sign in sign up
<<
Home , Forest degradation

JOURNAL OF DEGRADED AND MINING LANDS MANAGEMENT ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), Volume 5, Number 1 (October 2017): 955-964 DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2017.051.955

Research Article

Sustainable production of and to salvage in Asunafo District, Ghana

Kenneth Peprah* University for Development Studies, Faculty of Integrated Development Studies,Wa Campus, P. O. Box 520, Wa, Upper West Region, Ghana. W/Africa * [email protected] Received 01 August 2017, Accepted 30 August 2017

Abstract: Savannazation and marshy areas are common features of once evergreen and deciduous of Ghana. Attempts to salvage such degraded lands have considered replacement with closed canopy. This study aims at examining efforts at Asunafo forest area to use of different species to remedy land degradation in a swamp area colonized by shrubs and grasses. Study methods include the use of field visits and transect walk, photography, archival data, key informant interview, community meeting and socio-economic survey for sourcing primary data for analysis. The results indicate that where the swamp is vegetated by shrubs of different kinds, afforestation shows rapid success. And, where the swamp is dominated by grass species, afforestation success is slow. Terminalia ivorensis, Triplochiton scleroxylon and Ceiba pentandra registered quick impacts in height growth, stem development, canopy formation where the degraded land was originally covered with shrubs. grow well when weed competition for essential resources is reduced through weed control. The study concludes that tree planting in swamp area is sustainable land management practice to redeem land degradation. Also, environmental benefits are imperatives but host communities derived near to zero social and economic benefits because such projects happen outside clean development mechanisms’ arrangement. Keywords: afforestation, Asunafo forest, land degradation, reforestation, swamp, savanna land

To cite this article: Peprah, K. 2017. Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Asunafo District, Ghana. J. Degrade. Min. Land Manage. 5(1): 955-964, DOI: 10.15243/jdmlm.2017.051.955.

Introduction mitigation (UNEP, n.d.). At the smallholder farmers and rural communities’ level, tree The challenge posed by land degradation is planting in afforestation, plus soil daunting; the desire to achieve land degradation and water conservation practices ensure food neutral world is rife; and, the prospects offered by security enhancement and sustainability of land afforestation and reforestation as strategies to dependent livelihoods, subsequently, combating neutralize the menace is encouraging and viable land degradation (Zomer et al., 2008). (UNFCCC, 2013, Welton et al., 2014, Orr et al., Afforestation reduces pressure on the natural 2017). In the process, degraded lands release forest through provision of forest resources such carbon to the atmosphere, while planted trees fuel, fruits, fodder and rafters (Dongre, 2011). At sequester substantial amounts of atmospheric the global scale, afforestation and reforestation are carbon (Unruh, 2008 citing UNFCCC definition, bridges between developed and developing Zomer et al., 2008). Afforestation and countries under clean development mechanism to reforestation are considered as carbon sink ensure mutual benefits as climate change projects in clean development mechanism (CDM) mitigation measure; subsequently, contributing to to reduce carbon emission from degraded lands achievement of UNCBD and UNCCD (IUCN, and achieve global benefit of climate change 2004). Where the developed countries win carbon www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id 955 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana credits, the developing countries benefit by Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15, stemming degraded and degrading land below specifically, target 15.2: by 2020 promote the forest threshold, grazing and fuel collection implementation of sustainable management of all (Haupt and von Lupke, 2007). Already, 95 types of forest, halt , restore developing countries are benefitting from 7,500 degraded , and increase afforestation and emission reduction projects in which local reforestation by x% globally. Target 15.2 is communities’ resilience to climate change are reinforced by 15b: mobilize significant resources improving and contributing to attainment of from all sources and at all levels to finance UNFCCC, UNCCD and UNCBD (UNFCCC, sustainable , and provide 2013). adequate incentives to developing countries to This study aims at examining efforts at advance sustainable forest management, including Asunafo forest area to use tree planting of for conservation and reforestation (Brack, 2014). different species to remedy land degradation in a By doing so, target 15.3 stands to show the swamp area colonized by shrubs and grasses. results: ‘by 2020, combat , and Ghana is one of the seven countries found to be restore degraded land and soil, including land integrating with success agricultural productivity, affected by desertification, and floods, food security of the population and halting and/or and strive to achieve a land-degradation neutral reversing deforestation(FAO, 2016). The West world’(Orr et al., 2017). African country, vests naturally occurring trees in The paper is divided into six sections. The the President. However, forest are owned by introduction shows the importance of using chiefdoms and clans (public) but controlled by the afforestation and reforestation to stem land government. The Commission manages degradation. An elaboration on the aim of the forest reserves and national parks. Community study and guided sections of the paper ends the Resource Management Areas abound under first section. The next section discusses the community supported by Non-Governmental conceptual basis of the paper founded on the triad Organizations and government arrangements. of sustainable development as including There is improvement in tree tenure in the off- environment, social and economic processes with forest reserves as regarding farmers’ ownership of specific reference to afforestation and trees planted in the farm. Commercial reforestation. The third section reviews existing is supported by Forest Plantation Development knowledge on the prospects of afforestation. Fund. REDD+ programmes are underway in the Study methods spell out laid down procedure in forest zone such as climate smart agriculture carrying out this study and the description of the funded by Rockefeller Foundation and climate study area. The subsequent section catalogues smart cocoa working group funded by UK’s results of the study interwoven with discussion Department for International Development bringing out the various nuances. Lessons learnt (DFID) geared towards reducing drivers of and conclusion are drawn using environmental, deforestation, forest degradation and carbon social and economic sustainability benefits emissions (Asare, 2015). Yet, agriculture discussed in section two. Environmental expansion contributing 50%, timber exploitation sustainability is the main outcome with (35%), urban sprawl and infrastructure difficulties bringing out social and economic development (10%) and mining and mineral benefits due to the community level scale of the extraction (5%) continue to exacerbate land demonstration site. degradation (MLNR, 2012, FAO, 2016). Ghana’s Conceptual Framework closed forest is being destroyed at a rate of 2% about 135,000 ha per annum (MLNR, 2012). In The study adopts sustainability triad of addition, the threat posed by savannazation is environment, social and economic pillars after imminent in the forest areas of Ghana. Grasses of Olsen and Fenhann (2008). The authors used the different kinds out-compete the mosaic of three sustainability components to discuss benefits protected forest reserves, secondary forests and, accruing from clean development mechanism biodiverse cocoa and food crop agroforestry. Such projects as involving afforestation and areas are described by farmers as degraded. reforestation. The qualitatively measurable Several measures are used to get rid of the grass indicators include environmental components as in the forest mosaic. In some areas, such as air (quality by reducing pollution), land (stem Tanoso, oil palm was used initially but to no degradation and improve quality), water (quality avail; now, afforestation is done as well as in the by decreasing pollution) and conservation next door Dantano. The efforts require assessment (landscape protection and management). Social after some years of implementation. Relevance of aspect involves employment, health, learning and the study is drawn from the specific response to welfare. Economic feature, taken at country level,

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 956 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana includes growth, energy and balance of payments. earth, terrestrial ecosystem – self-maintaining Sustainability tax and corporate social habitat of micro-organisms, plants as well as responsibility were measured as other benefits. animals and the relationship with the biophysical Watson and Frankhauser (2009) takes sustainable environment or as a resource comprising of soil, development from a triple bottom line approach. water, vegetation, rocks, air, climate and relief The authors follow Hamilton et al. (2004) and (Safriel, 2007, Stocking and Murnaghan, 2001). considered the three dimensional concept as Land is bare if it has no cover. Hence, bare rock capital translating into physical capital (economic or bare soil refers to the land itself and not the benefits dealing with building, machines and cover. The cover of the land is the observed infrastructure assets); social capital (social biophysical protection overlaying the Earth’s benefits as people’s ability to draw meaning and surface. It may be classified as biological if the incentives from social interactions); and, natural land cover is made of vegetation or physical if the capital (environmental benefits as involving life- land cover consists of human-made or artificial support services derived from ecological systems’ features (Di Gregorio and Jansen, 1998). goods and services). The UNFCCC(2011) In the history of land cover studies, categorizes benefits accruing from CDM into particular emphasis has been focused on land economic (direct/indirect financial benefits to the cover change. Changes to the cover of the land economy, employment, development/diffusion of may refer to alteration in land surface roughness imported technology, investment in and albedo (Zhan et al., 2002) or a shift from one infrastructure); environment (efficient utilization cover type to another (Bradley and Mustard, of natural resources, reduction in noise, odour, 2005). Land cover change may occur as pollutants or dust, improvement/protection of conversion, that is, long-term changes natural resources, available utilities and representing a complete replacement of one cover promotion of renewable energy); and, social type by a different type or as modification, that is, (labour condition and human rights, promotion of short-term changes indicating partial changes education, health and safety, poverty reduction, within a particular cover type (Lambin, 1999). For empowerment of local people and empowerment instance, land cover change from forest to of women, care for children and frail).The study grassland represents conversion and land cover adopts the triad benefits as analytical framework change from rain-fed cultivated area to irrigated to qualitatively indicate benefits in terms of cultivated area indicates modification (European lessons learnt from the current study. This is Communities, 2001). Since AD 1700, human carried out based on the background that agenda activity, particularly, agriculture has transformed 2030 in seeking to achieve sustainable much of the natural land cover to development for the world invokes simultaneous anthropogenically managed areas (Pongratz et al., integration of all 17 goals against the backdrop of 2008). In recent times, industrialization and the three pillars (FAO, 2016). urbanization are twin factors that have also caused large scale land cover change. Subsequently, Review of the Prospects of Afforestation there are many observable features resulting from Afforestation entails effectiveness of tree planting land cover change such as loss of , to manage degraded land where the said land global warming as well as water, soil and air cannot be categorized as forest land. A similar pollution. For instance, the conversion of forest to term reforestation is used if the new trees are agricultural land immediately shows complete planted on a previously forested land (Woodfine, loss of forest species. Also, agricultural lands 2009). And, when trees are integrated with reduce and increase emission agricultural crops on the same land management of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to warm the unit where there is ecological and economic Earth through creation of greenhouse effects. In interaction between the trees and the crops, such a addition, phosphorus, nitrogen and sediments system is called agroforestry (Stocking et al., from farms are washed into rivers to cause 1990). Afforestation takes place in areas that have sedimentation, turbidity and eutrophication. While not been forested before or at least for the past 50 agricultural burnings worsen the status of air years. Reforestation is done to redeem forest quality (Ellis, 2013). cover in historically forested area (IUCN, 2004: In sub-Saharan Africa, land cover change is citing UNFCCC). Forest refers to an area of 0.05- observed from overgrazed fields, fuel wood 1 ha, containing trees with average height of 2-5 shortages, degradation of once-pristine forest, soil m and canopy density of 20-30% (Haupt and von erosion and depletion of natural resources. In this Lupke, 2007). Land, the basis for afforestation, regard, the change to land cover is explained as reforestation or agroforestry is perceived human mismanagement of land in which the variously as terra firma – solid portion of the African is considered a victim as well as a causal

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 957 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana agent (Leach and Mearns, 1996). However, in the Methods of Study hilly Machakos region of Kenya, research shows that the African is an agent of natural The study began with a visit to the Brong Ahafo environmental improvement (Tiffen et al., 1994). Regional archival records office in Sunyani to One of two cases demonstrated an earlier period review history of afforestation with special where the African population was comparatively reference to the Asunafo north and south districts, lower but suffered severe forms of soil erosion. the then Ahafo District. The next step was a The land cover was made up of large and small discussion with officials of relevant state trees, shrub, herbs and grasses and the steep relief institutions beginning from the Ghana Forestry showed many rills and gullies. The second case Commission’s regional office at Sunyani and showed a rather increased African population in District offices at Goaso for both Forest and which the people suffered less erosion in the same Wildlife Divisions. Due to the prominence of piece of land. cocoa in the study area, officials of Ghana Cocoa The increased population had been used to Board (Cocobod) at the national office in Accra convert the shrub land cover, rills and gullies to and District office at Goaso were interviewed. The cultivated hedges and terraced cropland. The study then engaged primary land users basically researchers opined that fewer people severe soil smallholder cocoa farmers in meetings at 21 erosion and more people less soil erosion (Tiffen communities and attended by a total of 774 et al., 1994). Similarly, this study uses two cases, farmers. Other pertinent steps included one which shows the situation before where the questionnaire administration to a sample size of land cover was swamp and savanna grassland to a 264 (Israel, 2009); key informant interviews; and, second case which shows the situation after, focus group discussion with Akan Radio represented by beautiful forest land cover. Unlike Discussion Group made up of five men. the Machakos example, the emphasis here is not Analytical approaches comprised of SWOT on population increase and environment nexus, (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) rather indigenous farmers’ ability to change less as well as trend using descriptive statistics. Figure productive land cover to more beneficial cover 1 shows a map of Asunafo north and south districts with a total land surface area of 2,187.5 and aesthetical scenery. The trees apart from the 2 possibility of serving as source of fuel wood can km (Abagale et al., 2003). also provide shade, building rafters and other ecosystem goods and services (Leach and Mearns, 1996).

240000 320000 400000

N

W E

S

Domenase Kasapen # Bediakokurom # # # Asanteman Council Mim (mmem) # 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8

ASUNAFO NORTH GOASO %#

# Ayomso

# Dantano Fawohoyeden # KUKUOM # Asummura Akrodie # %# 0 0 0 0

# Nobeko 0 0

# 0 0 Akrodie 2 2 7 7 Abuom # # Kwapong

ASUNAFO SOUTH # Odumase

Camp No.1 #

Legend # Sankore

% District Capital

# 0

0 20 Largest communities 0 0 0 0 0 0

Roads 4 4 6 6 Asunafo North District

Asunafo South District 1:450000 5 0 5 10 15 Kilometers

240000 320000 400000 Figure 1: Map of Asunafo North Municipal and South Districts of Ghana Source: CERSGIS, Department of Geography and Resource Development, (2010)

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 958 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana

The climate is wet-semi equatorial type with common nursery in the area as it possesses several double maxima rainfall peaking in May-June and qualities such as its usefulness in serving as September-October with rainfall values between livestock fodder, supporting yam cultivation as 1,250 – 1,750 mm and temperature ranging stalk and live fence for home gardens. Plate 1 between 26oC and 30oC. The original land cover shows a test case of swamp land covered by water is classified as moist-semi deciduous forest. Some loving shrubs planted to different healthy tree trees shed their leaves while others remain species’ seedling guided by the split bamboo evergreen (Dickson and Benneh, 1988). pegs. The swamp wetland is poorly drained, Anthropogenic land management has resulted in invaded by elephant ear plant species of the conversion of much of the original forest to Xanthosoma family but both the leaves and the agriculture and settlement land uses with portion cormels are not edible. Farmers used of the forest managed as forest reserve. Dickson /cutlasses to slash the shrubs. A local and Benneh (1988) describe edaphic features as practice, proka, was used; a slash and no burn, in forest ochrosols while CERSGIS Department of which the slashed debri decomposed and Geography and Resource Development (2010) replenish the soil with nutrients. Tree seedlings classified the soils as much of acrisols, nitisols were transplanted as indicated by the split bamboo only around Nobeko and Kwapong with fluvisols sticks as pegs for identification purposes. along revering areas on the district borders. Terminalia ivorensis and Triplochiton scleroxylon seedlings were then planted. The elephant ear plants provided shade for the seedlings for some Results and Discussion time before the weeds were slashed. The enlisted Archival records reveals that forest reserves in the processes occurred in 2010. area started in 1939; and, cocoa farming much In the Tanoso demonstration site, where the earlier in the 1920s. In the 1960s, the Government swamp is dominated by grass species, of Ghana established agricultural extension afforestation success is slow. The processes stations at Goaso and Sankore to provide technical included slashed grass vegetation but no burning support for propagation of cocoa. The stations (proka) followed by planting of (Tectona nursed cocoa seedlings and supplied to farmers grandis), wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon), emire for transplanting (District Commissioner, 1960). (Terminalia ivorensis), esa (Celtis spp.) and oyina However, official tree planting in Asunafo can be (Ceiba pentandra). Herbicide (weedicide) traced back to the 1970s when the Forestry application was carried out to suppress grass Commission introduced the taungyas system in regrowth. Two tree species Wawa (Triplochiton which farmers integrated different crops with trees scleroxylon) and esa (Celtis spp.) failed to survive in a form of agroforestry in order to reclaim in the swamp and savanna grassland. Three tree degraded forest reserves. Farming continued until species teak (Tectona grandis), emire (Terminalia such a time that the trees needed no tending. ivorensis) and oyina (Ceiba pentandra) are Between 1975 and 1977 a total land surface area successfully growing. Although Terminalia of 1,445.93 ha of degraded forest reserve was ivorensis show larger diameter at breast height restored in Asunafo. Table 1 provides details of than teak, there were more teak trees surviving land area put to taungyas activities as containing than Terminalia ivorensis and Ceiba pentandra. tree planting, beating up and tending. Emire (Terminalia ivorensis) and oyina (Ceiba pentandra) are sparsely populated in the field while teak has proven to be the most suitable for Table 1. Land Surface Area (ha) put to Taungyas the purpose. Activities 1975-1977 From the study, afforestation takes place as a Date Planting Beating up Tending result of farmers’ efforts and government’s 1975 445.00 45.00 570.00 persuasion. The study revealed that 100 farmers 1976 118.40 47.20 107.66 (38%) plant trees as a strategy to restore degraded 1977 29.37 39.06 44.24 land while 164 farmers (62%) do not plant trees at Total 592.77 131.26 721.90 all. Although, trees naturally grow well at Asunafo, the need to supplement natural Source: Adapted from District Chief Executive, (1978) regeneration is felt by farmers. Tree planting as land degradation management strategy was Presently, farmers, particularly, at Nobeko are subjected to various analyses including SWOT engaged in tree seedling nurseries on commercial and trend analyses. basis for profit purposes. Gliricidia sepium is the

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 959 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana

Plate 1: Demonstration site 1 – afforestation to recover swamp land at Dantano Source: The Author 24th June, 2010.

Plate 2 portrays impacts of vegetative land cover eliminated. The effect of the weeds on the land is conversion from swamp and invasive elephant ear drastically reduced by the good performance of plant to appreciable tree heights and well- the trees in barely two years. Plate 3 shows the developed tree canopy. The test looks successful success story at Dantano for nearly seven years of although the elephant ears plant is not completely implementation.

Plate 2. Two years later at demonstration site 1 – success story at Dantano Source: The Author 27th September, 2012.

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 960 Sustainable production of afforesrestation and reforestation to salvage land degradationn iin Ghana

plant nursery, transportation of trees to the farm, actual planting, tending and bbeating up until the tree are left on their own (7(70%). During rain storms,branchesoftreesorsosometimes the whole tree falls to destroy crops(20%0%). Otherwise there are opportunities such as low ppricing of seedlings, sometimesfreeofchargeoror tree seedling are offered to farmers to be paidid for at a later date. The threats to tree planting aare associated with tree tenure in which timber sppecies on farms are ownedbygovernmentandthethe fear that one day the wood would be extractedcted and cause farm destruction without compensatisation to the farmer. Hence,farmersdonotgroww timber species on farmorallownaturallygeneraerated timber species to grow on farms. Since2011, government policies on tree tenure are chahanging in favour of farmers’ ownership of at leasleast planted trees on farm. Table 2 presents qualitativative trend analysis of tree planting. Planting trees wawas not imperative in the past (during childhoodperperiod of the farmer - Plate 3. 2010 – 2017atdemonstrnstration site 1 - at respondents) as trees grewnatuaturally. Combination Dantano Source: Fieldield aassistant of characteristics such ass presence of tree nurseries and increasing eencouragement of Figure 2 indicates strengthgths, weaknesses, farmers by government agencencies to plant trees opportunities and threats (SWOTOT) analysis of tree explain the success of afforforestation presently. planting. The main strengthss of tree planting Moving to the desired future,, ffarmers would want includes: trees growanddeveloplop to provide shade continuation of natural regegeneration of trees. for cocoa and plantain (Musa AABB) (11%), tree However, the obvious differenrences in soil would litter adds organic matter to thee ssoil (78%) thereby not permit natural regrowthth of trees in the contributing to the maintenancence of soil fertility required quantities. Hence, attattempts to recreate while a lot of the tree help crecreate a conducive tree afforestation and reforestastation appear tenable micro-climate for the geneeneral agricultural option in the likely future. activities (11%). However, treeee planting exhibits weaknesses such as arduous tastask demand ed by

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Percentage 20 S 10 W 0 O T

SWOT of tree planting

Figure 2. Results of the SWOT analysis of tree planting Source: The Author

Journal of Degraded and Mininging Lands Management 961 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana

Table 2: Trend Analysis of Tree Planting Land degradation Past Present Desired future Likely future management strategies Tree planting in farm natural seedling nurseries natural growth more trees planted growth averagely planted Source: The Author

Conclusion and Lessons Learnt ability of the indigenous people to manage and prevent the occurrence of wild bushfires. Environmental Sustainability of Afforestation Essentially the afforestation reduced the The purpose of the study was to assess numerous plant species of no commercial value to effectiveness of farmer management strategies of basically few plants species made up of trees with land degradation particularly the performance of economic significance, of the same age and on a trees planted to recover swamp land. The findings tract of land or compartment (Odoom, 2002). confirm a strong case for conversion of swamp Also, Terminalia ivorensis and Triplochiton land by afforestation. The most successful scleroxylon with their broad leaves and closed processes included slash and no burning (proka) canopy intercept raindrops and prevent the of the initial vegetation cover, the use of seedlings wetlands of swamp from further land degradation. of different tree species, pegging for easy In the sense that waterlogging, flooding and soil identification of seedlings and clearing of weeds erosion were reduced and there was improvement regrowth with cutlass (hand weeding) or in infiltration of rainwater as well as enhancement application of herbicides (weedicides). Embedded of soil moisture content as also found in in indigenous farmer traditions and customs are (Woodfine, 2009). Weed control at pre-planting the significance of trees, planting and caring for and post-planting of tree seedlings ensures trees. For instance, the farming culture of effective utilization of light, moisture and commercial cocoa tree agroforestry dates back to nutrients. Reduction or elimination of weed the 1900s (Dickson, 1969). Above all, agrodiverse competition for these essential resources ensured farming – integrated management of trees left in- better growth of tree as also revealed by situ in farm, biological species including crops (Balneaves, 1982). Weeds constitute disturbing and other land resources organization, utilization factor in agroforestry and forestry due and sustainable management is a common to tilling regimes, crop phenology and weed farming practice (Gyasi, 2004). However, control systems (chemical in agroforestry and planting trees to restore degraded land through physical in forestry). If animals are integrated, afforestation or reforestation began with the birds roost on the trees and fertilize young trees taungya system in the 1970s (District Chief while sheep weed the trees and occasionally Executive, 1978). Special qualities of selected tree manure the field (Dupraz, 1999). However, species include fast growing in the case of majority of farmers (62%) did not engaged in tree Terminalia ivorensis and Triplochiton planting exercise indicative of the weakness of scleroxylon. Tectona grandis has high yielding tree planting as an arduous strategy and in and survival rate. Ceiba pentandra possesses fast anticipation that economic trees managed under growing and low incidence of pests (Odoom, agroforestry would be extracted someday by 2002). Tree planting shows particular strength in timber merchants to destroy the very crops producing litter to enrich the land, suggestive of intended to be supported by the trees. Farmers the good performance of Terminalia ivorensis and indicate that crops do not grow well under wawa Triplochiton scleroxylon at Dantano where the (Triplochiton scleroxylon). For this reason, litter fell on the bare land. Instead of bare ground, farmers will not integrate the seedlings of wawa tree litter at Tanoso fell on grass mat, a kind of (Triplochiton scleroxylon) with crops in carpet that hampered decomposition of leaves agroforestry. Hence, using wawa (Triplochiton thereby preventing immediate enrichment of the scleroxylon) to stem land degradation is soil with organic matter. Also, during the dry problematic since it does not make the land any season the swamp still contained enough soil better for arable farming purposes. Experience moisture which helped to ensure continuous tree farmers will not plant wawa (Triplochiton growth. A further explanation has to do with the scleroxylon) in the farm anyway. Instead of poorly drained wetland colonized by invasive

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 962 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana elephant ear plants, water loving and water Bradley, B.A. and Mustard, J.F. 2005. Identifying land craving weed, the afforestation ensures free cover variability distinct from land cover change: overflow of water and provides trees that cheatgrass in the Great Basin. Remote Sensing of possessed economic and ecological significance. Environment 94: 204-13. CERSGIS Department of Geography and Resource. A further research is required to investigate the 2010. Maps of Asunafo Districts', (Accra: Center inability of esa (Celtis spp.) to survive the test. for Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Social Sustainability of Afforestation Systems, CERSGIS Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, For now, the social benefits include the ecosystem Legon). services such as provision of shade and Di Gregorio, A. and Jansen, L.J.M. 1998. Land Cover improvement of air quality, particularly, in the Classification System (LCCS): Classification Dantano case, where the demonstration site is Concepts and User Manual. Rome: FAO, 1-91. close to the community. The impact on the micro- Dickson, K.B. 1969. A Historical Geography of Ghana, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). climate can only be inferred as there are no Dickson, K.B. and Benneh, G. 1988. A New Geography scientific instruments in close proximity to do of Ghana, (Longman Group UK Limited, Harlow). such measurement. District Chief Executive. 1978. Acquitision of Farm Economic Sustainability of Afforestation Lands for Cocoa/Coffee Plantation by Mimhene and Akwaboahene for Cocoa Production Division', The contribution to carbon sequestration is not yet (Goaso: Ministry of Agriculture), Ahafo District calculated. The small size of the demonstration Council No. 2 A.85/25 (BRG 1/4/17c). site is an issue regarding the economic District Commissioner. 1960. Quarterly Report Brong Ahafo South Goaso District for the Quater Ending contribution. Employment generations is plausible 31st March, 1960. Goaso: Goaso District but not in this particular case. Also, generation of No.1494/GBA.18 - GBA. 18/125', (Sunyani: fuel wood from the trees is likely in the future as PRAAD). well as the wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) Dongre, P. 2011. Role of social forestry in sustainable potential for harvesting as timber. In the process development - a micro level study. International of using afforestation to redeem land degradation, Journal of Social Science and Humanity Studies environmental sustainability is the imperative and 3(1): 351-364. inevitable outcome. Social and economic Dupraz, C. 1999. Adequate design of control treatments sustainability may not measure up to the same in long term agroforestry experiments with multiple objectives. Agroforestry Systems 43:35-48. degree and intensity of benefits. Ellis, E. 2013. Land-use and Land-cover Change. in R. Pontius (ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth Topics, Acknowledgements (Boston: Encyclopedia of Earth Topics), http://www.eoearth.org/view/article. I am most grateful to Nelson Owusu Mandela, research European Communities. 2001. Manual of Concepts on assistant and the farmer respondents at Tanoso and Land Cover and Land Use Information Systems. Dantano. I am equally grateful to officials of relevant Luxembourg: European Communities, 1-106. state institutions for the interviews. FAO. 2016. State of the World's Forests 2016: Forests and Agriculture: Land-Use Challenges and Opportunities. Rome: Food and Agricultural References Organization, 1-126. Gyasi, E.A. 2004. Methodological Approaches to the Abagale, F.K., Addo, J., Adisenu-Doe R., Mensah Book, in E. A. Gyasi, G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic, E. K.A., Apana S., Boateng A.E., Owusu N.A. and T. Blay and W. Oduro (eds.), Managing Parahoe, M. 2003. The Potential and Constraint of Agrodiversity the Traditional Way: Lessons from Agroforestry in Forest Fringe Communities of the West Africa in Sustainable Use of Biodiversity and Asunafo District-Ghana, (Amsterdam: Tropenbos Related Natural Resources, (Tokyo: United Nations International University), 3-7. http://www.tropenbos.org/search?search), 1-60. Hamilton, K., Loh, M., Sayre, J., Thouveenot, T. and Asare, R.A. 2015. The Impacts of International REDD+ Wackernagel, M. 2004. Accounting for Sustainable Finance: Ghana Case Study. (Washington, D. C.: Development: Complementary Monetary and Forest Trends), 1-19. Biophysical Approaches, in OECD (ed.), Measuring Balneaves, J.M. 1982. Grass control for radiata pine Sustainable Development: Integrated Economic, establishment on drought sites. New Zealand Social and Environmental Frameworks, (Paris: Journal of Forestry 259-276. OECD), 426. Brack, D. 2014. Sustainable Development Goals and Haupt. F. and von Lupke. H. 2007. Obstacles and Forests: A Summary of UN Open Working Group Opportunities for Afforestation and Reforestation Debates and Country Reflections. London: Projects under the Clean Development Mechanism International Institute for Environment and of the Kyoto Protocol. Rome: FAO, 1-16. Development (IIED), 1-21.

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 963 Sustainable production of afforestation and reforestation to salvage land degradation in Ghana

Israel, G.D. 2009.. Determining sample size. PEOD 6: Stocking, M.A. and Murnaghan, N. 2001. Handbook 1-7. for the Field Assessment of Land Degradation. IUCN. 2004. Afforestation and Reforestation for Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. Climate Change Mitigation: Potentials for Pan- Tiffen, M., Mortimore, M. and Gichuki, F. 1994. More European Action. Warsaw: International Union for People, Less Erosion: Environmental Recovery in the Conservation of Nature, 1-14. Kenya. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Lambin, E.F. 1999. Monitoring forest degradation in UNEP (n.d.). Introduction to Clean Development tropical regions by remote sensing: some Mechanism. Roskilde, Denmark: UNEP methodological issues. Global Ecology and Collaborating Centre on Energy and Environment, Biogeography 8:191-98. 1-32. Leach, M. and Mearns, R. 1996. Environmental Change UNFCCC. 2011. Benefits of the Clean Development and Policy', in M. Leach and R. Mearns (eds.), The Mechanism 2011. Kyoto: United Nations Lie of the Land: Challenging Received Wisdom on Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1-52. the African Environment. Oxford: James Currey, 1- UNFCCC. 2013. Afforestation and Reforestation 33. Projects under the Clean Development Mechanism: MLNR. 2012. Ghana Investment Plan for the Forest A Reference Manuel. Bonn, Germany: Climate Investment Program. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Change Secretariat (UNFCCC), 1-72. Lands and Natural Resources, 1-157. Unruh, J.D. 2008. Carbon sequestration in africa: the Odoom, F. 2002. Hardwood plantations in Ghana', land tenure problem. Global Environmental Forest Plantations Working Paper 24. Rome: FAO, Change18: 700-707. Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Watson, C. and Frankhauser, S. 2009. The Clean Resources Division, 1-77. Development Mechanism: Too Flexible to Produce Olsen, K.H. and Fenhann, J. 2008. Sustainable Sustainable Development Benefits?'. Centre for Development Benefits of Clean Development Climate Change Economics and Policy,Working Mechanism Projects: Development of a New Paper 3, 1-22. Methodology for the Text Analysis of the Project Welton, S., Biasutti, M. and Gerrard, M.B. 2014. Legal Design Documents Submitted for Validation. and Scientific Integrity in Advancing a "Land Roskilde, Denmark: UNEP Collaborating Centre on Degradation Neutral World". New York: Sabin Energy and Environment, 1-19. Center for Climate Change Law, 1-54. Orr. B.J., Cowie, A.L., Castillo Sanchez, V.M., Chasek, Woodfine .A. 2009. 'The Potential of Sustainable Land P., Crossman, N.D., Erlewein, A., Louwagie, G., Management Practices for Climate Change Maron, M., Metternicht, G.I., Minelli, S., Tengberg, Mitigation and Adaptation in Sub-Saharan Africa. A.E., Walter, S. and Welton, S. 2017. Scientific Berne: TerrAfrica, 1-81. Conceptual Framework for Land Degradation Zhan, X., Sohlberg, R.A., Townshend, J.R.G., Neutrality. Bonn, Germany: United Nations DiMiceli, C., Carrol, M.L., Eastman, J.C., Hansen, Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), M.C. and DeFries, R.S. 2002. Detection of land 1-98. cover changes using MODIS 250 m data. Remote Pongratz, J., Reick, C., Raddatz, T. and Claussen, M. Sensing of Environment 83:336-350. 2008. A Global Land Cover Reconstruction AD 800 Zomer, R.J., Trabucco, A., Bossio, D.A. and Verchot, - 1992 Technical Description. Hamburg: Max L.V. 2008. Climate change mitigation: a spatial Planck Institute for Meteorology, 1-83. analysis of global land suitability for clean Safriel, U.N. 2007. The Assessment of Global Trends in development mechanism afforestation and Land Degradation', in M. V. K. Sivakumar and N. reforestation. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Ndiang'ui (eds.), Climate and Land Degradation, Environment 126: 67-80. New York: Springer, 2-38. Stocking, M., Bojo, J. and Abel, N. 1990. Financial and Economic Analysis of Agroforestry: Key Issues', in R. T. Prinsley (ed.), Agroforestry for Sustainable Production: Economic Implications. London: The Commonwealth Secretariat, 15-119.

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 964