. Percentage of - If “m” is the number of groups in each village, the household obtaining cash and non-cash income from each total income of the sample (TIs) is the sum of income NTFP per ethnic group per country is compiled in Table 4. of the various groups. - If “k%” is the true sample of households that partici- Contribution of NTFPs to the total household incomes pated in collecting the data, the total income of the

The contribution of all products to the total household income village (TIv) = [TIs*100/k%] for each ethnic group was evaluated by multiplying the score - Given that “X” is the number of household(s) in the assigned to the product by 100/20 (i.e. 5). This contribution is village, and “Y” the average size of the household, given as a percentage of each product. The sum of percent- the income per household is: Ihh = TIv/X; the income ages is equal to 100. These percentages are calculated within per capita is: Icap = Ihh /Y and the daily income per each ethnic group and for the entire village studied. The capita is: Icapd = Icap /365. Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa 7 Details of the calculation of cash income and non-cash income obtained from NTFPs in each country NTFPs in each Details of the calculation cash income and non-cash obtained from TABLE 3 TABLE 8 D. Endamana et al.

TABLE 4 Percentage of households obtaining cash and non-cash income from each NTFP per ethnic group per country

Cameroon Congo CAR Ethnic NTFPs Scientific names group Cash Non-cash Cash Non-cash Cash Non-cash income income income income income income Okok Gnetum africanum 62.5 97.5 72.0 80.3 42.5 72.5 Cola nut Cola spp. 25.0 90.0 9.4 12.5 na na Djangsang Ricinidendron heudelotti 76.3 86.3 na na na na Bush mangoes Irvingia gabonensis 93.8 100.0 37.3 51.6 25.0 56.3 Moabi’s oil Baillonella toxisperma 61.3 76.3 na na na na Medicinal Plants 55.0 83.8 15.6 25.0 17.5 20.0 Fish 61.3 87.5 49.2 80.0 46.0 48 Lianas Bauhinia liana 42.5 71.3 na na na na Bantu Rattan Calameae 28.8 52.5 na na na na Bush meat 93.8 100.0 73.3 77.6 76.3 86.3 Mushroom Amanita muscaria na na 49.3 56.6 40.0 75.0 Caterpillars na na 48.3 63.3 46.3 63.8 Marantacea leaves na na 31.8 34.3 20.0 36.3 Insects (grubs, beetle) na na 14.6 41.7 na na Raffia (wine and mat) Raphia na na 35.0 50.9 Wild yam Dioscoreae sp. na na na na 20.0 51.3 Honey na na na na 8.8 55.0 Djangsang Ricinidendron heudelotti 76.3 85.0 na na na na Wild vegetables 67.5 98.8 na na na na Bush Mangoes Irvingia gabonensis 96.3 100.0 25.0 48.8 87.5 90.5 Honey 31.3 68.8 30.0 63.1 85.0 90.0 Medicinal Plants 46.3 78.8 na na 65.0 100.0 Fish from local rivers 58.8 82.5 na na na na and others Indigenous Lianas Bauhinia liana 57.5 81.3 45.0 65.0 na na people Raffia (wine and mat) Raphia 63.8 80.0 25.0 30.0 na na Bush meat 83.8 97.5 35.0 97.5 87.5 88.0 Mushroom Amanita muscaria na na 52.5 73.1 92.5 90.0 Caterpillars na na 37.5 53.8 80.0 100.0 Okok Gnetum africanum na na 87.5 85.6 90.0 88.5 Marantacea leaves na na 45.0 58.8 72.5 70.0 Insects (grubs, beetle) na na 30.0 27.5 na na Wild yam Dioscoreae sp. na na na na 85.0 90.0 1 not applicable for this area

RESULTS (Raphia africana Otedoh) and honey appeared to be important income sources in Cameroon, Congo and the CAR. NTFPs important for revenue components of HRs Mushrooms, caterpillars and Marantaceae leaves were reported only in the CAR and Congo, meanwhile cola nuts The most common NTFPs that were identified in the study (Cola spp.), was reported in Cameroon and Congo only. Other villages as the most important sources of cash income in NTFPs like fish, oil from moabi Baillonella toxisperma, Cameroon, Congo and the CAR are presented in table 2. In djansang Ricinodendron heudelotii, rattan (Eremospatha sp. Central Africa, HRs depend on NTFPs as a means to support and Laccosperma sp.), lianas (Bauhinia liana), and wild veg- general subsistence and to gain additional income for special etables were only reported in Cameroon, yams (Dioscoreae needs. This safety net is often more important for the more sp.) and squash in the CAR, and insects in Congo. vulnerable members of the community especially those situated at the bottom of the value chain with little access to Contribution of NTFPs to total household income alternative activities. According to HRs, NTFPs are used for commercial or non-commercial purposes. HRs identified The NTFPs of both plant and animal origin, are an important ten common species or groups of species of NTFPs that are second order revenue component for local people after important sources of cash and non-cash income in the study agriculture. According to figure 2, NTFPs account for respec- area. Bushmeat, medicinal plants, bush mango (Irvingia tively 35% and 39% of non-cash income and, 21% and 14% gabonensis), okok (Gnetum africanum), raffia palm wine of cash income in the IP and Bantu households in Cameroon. Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa 9

FIGURE 2 Percentage contribution and (value) of NTFPs to the total household incomes per ethnic group in Cameroon, Congo and the CAR

In Congo, NTFPs account for 39% and 23% of non-cash moabi seeds, medicinal plants and fish products. On the other income and, 22% and 16% of cash income in the IP and hand, the IP get more than 75% of non-cash income from Bantu households, respectively. In the CAR, NTFPs contrib- medicinal plants, lianas, fish products, raffia wine and mat. utes to 39% and 37% of non-cash income and, 17% and 8% Altogether, HRs get less than 50% of cash income from cola of cash income in IP and Bantu households, respectively. nuts, lianas and rattan (for the Bantus), and from honey and Cumulatively, the cash and non-cash income obtained from medicinal plants (for the IP). None of the NTFPs accounts for NTFPs accounts for 56% and 53% of the IP and Bantu house- less than 50% of the non-cash income generated by the Bantu holds’ income in Cameroon. It accounts for 61% and 39% of and the IP in Cameroon. In the CAR, both the Bantu and the household income for the IP and Bantu in Congo. In the CAR, IP obtain more non-cash income than cash-income from it contributes to 56% and 45% of the IP and Bantu house- NTFPs (as in Cameroon). The Bantu get more than 75% of holds’ income. Therefore, in Central Africa, more than 55% both cash and non-cash income from Bushmeat only mean- of the IP rely on NTFPs as a source of income against 45% of while, the IP get between 75% and 100% of both cash and the Bantu people. non-cash income from Bushmeat, mushrooms, caterpillar, okok and wild yam. The Bantu and the IP equally derive Percentage of households obtaining cash and non-cash more than 75% of non-cash income from only mushrooms income from each NTFP and medicinal plants, respectively. Altogether, only Bantu HRs obtain less than 50% of cash income from medicinal The mean proportions of cash and non-cash income plants, fish resources and leaves of Marantaceae. In Congo, derived by households from each NTFPs per ethnic group in both the Bantu and IP obtain more cash income than non- Cameroon, the CAR and Congo are presented in table 4. In cash-income from NTFPs (in contrary to Cameroon and Cameroon, both the Bantu and the IP derive more non-cash CAR). Only the IP get more than 75% of both cash and non- income than cash-income from NTFPs and between 75% and cash income from okok alone. The Bantu derive more than 100% of cash and non-cash income from Bushmeat, bush 75% of cash income alone, from Bushmeat, okok and fish mangoes and djansang. The Bantu equally get more than 75% products. On the other hand, the IP get more than 75% of cash of non-cash income from Okok, Cola nuts, oil extracted from income alone, from Bushmeat. Altogether, HRs obtain less 10 D. Endamana et al. than 50% of cash income from cola nuts and medicinal plants 318 US$ in cash income and 1131 US$ in non-cash income). (for the Bantu), from bush mango and raffia (for the IP), and In terms of cash income, the Bantu people gain about two, both from insects (grubs and beetles). Both the Bantu and the three and 31times the cash income derived by IP in CAR, IP get less than 50% of non-cash income from about 90% and Cameroon and Congo, respectively. The value of the non-cash 80% of all NTFPs in Congo, respectively. income is about two to four times higher than the cash income Globally, among the Bantu, more than 50% of HRs obtain in both ethnic groups in Cameroon and the CAR, but not cash income from respectively seven, two and one NTFP(s) in in Congo. Cameroon, Congo and CAR. On the other hand, more than Tables 6, 7 and 8 present the details of annual cash 50% of IPs households obtain cash income from seven, two and non-cash incomes (in US$) that is generated by each and nine NTFPs in Cameroon, Congo and CAR, respectively NTFP per ethnic group in Cameroon, Congo and the CAR (table 4). respectively. In Cameroon, the total income from Bushmeat, bush man- Cash and non-cash-income derived from NTFP in each goes, oils from moabi and rattan lies between 317 US$ to ethnic group, per selected village country per year 460 US$ and account for the highest cash and non-cash income providing NTFPs among the Bantu HRs per year. In US dollars, the cash and non-cash incomes from NTFPs The IP gain about 102 US$ to 178 US$ yearly from djansang, varied per ethnic group and country (table 5). In terms of bush meat and bush mangoes, respectively (table 6). For each gross total income, Bantu HRs in Cameroon derive about of the highest income providing NTFPs in both ethnic groups, 2478 US$ (about 813 US$ in cash income and 1665 US$ non-cash income values are higher than cash income values. in non-cash income) per year from NTFPs. In Congo, they In Congo, Bushmeat accounts for the high total income derive about 1074 US$ per year from NTFPs (about 717 US$ per year (1272 US$). Other NTFPs such as caterpillars, bush in cash income and 357 in non-cash income). In the CAR, the mangoes and insects like grub beetles bring about 241 US$ to Bantu HRs gain about 1449 US$ per year from NTFPs (about 330 US$ among the Bantu households per year. In the IP

TABLE 5 Cash and non-cash income values (in US $) of households for each ethnic group per country

Cash income Non-cash income Total income Countries Bantu IP Bantu IP Bantu IP Cameroon 813 314 1 665 498 2 478 812 Congo 717 23 357 42 1 074 65 CAR 318 211 1 131 517 1 449 728

TABLE 6 Average annual household cash and non-cash incomes (in US $) for each NTFP per ethnic group in households of Cameroon

Ethnic Non Timber Scientific names Cash Non-cash Total group Forest product (where applicable) income income Income Bush mangoes Irvingia gabonensis 139 289 423 Bush meat 154 316 460 Cola Cola acuminata 61 129 190 Djangsang Ricinodendron heudelotii 91 185 275 Rattan Calameae 102 216 317 Bantu Fish from local rivers and others 64 133 197 Lianas Bauhinia liana 73 151 224 Okok Gnetum africanum 55 117 172 Medicinal Plants 68 142 209 Moabi’s oil Baillonella toxisperma 102 223 328 Bush Mangoes Irvingia gabonensis 70 108 178 Bush meat 48 78 127 Djangsang Ricinodendron heudelotii 39 63 102 Wild vegetables 32 52 84 Indigenous Lianas Bauhinia liana 22 36 58 people Raffia (wine and mat) Raphia 21 34 55 Honey 24 41 65 Fish from local rivers and others 17 27 44 Medicinal Plants 21 31 52 Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa 11

TABLE 7 Average annual household cash and non-cash incomes (in US $) for each NTFP per ethnic group in households of Congo

Ethnic Non Timber Scientific names Cash Non-cash Total group Forest product (where applicable) income income Income Bush meat 865 406 1272 Caterpillars 229 100 330 Raffia (wine and mat) Raphia 45 20 65 Leaves of marantacea 70 17 87 Medicinal Plants 55 29 84 Bantu Okok Gnetum africanum 141 54 195 Insects (grubs beetle etc.) 186 55 241 Bush mangoes Irvingia gabonensis 210 67 276 Lianas Bauhinia liana 45 20 64 Cola nut Cola acuminata 30 15 45 Mushroom Amanita muscaria 142 46 187 Honey 111 64 175 Bush meat 141 100 241 Leaves of marantacea 148 45 193 Mushroom Amanita muscaria 184 45 193 Indigenous Insects (grubs beetle etc.) 225 68 293 people Caterpillars 219 92 311 Okok Gnetum africanum 252 234 486 Raffia (wine and mat) Raphia 16 41 57 Lianas Bauhinia liana 46 84 130 Payo fruit Irvingia grandifolia 94 57 151

TABLE 8 Average annual household cash and non-cash incomes (in US $) for each NTFP per ethnic group in households of the CAR

Ethnic Non Timber Scientific names Cash Non-cash Total group Forest product (where applicable) income income Income Bush meat 77 282 360 Medicinal Plants 47 166 213 Okok Gnetum africanum 41 128 168 Caterpillars 28 79 106 Bantu Mushroom Amanita muscaria 39 153 192 Fruit payo Irvingia grandifolia 40 160 200 Wild yam Dioscoreae sp. 33 124 157 Honey 7 25 32 Leaves of marantacea 11 30 41 Bush meat 25 60 85 Okok Gnetum africanum 28 68 96 Mushroom 23 56 80 Caterpillars 22 41 64 Indigenous Payo fruit Irvingia grandifolia 24 58 82 people Wild squash 31 89 120 Medicinal Plants 19 46 64 Leaves of marantaceae 18 43 61 Wild yam Dioscoreae sp. 14 27 41 Honey 16 29 44 12 D. Endamana et al. households, NTFPs like okok, caterpillars, insects and Bush- monetary terms, the non-cash income obtained from each of meat generate total incomes between 241 US$ to 486 US$ per the NTFPs is higher than the cash income in Cameroon (as in year. For each of the highest income generating NTFPs in Betti 2004), the CAR but not in Congo. In Cameroon and the both ethnic groups, cash income values are higher than non- CAR, there is a poorly developed market network (Makon cash income values. et al. 2005, Ndoye et al. 1997, Nguimbi 2006) and NTFPs In the CAR, Bushmeat (360 US$), medicinal plants harvested from the forest are primarily used for home con- (213 US$), payo fruits (200 US$) and mushroom (192 US$) sumption and to satisfy daily needs (Ingram and Bongers accounts for the highest cash and non-cash incomes among 2009, Loubelo 2012, PROTA 2008). In addition, there are no the Bantu HRs per year. In the IP households, wild squash mechanisms in place to ensure product quality, standardise (120 US$), okok (96 US$), Bushmeat (85 US$) and payo pricing, adequate transport and processing of these products fruits (82 US$) brings the highest incomes per year. For each and, the effective computability of income generated by local of the highest income generating NTFPs in both ethnic people. Similarly, in the South-West and South regions of groups, non-cash income values are higher than cash income Cameroon, NTFPs accounts for only 25–50% and 20% of values. cash income for local people, respectively (Mallesson 1993, Irrespective of the ethnic group and country, Bushmeat Ros-Tonen and Wiersum 2003, 2005) and 29–39% of total is an important source of cash and non-cash income. It income in both regions (Levang et al. 2015). Therefore, the generates more income to the Bantu than the IP. more remote the area the higher the contribution of NTFPs to non-cash income. In a study of household use of natural resources in the Kat River Valley of South Africa Shackleton DISCUSSION and Shackleton 2006), NTFPs contributed to about 20% of the total household income and it constituted the highest In Central Africa, it has been widely documented that NTFPs proportion of incomes for the poorest households per capita. are important for local communities (FAO 1995, Ingram and In this study, NTFPs provide higher non-cash income to Schure 2010). Their contributions to household revenue has the Bantu and the IP in Cameroon and the CAR. Meanwhile always been questionable because of the methods used for in Congo, NTFPs provide higher cash incomes. However, in evaluating the income generated from their sales. The FPTK US dollars, the Bantu people obtain relatively higher total is a rapid appraisal method that facilitates data collection and incomes from NTFPs than the IP. In the area, the Bantu analysis for the evaluation of the contribution of NTFPs to appear to have more control over NTFP market mechanisms household income. However, it is not very different from than the IP. The NTFPs are mostly harvested by the IP and other social appraisal methods in terms of variability of infor- sold at lower prices at the beginning of the value chain. The mation from households, but has an additional advantage that Bantu’s are situated higher in the market network and most it provides information on the variation of the dependency of communities on NTFPs which is important for evaluating of them buy products from the IP for resale at higher prices. efforts of the civil society, NGO’s and governments in the In addition, it was observed that the IP do not receive the pilot area. It is assumed that, HRs declare income values for maximum income from NFTPs because of their low socio- the previous year that best match the income situation of the economic status in the area. It has already been reported in household and the part contributed by NTFPs. In the study Africa that the highest proportion of people around forest area, NTFPs were used for commercial and non-commercial areas live on less than 1.5 US$ a day (Anderson et al. 2006, purposes. Products like Bushmeat, bush mango, djansang, oil OMD 2013). However, in the study area, the total annual from seeds of moabi, rattan, medicinal plants, okok, insects income derived from NTFPs attests that the local Bantu and and insect larvae are commonly used among the Bantu IP live far above this level. Bushmeat alone derives 460 US$, and the IP (Clark and Sunderland 2004, Ingram et al. 2010, 1272 US$ and 360 US$ per year for the Bantu people in Wilkie 1999). The NTFPs that were identified by HRs to be Cameroon, Congo and the CAR, respectively. If we suggest important sources of income accounted for more than 55% of that the number of members in each of the studied households cash income for the IP in Cameroon, Congo and the CAR per village varies between four and six, therefore Bushmeat against 45% for the Bantu peoples. The percentage contribu- alone respectively provides 0.26 US$, 0.72 US$ and 0.2 US$ tion of all NTFPs to cash and non-cash income of the HRs per day/capita in Cameroon, Congo and the CAR. According was evaluated in order to understand the priority NTFPs, to the literature, forest resources contribute to about 1.45 the level of dependency of the studied communities and the US$/day/capita in Cameroon, 1.81 US$ in Congo and 1.06 portions of NTFPs that are rarely considered and used for US$ in the CAR (Endamana et al. 2015a). Hence, the percent- non-commercial purposes (Angelsen and Wunder 2003, age contribution of Bushmeat to the total household revenue Campbell and Luckert 2002). Given that each NTFP contrib- lies between 18% and 40%. This implies that the combined utes specifically to the total income of HRs, Bushmeat effect of income generated from all NTFPs could be poten- accounted for the highest proportion of NTFPs that provides tially higher than previously believed and could be managed cash income among the Bantu in Cameroon, Congo and the (taking into consideration, the limited access to social and CAR. It also contributed significantly to the cash income physical livelihood facilities and other related issues) to source among the IP but, NTFPs like okok, bush mango, satisfy the livelihood needs of local people in the studied djansang and wild squash appeared to be more important. In villages of the three Central African countries. Contribution of non-timber forest products to cash and non-cash income of remote forest communities in Central Africa 13

To date, these countries have developed long-term of NTFPs in improving the livelihoods of local people (as in development emergency plans that can only succeed if all Mulenga et al. 2011). economic sectors including the forestry sector are considered. The macroeconomic contribution of forest exploitation to Gross Domestic Product, employment and development can ACKNOWLEDGMENTS be found in the literature. However, within the framework of sustainable development mechanisms like REDD+, success- This study was conducted thanks to financial support from the ful benefit sharing at the micro-economic level requires Congo Basin Forest Fund. We express our gratitude to local adequate assessment of the cash and non-cash income values chiefs of the studied villages for hospitality and collaboration. generated by NTFPs on the one hand and other products on Special thanks to Gervais Ondoua Ondoua, Parfait Bakabana, the other hand. Yet, these values are absent in national statis- Mve Mve Joseph for assistance in data collection and tics and in the literature. The contribution of NTFPs to the processing, to Gretchen Walters, Charlotte Eyong Ako and total income (including cash and non-cash) could influence Mboringong Fideline for editing and revising the manuscript. considerably political decisions, long-term development mechanisms like REDD+, and the implementation of Sustain- able Development Goals (Endamana et al. 2015b). A key REFERENCES example is that, REDD+ projects will promote the development of the value chain for NTFPs that are of high economic ADJANOHOUN, E.A., DRAMANE, N., EBOT, K., priority for local communities, sustainable harvesting tech- EKPERE, M.E., OROCK, E.J.A., FOCHO, D.G., niques and ensuring that the local communities from sustain- KAMANYI, Z.O., KAMSU KOM, A., KEITA, J., MBEN- able harvest of priority NTFPs derive maximum benefits. 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