CHAPTER - II PATTERNS OF VISUAL EXPRESSIONS: SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DIMENSIONS.

A broad survey of the diverse visual evidences in the different media for the time span ranging from the pre-historic visual evidences in the form of rock-art down to the historical period i.e. circa 600-700 AD has unveiled, a plethora of therianthropic forms, both in the lithic, terracotta, ivory, as well as the metallic medium. Predominantly, in stone and terracotta, their representations in the other media are however sporadic. Majority of these depictions are carved relief slabs with instances of sculptures in the round too coming to light as also a handful of painted depictions. The terracotta depictions range from hand -modelled figurines to moulded plaques. The present chapter seeks to enumerate and elaborate upon the distribution of the diverse therianthropic figures in the visual language across space and time with a view to highlighting upon their specific chronological and regional provenance's for the period between circa 700 BC to AD 600-700, primarily from a pan-Indian perspective.

Accordingly, this broad time span is split into the following Phases: - Phase I (c. 700 BC - 324 BC) Phase II (c.321 - 184 BC) Phase III (circa Second to First centuries BC) Phase IV (circa First to Third centuries AD) Phase V (circa Fourth to Sixth centuries AD) While the broad regional zones encompass: - Northern India (Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi...) Central India (Madhya Pradesh) Eastern India (Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa) The Deccan (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andra Pradesh) Western India (Gujarat, Rajasthan) North West Frontier Region/Gandhara (Afghanistan, Pakistan) The present rather descriptive account concerned with the enumeration of the spatial and temporal patterning of the therianthropic data is unavoidable as, the 15

various arguments pertaining to the explanation of the ‘raison d'etre’ of the therianthropic form, in the visual language, mainly from an historical perspective, cannot be discussed in an empirical vacuum. An accompanying table (Table 2.1- 2.5) too provides a quick overview of the chronological and regional provenances of the diverse therianthropic figures. 16

VL AND TEMPORAL DIS I RIBUHON OF KS KEY

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HUMAN-FACHD UIRD"

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ZODIACAL, SKJNS______17

KEV t a b u : 2.1 A - GANGETIC DOAB B - CENTRAL INDIA SPA UAL AND ri:MroRAL Dis rm iu n lOiN of I K; 11 RES C - e a s t e r n INDIA D - DECCAN

E - WESTERN INDIA

F - NORTH WEST FRONTIER r e g io n

P H A S E

o

A B C D E 18

TABLE 2.2 A -G AN G ET iC d o a e B - c e n t r a l INOIA SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DLSTRIBIJTION OF FIGURES C - E/'STERr'J INDIA D - DECCAN

F - WESTERN INDIA

F- NORTH WEST FRONTIER REGIQM

P H A S E

II

A B C D E 19

KEY TABLE 2.3 A -GANGETIC DOAB B - CEHTRAL INDIA SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF FIGURES C - EASTERN INDIA D - DECCAN

E - WESTERHlHDlA

F -NORTH WEST FKONTICR REGION

P H A 'VI'V 'Vl'V o o O 0 0 p p g o o S vv V vvv VVV vvv E

U _2i_ ^• m n HM XX X X XX X. X III c » > A B C D E 20

KEY- TABLE 2.4 A - GANGETIC DOAB B- c e n t r a l INDIA SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DLSl RIBIJTION OF FIGURES C - EASTERN INDIA D - DECCAN

E - WESTERN INDIA

F - NORTH WEST FRONTIER REGION

P • •• •• • • S' H ZSKI A CoXol HI I I S •f- -t- V yv V vv V vv E L/C/ U U [V-^ \JV \Ju IV 4/ >1/ aru7

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KEV- TAIH E 2.5 A GANGETIC DOAB SPATIAI. AND TKMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF B c e n t r a l INDIA FIGURES C EASTERN INDIA n DECCAN

E - WESTERN INi:>IA

F - NORTH WEST FRONTIER REGION

P H A S E V

B C D E 22

2.2 THERIANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE VISUAL

ART OF PHASE I: (700-324 BCI Pre-Maurya)

NORTHERN INDIA AND CENTRAL INDIA The specific therianthropic figures and their provenance's are as follows; - 1. 1] Animal faced mother goddesses: Such figurines fashioned in terracotta, hail from mainly especially brought to light during the course of excavations conducted at the Katra mound (Mathura). Four such therianthropic figurines are (Agrawala 1936a:13-16, pi.1,2-5) known, along with other anthropoid faced mother goddess figurines- all of which Agrawala classes as archaic and pre-Maurya‘^’. These fragmentary figures preserve only the bust portion, while only one specimen is fully preserved [Figs.42:o,a], Two of these figurines possess a beaked face, with the nasal area pinched out 'like a clumsy beak', a pair of perforations representing the nostrils, and a deep gash for a mouth [FIG.42:b,c] The fully preserved specimen, [FIG.42:o] has heavy breasts, sharply curved waist and wide hips. Similarly another terracotta beaked face mother-goddess also halls from Mathura, (lAR 1973-74; pl.XLIII, A) it's physiognomy akin to the figurines discussed above (Agrawala 1936a). Again, three such other figurines from Mathura (Agrawala, pi.II, 6-8) possess a nasal area resembling an animal muzzle and pierced with a pair of nostrils. Housed in the Patna museum (Gupta 1965;316, Nos.7818, 7014,6870, 7015, 7013, 6915) are some terracotta mother goddesses from Mathura having a beaked-face which Gupta at times describes as a pig-like snout. These flat­ bodied figures have punched decorations below the breasts. 2. 2] Goat-faced female figures; From Masaon (Ghazipur) (lAR 1964-65: pi,XXXVI, 15) is reported a terracotta female figure having a stylized goat-face, long, pendulous ears and applied breasts [FIG,44;a], Two other fragmentary female figurines from Mathura posses stylised goat faces, a wide gash for a mouth, square chin and prominently incised lozenge shaped eyes (Agrawala 1936a: pi, 1,4,5), 23

3. Human faced animal: Dated broadly to the period, early sixth century BC to early third century BC is an animal figurine of terracotta from Hastinapur, possessing a human face with the entire body replete with incised lines and punched circlets representing some feline creature [FIG. 13: a]. The figure (Lai 1954-55:83-84) with prominently marked lozenge shaped eyes is also pierced with a transverse hole probably meant for its suspension.

CENTRAL INDIA No therianthropic figures seem to have come to light from Central India during this Phase. EASTERN INDIA Therianthropic figures of this region include : 1. Animal faced male figures: Made of terracotta these figurines were brought to light during the course of excavations at (Sinha and Narain 1970:41, pi. X, 1 -3). The head having a conical bump towards the left possesses a large, rounded and prominent nose resembling somewhat the muzzle of a dog or bear. Punched circlets indicate the eyes, breasts and genitalia. 2. Bird-faced mother goddess: From Pandu Rajar Dhibi (Burdwan, West Bengal) hails a terracotta figurine possessing a beaked face and is dated to the early historical period corresponding to the N.B.P.W. (Biswas 1981a: 153). 3. Serpent figurines: Several fragmentary as well as fully preserved serpentine figurines of terracotta have come to light from a number of excavated sites in this region. These serpent figurines have a lozenge shaped hood, slim neck, whose contours curve inwards to mark a narrow waist, and then flare outwards, to give shape to a broad, heavy and highly exaggerated hips, supported on a pair of stylized stubby legs. These flat figurines are decorated on the neck and hips with incised decorations whose arrangement varies from figure to figure. Majorities of such fragmentary figurines hail from (Sinha & Roy 1969:169, pi. LX, 2,3,9,14) Sonepur (lAR 1956-57:pl. XXII, XXV), Pataliputra (Sinha & Narain 1970:144, pi. XIV, A, 1,2), Chirand (lAR 1964-65:pl. VIII). Some fully preserved figurines hail from Champa (lAR 1971- 72: pi. XIII, B) and Patna too. The Patna figurine [Pl.XXV.B] although dated to c. 400-200 BC (Dhavalikar 1970:50) may be assigned to the present Phase I 24

(Pre-Maurya) due to the comparative parallels in terms of the delineation of the iconography of the present Patna figure with somewhat similar specimens from Champa [FIG.48: e] and West Bengal [FIG.47: d]. These comparative parallels pertain to the rendering of the applied punched, closely spaced eyes, apical portion of the hood curving forwards, narrow slim neck, with a punched circlet below, probably indicating the navel and akin to the figures from Chandraketugarh (West Bengal) having the usual broad, rounded hips, with outwardly thrusting contours (giving the hips a somewhat oblong shape) and supported further, on a pair of prominent stubby legs separated by an arch. Two such somewhat fully intact serpent figurines hail from Chandraketugarh (West Bengal) (lAR 1957-58:151, pi. LXXIII; Biswas 1981a; 71, 157, pi. VII). A noteworthy feature of these serpent terracotta figurines is the greatly over­ emphasized hips symbolizing fertility. Interestingly nagas as deities were worshipped by, barren women for procuring progeny. In the light of the above physical feature and it’s significance it would be more appropriate to designate such terracotta therianthropic serpentine figures as representing female serpent deities {nag!) and not naga figures as is normally the case.

NORTHWEST FRONTIER REGION Not many therianthropic figures are known from this Phase. The rare ones are- 1. Human-headed Scorpion figures: Excavations at Taxila (Marshall 1951:1, 677, pi 207, 7) i.e. Mahal site, in Sirkap brought to light an oval seal of pale onyx, dated by Marshall to the seventh or sixth centun/ BC and assigned to Assyrian manufacture. Depicted on the base is a winged, scorpion god having a human head in front of whom stands a worshipper to right, wearing an Assyrian costume. 2 Centaur type - Human torso and horse bodied: This type winged, constituting one of the earliest evidences hails from the mound of Sirkap, Taxila and is represented on an oval sea! of milky white glass dated to not later than the fourth-fifth centuries BC (Marshal! 1951:11, 681,pi. 207, 14). 25

2 . 3 THERIANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE VISUAL ART OF PHASE II : (321-184 B.C/ MAURYA PERIOD)

NORTHERN INDIA AND CENTRAL INDIA Figures of this Phase hailing from the Northern India constitute the following- 1. Horned, animal-eared head: Excavations at (Hargreaves 1914- 15:112, pi, LXVI, 3) brought to light one such male head endowed with fawn­ like ears, as also the curved horns of a ram [F1G.72.!]. 2. Animal faced mother goddess: Like the previous Phase I, the visual representations of such terracotta mother goddesses continue, during the present Phase too, as evident from a figurine from Ahichchhatra (BareiJiy) (Agrawala 1947-48:104, pi. XXI, A, 1). The damaged face exhibits traces of a pinched nasal portion representing a stylized goat face. 3. Animal faced male figure: One such figurine of terracotta from Kausambi, housed in the Patna Museum possesses an animal face that is unidentifiable specifically (Gupta 1965:111, 302, No.7902). 4. Serpent figurines: Terracotta serpent figurines seemingly unknown from this region during Phase I, now come to light as evident from some fragmentary remains from Ganwaria (Dist. Basti), preserving »nly the lozenge shaped hoods (lAR 1976-77:52,pi.XLVI). Lithic representations of colossal anthropoid riaga figures characterized by a certain earth bound volume also commence during this Phase as evident from Mathura and datable as eariy as the 3"^ century BC (Joshi 1979a: 17, pl,1, MM no, 17, 1303). 5. Animal faced human figures- sphinx like: Certain fragmentary stone discs from Kausambi (Chandra 1970a: 39,40,pi. VI, 17&pl. VII, 16) are carved with representations of mythical figures resembling a sphinx to an extent. These figures with an anthropoid face and neck attached to the body of a lion are further rendered in a prancing and gamboling manner [Pl.XLII.A]. One of these fragments also preserves the mother goddess standing nude facing to front and commonly seen on other such stone discs. ^

CENTRAL INDIA Again, just like the previous Phase no therianthropomorphic figures come to light from the present Phase II. 26

EASTERN INDIA Eastern Indian therianthropic depictions of Phase II pertain to the fofiowing- 1. Horned female head: From Bulandibagh is reported a female head of terracotta (Gupta 1965:111.200,No.4178) sporting an elaborate hairdo from which emerges a pair of covered lateral horns. 2. Serpent figurines: Like the previous Phase, terracotta serpent figurines continue to find their way in the visual medium of this Phase. These figurines mostly of a fragmentary nature have been brought to light mainly from Vaishali (Sinha&Roy 1969:170,169,pi.LX, 1,3,9,12-14; Krishna &Mishra 1950:55,pi. XVII,A,1-3) and Sonepur (lAR 1956-57: pl.XXV,1,6) too. In their iconography these resemble the Phase-1 serpent goddess figurines although the legs are minute stubs. Another somewhat crudely rendered serpentine figurine, whose iconography varies from the figures discussed so far hails from Vaishali (Krishna Deva&Mishra 1950:pLxvii, A,1), The rounded bead is pierced with a pair of holes representing the eyes and a broken protrusion above the head probably represents the pointed apical portion of the hood. The lower body assumes a box like shape. Besides a unique representation of an anthropoid naga figure from Vaishali (K. Deva&Mishra 1950: 52-53, pl.XIV 8,2) preserves only the beautifully modelled face wearing a peaked headgear. The ophidian nature is indicated by the serpent figures having raised hoods depicted as emerging from the lower borders of the peaked cap of the figure [FIG.48:I]. From the Bulandibagh excavation too was uncovered the terracotta head of an anthropoid serpent goddess (Page 1926-27: 39, pi. XXXI, d) whose human face is framed with serpente hoods of which only the right portion is extant today. 3. Garuda: Hailing from Bulandibagh (Jayaswal 1934:2-3) is a steatite mould used for casting seals that outlines a bird resembling largely a Garuda or Supama, with the bald head sporting a prominent cuda (crest). 4. Winged Male/Female figures: The present Phase also brings to light another exclusive category of figures winged, either male or female and in some cases, their exact sex being unidentifiable. These are largely executed in the form of terracotta plaques. Excavations at Basarh (CooMaraswamy 1927:pl.V,16) brought to light a number of such heavily adorned figures standing on a lotus pedestal and holding long-stemmed lotus flowers by their 27

sides [PI. LV.B], Their wings emerge from behind the shoulders. Another plaque from the same site (Spooner 1913-14:116.pl.XLIV,No.470) preserves only the bust portion of a heavily turbaned figure having leaf-shaped wings . In addition, a plaque brought to light during the course of the subsequent excavations conducted at Vaishali (K.Deva&Mishra 1950:52,pi xiv,B,1) bears a certain similarity to the above plaques Here a winged, turbaned female clasps her large disc-shaped earrings with the thumb and forefinger [FIG.-36:g]. A terracotta plaque from Tamluk (Biswas 1981a:185,pl.L,a) depicts a flat-chested winged figure, bearing a striking similarity to the Basarh figures in the delineation of its iconography. 5. Human-faced Animal: From Vaishali (Sinha&Roy 1969:162, pl.LI,A,2) comes a hand- modelled, fragmentary terracotta figurine of an animal possessing a human visage He wears an elaborate coiffure with a disc-like adornment that is akin to the ear ornament [F!G.13:b],

2.4 THERIANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE VISUAL

ART OF PHASE III : ( c . 2^° TO CENTURIES B.C/SUNGA PERIOD)

NORTHERN INDIA AND CENTRAL INDIA Therianthropic figures of the Northern India indude- 1. Goat-faced male/female figures: Goat-faced terracotta figurines seemingly elusive during the previous Phase-ll come to light during the present Phase-lll mainly from the Mathura region. These include a terracotta depiction with a child on the hips (MM. No.42-43.3031); the head of a goat from the Manasawala well, Palikhera-Mathura, (MM.No.15.1001) possessing anthropomorphised facial features with a fan-shaped crest between the horns; a fragmentary male figure having a stylized goat face and long pendulous ears with lower body missing (lAP. 1954-56;pl.xxvi, .A). From Sonkh (Harte! 1993:104, pi.68) was unearthed a goat-fac«d male figure of terracotta, horned, dated to the Mitra period and wearing a double stringed necklace. Some other sites of the Gangetic Doab that have yielded such terracotta figures include Kausambi (Sharma 1969:60,pi.XXiX,8,1) Masaon (lAR 1964- 65:43,pl.XXXVI,6) Atranjikhera (lAR 19e2-63:p!,LXVill,A,5) and Sringaverpur- 28

Allahabad (lAR 1978-79:pl.XXIX,D). The Kausambi and Sringaverpur specimens however are anthropoid and not goat-faced but possess the long and dangling ears of a goat incised with long grooves. From the site of Ganwaria (Basti, Uttar Pradesh) identified with the ancient town of Kapilavastu (Srivastava 1986:62) was unearthed a large number of terracotta figures both male and female (Srivastava. pis LIV.A.2-6;LV,A.6; LXXI.A) with a unique depiction of two pairs of male and female figures [PI.XXX.B] rendered as, a single unit in a row, their arms stretched outside ways 2. Serpent figurines: Terracotta figurines of the serpent goddess type are known from Mathura (Kala 1993:23,pl.33), Sravasti (Sinha 1967:54,pl.XIV,7), and Prahladpur (Narain&Roy 1968:46,pi.XVIII,18).The rendering of their iconographies are similar to such terracotta serpentine figures known from other Northern and Eastern Indian sites with lozenge shaped hoods, exaggerated hips and minute stubby legs The Mathura and Sravasti figurines are fragmentary unlike the fully preserved Prahladpur specimen The fragmentary terracotta bust of a serpent goddess of unknown provenance housed in the State Museum, Lucknow (Kala 1993:23,pi.32) has a unique iconography. The figure with prominent applied breasts has a snake hood shaped in a circular fashion behind the head. A new category of visual depictions, illustrating mythical legends relating to the Buddha and the naga and largely of a narrative character, also emerge during Phase III from this region. These include the stone slab from Mathura (A/agar 1943:64,pl.l,3) depicting a riaga couple and their companions emerging from a lotus filled lake. This relief is identified as representing the story of the novice Sumana and the naga king Pannaka of the Anottattva Lake In the Himalayas. Here, the naga Pannaka as also the other naga's are depicted in full anthropomorphic form with a serpent hood. It was during this period (i.e. rule of the Mitra dynasty) that the foundations for the apsidal naga temple at Sonkh were laid (Harfel 1993). 3. Winged male/female figures: A new category of figures unknown from Northern India during the previous Phase II are the terracotta plaques of winged figures, male or female hailing from sites such as Kausambi and Mathura. But it is from the site of Kausambi that several such representations are known having diverse iconographic forms. The first type, (Auboyer 1981:figs 403,404; Kala 1993:28,pi 42,b) are figures depicted up to their waist 29

holding long-stemmed lotus flowers with wings that curve upwards. The background of the plaque, replete with dots or rosettes is further pierced with three holes on the upper side probably meant for suspension [Pl.LVII.A], Identified as male figures by scholars^ it is difficult to pinpoint the exact sex of these figures due to a lack of explicit differentiation in the delineation of the particular identifiable male/female physical features. The other type, from Kausambi (Kala 1950:72,pi.LI,2; Kala 1980:33,FIG. 75) depict heavily adorned standing males with leaf shaped wings, their right knee slightly flexed and arms akimbo holding a flower in the left hand. [FIG.37:1] Another damaged terracotta plaque (Kala 1980:34,FIG.78) depicts a winged figure wearing a crown made of square blocks and holding a bird (probably a peacock) which is perched on his left hand. [FIG.37:m]. Again belonging to a different iconographic tradition is the Kausambi, winged cherubic male seated astride on a peacock holding a fruit (Kala 1950:33,F1G.77) [FIG. 37;n]. Hailing from Mathura are three terracotta plaques depicting certain winged male figures heavily turbajned, with two of the figures holding a long bow [FIG.37:o] and are thus identified as representing Kama - God of Love (MM.No.38.2849; Nagar 1944:74-75,FIG.II; Agrawala 1987-89). One of the male figures here without the bow attribute is identified likewise (Agrawala 1987-89). Housed in the Patna museum is a Mathura winged terracotta female figurine, with a lotus bud in the background (Gupta 1965:111,330). Hailing from Musanagrar (Kanpur) is a terracotta plaque depicting a male figure with out-stretched wings. Dated to the early Kshatrapa period is the hand made terracotta headless female figure winged, from Sonkh with perforations above the breasts, the back and navel (Hartel 1993:105,pl.78) Another winged figure namely a yaksa also hails from Kausambi (Sharmal969:56,pi.XXV). 4. Human faced animal figures/sphinx like: Just like the previous Phase 11 that had provided evidences for such sphinx -like figures, during the present Phase too one comes across a carved stone slab from Kausambi (Iyer 1977:pl. 202) depicting the relief of a winged lion having an anthropomorphic face [Pl.XLIII.B]. A fragmentary slab from Mathura (MM.No.52.3625; Huntington 1985: pi.8.41) is carved with four mythical sphinx-like figures paying their obeisance's to a ^ivalinga, enclosed within a railing under a tree. Unlike the above figure from Kausambi or the contemporaneous figures from Central or 30

Eastern India, these figures display a human trunk attached to the body of a lion with a pair of human hands too bearing various offerings. (FIG.14:I<). 5. Kinnara figures: Another new category of figures are certain aerial beings referred to as kinnaras here. One such pair carved on a slab from Vrindaban, Mathura (Shanna 1984;273,FIG.68,MM.No,10.130) is iconographically Inconsistent with contemporaneous kinnara figures known from Madhya Pradesh and the Deccan . Here the garland bearing kinnaras flanking a central have a fully anthropomorphic body, with a pair of wings appended to their shoulders indicating their aerial nature p i. XVIII.A], The position of their legs further accentuates their flying attitude. Housed in the Patna Museum (Gupta 1965 : III, 295) and hailing from Kausambi, is a winged female figure identified as a terracotta kinnari plaque. From Sarnath too hails a carved relief depicting the worship of the stupa of Ramagrama where towards the upper side occurs a winged hybrid kinnara with an avian lower body (Oertel 1904- 05;88,F1G.12). 6. Animal- faced mother goddesses: Such figurines in terracotta are known from Ahichchhatra and Mathura. The Ahichchhatra figurine (Agrawala 1947- 48:108,pi.XXXI,A,57) has emphatic avian facial features. The Mathura mother goddess possesses in contrast, somewhat similar features but in addition carries a baby (Agrawala 1936a;32,FIG. 41,MM.No.2390). 7. Mermen/Triton like Piscine figures: A variety of such fish/ma/fara-tailed figures are known. A railing medallion carving of 1®’ century B.C (Mishra 1981:133, pl.77) depicts one such human torsoed figure with bovine ears. The sinuous lower limbs assume the form of long colts whose ends culminate into dTagon/makara heads [Pl.XLVIII.A]. A Sarnath [FIG.5:a] railing pillar medallion (Sahni 1914) as also a fragment of a torana architrave from Kausambi (Chandra 1970a:Cat.No.77,pl.XXX,77a) depicts the figure of a memian, having twin fish tails thus representing a triton like figure [PI.XLVII.B], The Sarnath figure also dons a crown on the head. A circular hollow plaque from Ahichchhatra (Agrawala 1947-48:162,pi.LVII,B,no. 262) happens to be a solitary depiction of a male bust, whose lower limbs appear to be fully inserted into the wide open mouths of makara figures, the tails curving upwards in a vertical fashion [FIG.5:d]. A torana relief from Mathura (Sharma 1984:FIG.73- 76;MM.No,M3) carved on both sides with the scenes from the life of the Buddha, depicts in the space towards each of the extremities a 31

merman/icthyocentaur. Winged, the figure also possesses a pair of reptilian fore and hind legs [FIGS. 5:b, c]. A capital from the Chamunda Tila, Mathura depicts a corpulent yatea-like figure, headless, whose lower limbs appear to be fully thrust into the wide open mouths of makara figures [FIG.7:c], 8. ASvamukhT Yaksini: From Mathura (Mishra 1981:FIG.81) hails one of the earliest depictions of the Padakusalamanava Jataka whose protagonist is the Asvamukhi Yaksini. Here a mare-headed female figure faces the male figure (i.e. the Brahmin youth) who holds a cloth bundle [PI. V.A], The yaksini appears to plead to the youth towards whom she has taken a fascination to stay back with her. Likewise the terracotta plaque figure from the same site, but housed in the Baroda museum (Agrawala 1955-56:pl.XII) depicts the mare-faced Yaksini standing in a languid manner and gazing fondly at the male figure, standing closeby [PI. V.B]. 9. Rsva^fhaa: Another Jataka finding visual depiction at Mathura (Sharma 1979c:20-21,pl.XXXVIII,2) is the Rsyasrnga tale. A railing post divided into four panels vertically, portrays the following episodes of the tale- such as the conception and birth of the human child Rsyasrnga by a doe; followed by the depiction of the seduction of the young Rsyasrnga by the celestial nymph Alambusa, who is sent by Indra. A faint horn-like protrusion (not very prominent) is noticeable above the head of the lad who is identified as Rsyasrnga. 10. Human torsoed, horse-bodied figure- Centaur-like: A circular terracotta plaque from Mathura (Agrawala 1936a:32,pl.XI,37) slightly damaged, encloses within its beaded border the depiction of a female centaur-like figure. She wraps her left arm around the male figure astride on her back who in turn also embraces her [FIG.2:g]. Another circular plaque again depicting a female centaur-like figure is housed in the National Museum of Oriental Art, Rome (Srivastava 1991:15,FIG.6). It must have probably hailed from Northern India i.e. Uttar Pradesh and not Central India as suggested by Srivastava. Here the female centaur-like figure is seen a bowl, to the male rider astride her on her back [FIG.2:h]. 11. Eaqle-Headed human figures: A 1®* century B.C solid, cup shaped mould of soft stone from Kausambi depicts two eagle-headed figures represented as dancing, one of these being a female figure. The entire scene is identified as representing a celebration in honor of Dionysos, the Greek god of wine and 32

fertility. This mould probably was brought to Kausambi by a pilgrim from the North-West (Kala, 1984-85:69, FIG.1). 12. Balarama: Both epigraphic and sculptured evidences, of the vrisni hero Balarama are known from Mathura. The Mora well inscription (Mathura) refers to the stone shrine (Saila-devagnha) erected during the reign of Mahakshatrapa Sodasa and enclosing the images of the bhagavata vrsni PanchavTras (Joshi 1979a). The eariiest visual evidence constitutes a sculpture in the round, of a two-armed Balarama (dated 2"'' century BC.) coming from Jansuti, [FIG.53:c] Mathura (Joshi 1972:90-91). His head is shielded by a serpent hood and he holds the attributes of plough and a small club. From Benaras (Joshi 1979a:65, pl.9) comes a fragmentary image, preserving only the head shielded by a partly damaged serpent hood canopy. A lion face occurs to the left of Balarama's visage which may have perhaps formed the top portion of the deity's plough, an attribute that finds mention in the Mahabharata (Joshi 46). 13. Therianthropic ya/csa-Miscellaneous figures: From Mathura (Mishra 1981: 139) hails a terracotta vase with the snout fashioned in the form of a pot­ bellied yaksa having a leonine, grotesque face; as also the representation of a frog bodied yak§a delineated on a railing pillar medallion (Mishra 132). Housed in the Allahabad museum are, some terracotta figurines of a mesasringa yaksa from Kausambi (Mishra 133). Likewise Gupta reports the terracotta head of a demon from Mathura (Gupta 1965:111,333-334) in the Patna museum having the features of a ram.

CENTRAL INDIA Depictions of therianthropic figures from Central India constitute the following - 1. Naaa-NaainT figures: Besides the terracotta depictions of serpent goddess figurines known from Northern India and Eastern India with the lozenge shaped hoods and exaggerated broad hips of the lower body. Phase 111 also marks the beginning of representing serpentine figurines in the lithic medium, in a novel manner. Now a fully anthropomorphic figure is converted to represent a naga/naginT, by affixing an appendage of snake hoods shielding the anthropoid head. This type becomes the iconographic convention for the delineation of naga-nagini figures for the present as well as subsequent Phases too, as evident in the context of several Buddhist monuments and 33

rarely, in the context of Brahmanical monuments. Besides one also comes across fully theriomorpic depictions of the naga with multiple hoods. Central India however shows no precedent for the terracotta serpentine figurines as seen in Northern and Eastern India sites [FIG.47:d], Some of the earliest evidences for these naga-riagini figures are executed on the stupa railing remains from Barhut in Eastern Madhya Pradesh and (Vidisa dist). Naga-riagini depictions of Barhut are mainly anthropomorphic figures with the serpent hoods individually delineated emerging in a large number of instances from the turban adorning the head. Naga representations from this site pertain to the inscribed 'Chakavaka nagaraja’ standing with hands clasped on a pedestal whose face, is carved with lotus blooms and vines (Bachhofer 1929:1, pi. 18); the riagafaja of the railing medallion [PI. XLVI.A] flanked by cauff-bearing mermaids possessing fish tails (VOgel 1926:pl.ll,b); the inscribed panel depicting the Nagaraja Erapata worshiping the Lord (Bachhofer 1929:pl. 23;Vogel 1926:39, f.n.2) of the Pasenjit Pillar. Here the nagaraja is depicted thrice both in the theriomorphic form as emerging from a lake and in the anthropoid form. The second panel of the Vidura Panc;lita Jataka (Bachhofer 1929: 24-25) where, the yak§a and sage appear before the naga couple, the naginJ is depicted with a single hood only; the inscribed panel of the Najaraja MuchHinda depicts a polychephalous theriom.orphic naga shielding an alt^r, bearing foot-print impressions (Chandra 1970a:42 Cat.No.21, pl.lX); and the depiction of a polycephalus theriopomorphic naga in conversation with an ascetic seated in front of his hut identified as probably illustrating the Mani-Kantha Jataka (Vogel 1926:33). From the vicinity of the Sanchi Stupa I! in Western Madhya Pradesh hail some depictions of naga figures such as a circular medallion (Marshall & Foucher 1940:lll,pl.LXXV,6b; pi. LXXX, 32a) of the ground balustrades where a naga in anthropoid form, has the headed shielded by a five-headed serpent hood canopy. Further his semicircular and sinuous coils are depicted to either sides of his human form covering the entire background m.edallion space; or the naga in fully ophidian form, polycephalous; while a nagf (Marshall & Foucher 1940:111, pl.XCI.SSc), with three hoods and her arms raised to shoulder level is again depicted on the ground balustrade of Sanchi Stupa II. F.rom the village of Gurgaon (Williams 1976:176-178) (situated halfway between Firozepur and Sanchi) and Nagouri (1 Km. West of Sanchi) hail inde,nendent images of standing naga-naginl couples (Williams, 176, 178-179, figs.11-12) anthropoid in form, with serpent hood canopy [F!G.49:Q] and holding a -2A

lotus flower in case of the riaga and a rosary in case of the nagl. To either sides of the body are depicted serpent coils which is absent in case of the Nagouri riaga images. ^ GarudalSuoama figures: Both visual and inscriptional evidences are known from Madhya Pradesh - especially from the region of Vidisa, which has yielded some other associative material evidences too. Dated to circa 140-130 BC is one of the earliest inscriptional references, of the erection of a "Garuda- dhvaja" in honour of Vasudeva. It is embodied in the dedication inscribed on the monolithic column at Besnagar by Heliodorus, a professed Bhagavata and an ambassador of king Antialkides of Taxila (CooMaraswamy 1927:24). Since the extant inscribed column does not preserve its capital today, one is not in a position to talk about the iconography of the Garuda-dhvaja that could probably have topped the present monolithic column.*^ The stump of another column found at Besnagar (Bhandarkar 1913-14:191) is engraved with an inscription that mentions the dedication of a Garuda standard, in the premises of the best temple of Bhagavata (Vasudeva), by Bhagavata, son of Gotami, during the 12*^ regnal year of Maharaja Bhagavata, whom Bhandarkar identifies as the last prince of the Sunga family and who, also finds a mention in the PuranasA Sanchi Stupa II ground balustrade relief depicts a Garuda in fully avian form, in profile clutching a serpent in the beak whose long coils are wound around the bird’s body (Marshall & Foucher 1940:pl. LXXX1,35b). 3. Winged figure: The depiction of the Vidura Pandita Jataka at Barhut (Bachhofer 1929:24-25) depicts the scene of the wonderful ride through the air where, the yaksa seated astride on a horse is provided with a pair of wings [FIG.37:b]. A panel from Barhut (Majumdar 1937:1,44) described by the accompanying inscription as the announcement of Arhad Gupta pertaining to the future inauguration of the Law of the Buddha in the great assembly of the Gods represents the angel Arhad Gupta as winged. 4. Human faced animal figures-sphinx like: Such figures appear to have been a popular motif at Barhut as evident from a number of such depictions, on the railing coping stones, including a pillar capital. Like the Kausambi sphinx-like figures of the previous Phase II the standing sphinx from Barhut too are an animated and frolicsome lot. The coping sphinx like figures [FIG. 13: c] either form part of a frieze depicting lions and a gryphon standing to either sides of a raised stone seat placed beneath a tree (Coo/Waraswamy 1927:pl.lll,5); or 35

form part of an undulating lotus rhizome (CooMaraswamy, pi. XLVI.186); or are seated in a crouching manner [FIG. 13rd] with a forehead fringe atop a pillar (CooMaraswamy, pi.IV, 9). One of these sphinx-like figure possesses upraised wings and a wavy, flowing thicl< beard [FIG.13:g]; while another gamboling figure (CooMaraswamy, pl.XLII!,159) however possesses the thick set body of a bull with a bearded human face [FIG.13:e]. Housed in the Allahabad Museum is a fragmentary capital that depicts a badly abraded sphinx like figure with a rider astride on its back (Chandra 1970a:47,Cat.No.38, pi.XIV). From the site of Sanchi Stupa II comes two such instances, one of which is a bearded human faced lion, crouching on his forelegs (Marshall&Foucher 1940:111, p!.LXXV,8a); while the other depicts a bull [FlG.14:h] possessing a human face cocked to the left, horned, with a pair of bovine ears (Hamid et al :1922; 12). 5. Animal-eared vaksas: Instances of such type of figures are known from Barhut, where the naravahana of Kuvera yak^a carved on a railing pillar has ears resembling that of some feline creature (Bachhofer 1929;pl.19). The other representation is that of an elephant-eared yaksa, spewing foliage. Similarly a railing pillar lotus roundel depicts the bust of a ya/(?a-like figure endowed with pointed ears and adorned with heavy ear ornaments (ASFI,pl. 30c). 6. Kinnara figures: These hybrid aerial beings are mainly depicted with an anthropoid head, trunk and an avian lower body with clawed feet, heavy tail plumage and wings. These turbanned figures from Barhut hold garlands or other offerings in bowls or wicker baskets and are generally delineated in a flying posture. Usually depicted in pairs towards the uppermost portion of the relief panel, [PI.XVII.B] they are positioned to either sides of the symbolic representation of the Buddha such as the wheel, Stupa, tree, within railing (Bachhofer 1929:pl.23; Barua, 1934-37: 111, pi. Llll,155). Likewise, from the same site hail kinnaras depicted as flag standards. Carved on railing pillars, are the representations [FIG.30:a] of a female horse rider (Bachhofer 1929:pl.22) and a male horse rider (Huntington 1985:pl.59) both of whom hold such type of flags. Simultaneously from Barhut too are known aerial beings, depicted in a flying posture in fully anthropomorphic form but minus the usual avian features (Barua 1935-37; pl.XLVII,47). 36

7. Merman/Mermaid.-Piscine figures: The mount of the Ajakalaka yaksa carved on a railing pillar from Barhut has an anthropoid head and trunk attached to a fish-tail. His jaws are supported in the hands (Mishra 1981:115,FIG. 44). Another medallion from the same site depicts a nafirarSya flanked on the either side by cauit bearing mermaids [Pl.XLVI.A]. An ichthyocentaur-like figure (Barua 1934-37:pl. LIX) pnDvided with the hoofed forelegs of an animal is also known. Although one rarely comes across the triton like representation at Barhut as noticeable in the Gangetic Doab having bifurcated fishtails as the lower body, interestingly a medallion representation from Sanchi SfDpa II, (Marshall & Foucher 1940: pl.LXXXVIII, 75a) in the delineation of its imagery shares some affinities with the triton like figures or nnerman with twin fish tail limbs [FIG.5:f]. This representation depicts a female torso with a pair of arc­ shaped wings instead of anms, and the lower body below the waist is fashioned into a pair of bifurcated arc-shapes from which emerge vines of foliage with flower buds and blooms. The arrangement of the elements of the vegetal/faunal lower body with the triangular shaped loin- cloth bears a striking resemblance to triton figures known from Sarnath and Kausambi. Housed in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Majumdar 1937:1, 26-27) is a rail pillar depicting a female figure standing on a human-headed, ma/cara-bodied and tailed figure endowed with the mane of a lion. 8. Asvamukhi Yaksini of the Padakusalamanava Jataka: During the Phase III, this Jataka also finds depiction in the visual language of this region besides the Gangetic Doab. A railing medallion from the precincts of Sanchi Stupa II (Marshall & Foucher 1940: pl.XC, 86b) depicts the scene of the abduction of the Brahmin youth, who is represented as seated astride on the hips of the horse-headed Yaksini[P\. IV.A]. 9. Rsvasrinaa-. From Barhut hails an inscribed relief medallion (Cunningham 1879:pl.XXVI, 7) depicting three episodes from the Jataka tale in the same medallion. These scenes pertain to the conception of the doe, the birth of the human child and Rsyasringa being received by the hermit. Towards the top is represented a grown up Rsyasringa wearing the garb of a hermit, with a slight protruding horn marking his forehead- an inheritance from his doe mother. 10. Human torsoed-horse bodied:centaur-like figures: Representations of such figures both male and female are depicted on the railings of the Sanchi Stupa II with a human rider astride on their backs too. Such figures are referred to 37

as, "Kinnara-Mithuna" by Agrawala (1947-48), While one of the medallions [PI. VIII.A] depicts a female centaur with a male rider on her back (Marshall & Foucher 1940:pl.LXXXIX, 81b); the other medallion [PI. VII.B] on the contrary depicts a female rider astride on the back of a centaur (Marshall & Foucher, pl.LXXV, 7b); the last medallion [Pi. IX.A] devoid of any surface ornamentation Is a centaur-like figure with a female rider (Biswas 1981b FIG.563). Interestingly both the figures are entirely indigenous in the representation of their physiognomy and imagery. 11. Balarama: One of the earliest depictions of this vrsn/ hero hails from Tumain, Madhya Pradesh (Joshi 1979a 80, pls.8a,8c). Two-handed, with the usual attributes of plough, club, or pestle, the head is shielded by a serpent hood while the reverse side of the image is carved with serpent coils. 12. Yaksa with elephant limbs: The ground balustrade of Sanchi Stupa II contains a medallion enclosing a yaksa squatting on his elephant feet with the raised hands holding lotuses (Marshall & Foucher 1940:pl.XCI 88a); while from Barhut [FIG.71:h] too hails one such medallion delineating an elephant limbed yaksa (Bolon 1992:pl.120).

EASTERN INDIA

With regard to the Phase III Eastern Indian therianthropic figures, the following figures are encountered in the visual medium- 1. Goat faced/qoat-eared figures: A terracotta figure with stylised goat face, and goat ears hails from Balirajgarh, Madhubani district (lAR 1974-75:pt.XII,A). A terracotta female figure with an anthropoid face and the long, pendulous ears of a goat and crest above the head (Sinha 1994:pI.XVlll,A,FIG.2); as also a goat-faced female terracotta figurine (Sinha, pl.XVIIl,B,FIG.5) hail from Chirand, Saran district. 2. Serpent figures: Terracotta representations of female serpent divinities continue during Phase III, as evidenced from the fragmentary remains from Vaishali (K.Deva&Mishra; 1950:55, pl.XVII,A; Sinha&Roy 1969 169,170, pl.LX,1,7,10,12,13,); the site of Lauriya-Nandangarh, Champaran district (Mukhopadhyaya 1977:pl.XV, 6a,b) characterised by highly pronounced hips. Hailing from Rajagriha and dated to c. century B.C is a hood with the tendon below that probably served to affix the hood, to the naga’s body, which 38

is missing today (Majumdar 1937:1,73). A mutilated naga sculpture housed in the Bhubaneshwar Museum, has the head and part of left shoulder missing. His ophidian character is emphasized by the horizontally arranged coils on the reverse, protruding outwards. 3. Winged male/female figures: Terracotta plaques depicting winged male or female figures perceptible from the preceeding Phase persist in the visual language of Phase III, with some of these figures displaying certain new iconographic types compared to the Phase II depictions. From Balirajgarh (Madhubani district) hail, two such plaques depicting winged male figures. One of these figures [FIG.36: h] holds a dagger in the raised right hand with a makara rendered to his left side, who may be perhaps the object of his aggression (lAR 1962-63:pl. XI, c). The other plaque (lAR 1962-63;pl. XI,B) on the contrary displays a winged male, heavily turbanned, with the remains of a long stemmed lotus distinct towards the right side. From Lauriya Nandangarh (Mukhopadhyaya 1977:33,pl.XIV,2a,b) hail terracotta plaques depicting winged male figures holding long stemmed lotus flowers [PI. LVI.B]. The site of Chandraketugarh too has yielded such figures like the ample hipped, winged, female figure donning a bifurcated, peaked crown, with a diagonal sash adorning the chest (Biswas 1981a:186). The other is a somewhat damaged female figure preserving only the torso and the left wing whose tapering ends sharply curl inwards to form a coil. From the figure’s peaked, bifurcated crown emerge three long pin-like ornaments [Pl.LVII.B]. Besides a terracotta plaque of a turbaned, winged male, wearing disc earrings and an animal skin draped over the left shoulder [FIG.36:j] is also known from the same site (Pal 1986:142-143). From Tamluk comes a damaged plaque depicting a winged male figure his left hand holding a bird and the right hand adorned with heavy wristlets (Mandal 1987:25). 4. Kinnara figure: A mutilated plaque from Tamluk (Mandal 1987:27) depicts a nude, winged male figure in a flying attitude placed to the left side of an altar. He appears to be showering flowers with his extended right hand. Probably this figure represents a kinnara whose iconography is unlike the usual hybrid kinnara representations. From Bodhgaya (Bachhofer 1929:pl.42) hails the representation of a hybrid, winged kinnara, holding a garland with both hands. Another crudely rendered relief carving of a kinnara of the hybrid type, with 39

bovine ears and avian lower body and holding a garland halls from the Khandagiri caves of Orissa. 5. Human faced animal/sphinx like figures: The site of Bodhgaya has yielded some representations of such sphinx-like figures. One such frieze (Hartel 1960:pl.l) carved with a series of gamboling animals and yaksas, also delineates a winged lion possessing an anthropoid face. Another freize of fabulous animals depicts a pair of rams and a lion all winged and human-faced (Majumdar 1937:69). Comparatively different from the above, is a lion framed within a lotus medallion having a human head sporting shortly cropped curly hair, and upraised tail [Pl.XLIII.A]. Another depiction from Bodhgaya is the pair seated back to back, crowning a pillar and supporting a wheel (Majumdar 1937:67). From Tamluk too hails one such depiction with the winged animal body rendered in profile, the anthropoid head possessing a pair of small, loop shaped ears and the curved horns of a ram. This figure appears to leap through the air the forelegs stretching fonwards (Mandal 1987:42). 6. Animal-eared vaksas: A Bodhgaya coping stone (CooMaraswamy 1928- 31:pl.50,2) delineates a bald-headed yak^a figure possessing a pair of stylized fan-shaped ears resembling those of an elephant and flanked on either sides by makara figures. Also, from the Khandagiri caves, Orissa hails the relief carving of a pot-bellied, seated, load bearing yaksa figure possessing long and pointed ear-lobes. 7. Animal faced mother-qoddesses: A hand-modelled terracotta figurine with bird-like facial features hails from Vaishali (K. Deva&Mishra 1961:50,pl.XII,2) with the nasal area pierced. 8. Merman figures: It is mainly the site of Bodhgaya that has yielded a number of such piscine therianthropic figures constituting a railing coping (Coo/Waraswamy 1935) representation which is a chubby figure with the caudal fin of the piscine lower body pointing upwards (PI. XLVII]; or a group of three ichthyocentaur-like figures paying their homage to the Buddha, symbolised by a tree within a railing; and finally the merman of the railing medallion who wraps his right arm around the upright fish tail, decorated with a rosette motif [Pl.XLVI.B]. 9. Asvamuktii Yaksini: The AsvamukhJ YaksinT of the Padakusalamanava Jataka also finds representation both at Bodhgaya and Pataliputra. A railing fragment unearthed at Pataliputra (Wadell 1903:36) is carved with a medallion depicting 40

the figures of a horse-headed Yaksini carrying a child on her hips and accompanied by the Brahmin youth. On the other hand, the Bodhgaya representation (CooMaraswamy 1935 pl.LII,3) depicts three scenes such as the abduction theme, where the horse headed YaksinT pulls at the Brahmin youth who resists by clinging to a tree [PI. IV.B]; the second scene, where they are engaged in a game of dice; while the third panel depicts the couple with their child (Mishra 1981:134). 10. Human faced, horse bodied, centaur-like figures: Such a figure carved on a railing medallion from Bodhgaya (Srivastava 1994) is somewhat comparable to the centaur-like figures of Sanchi, Stupa II. However, the Bodhgaya figure is depicted without a rider (PI. VIII.B). 11. Crocodile headed/Miscellaneous figure: From Chandraketugarh (West Bengal) comes a terracotta fragment (Biswas1981a:177) delineating a number of figures both theriomophic and therianthropic amongst which is depicted the crocodile-headed male figure [PI. LXIII.B], T h 8 ^ . \ 3 THE DECCAN

It is from the present Phase onwards that a number of therianthropic figures begin to emerge in the visual language for the first time from the Deccan region. These figures constitute- 1. Serpent figures: A theriomorphic naga, five hooded is carved In low relief on the left exterior wall of cave no. 4, at Pithalkhora (Deshpande 1959:75). The hoods are further bored with holes from which, water from the rock cut channels (situated here) probably oozed out. A similar naga is figured close to the water-cistern attached to the vihara at Kondivte too (Deshpande 1959:75,f.n.3). From the site of Pauni, Bhandara district (lAR 1968- 69:pl.XVII,A) was unearthed a railing pillar carved with the depiction of naga Muchilinda in theriomorphic form, five-hooded, shielding a raised seat and flanked by worshippers. On the fa?ade of the unfinished Buddha Lena caitya in the Manmodi hills at Junnar (Dehejia 1972:FIG.55) are carved a naga and Garuda in opposition, arranged on to either sides of the apex of the blind caitya arch. The naga in anthropomorphic form has the head shielded by a serpent hood canopy. The site of Dhulikatta, Andhra Pradesh (Krishna Sastry 1983:178) too has yielded two depictions of the zooidal naga Muchilinda, 41

shielding the lord Buddha represented symbolically by an altar with footprint impressions. The other carved relief (Krishna Sastry 1983:145) also depicts a chatra beneath the shade of a pipai tree that crowns the naga Muchilinda. 2. Sphinx-like figures: Some of the rock -cut caves of Western India contain depictions of the sphinx motif i.e. human faced crouching animal figures delineated especially on pillar tops, and very rarely on the surface walls of the caves. Such depictions hail from vihara no. IV, Pithalkhora (Deshpande 1959:73) where a pair of such figures seated back to back, one of them winged, is carved on the fagade; from Bhaja where four such figures, but with a complete human torso attached to an animal body, probably bovine are sculpted in high relief above the inverted bell capital of the pilaster to the left end of the back wall (FIG.15:m) (Vasant 1993). Of these figures, two are female. Besides these another depiction adorning an inverted kumbha shaped pillar no longer in situ today is also known from the same Bhaja vihara (Vasant 1993; Dehejia 1972:FIG.16). Interestingly the site of the Amravati stupa, Guntur district (Murthy 1985) yiekJs the depiction of a cherubic, human -faced lion with the upraised tail. 3. Animal-eared Yaksas: Such figures are known in plenty both from Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. A dvarapala yaksa from Pithalkhora cave no. 3 and at present housed in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (Deshpande 1959; Dehejia, FIG. 20) has the upper side of the helix fashioned as pointing upwards with a serrated edge, and wearing a heavy spiral earring {vapra kundala) in the left ear. Another yak§a from the same site housed in the National Museum (Deshpande 1959:82) bearing a shallow bowl over his head possesses ears described by Deshpande as sahku-kama, which finds a mention in the Mahamayuri text too. Likewise, the snub-faced yaksa figures carved on the stair raisers of the steps leading to cave no. Ill at Pithalkhora (Deshpande 1959:73) have pointed ears. A yak§a figure carved in high relief on the left sidewall of the caitya cave at Kondane (Parimoo 1991:l,pl.44) wearing an elaborate hairdo has pointed ears with the upper side of the helix serrated (PI. III.A). From Amravati too are known some instances of yaksa figures having the upper helix of their ears pointing upwards. One such carving (Sivaramamurti 1942:pl.XLIII, 2;pl.XVII,4; Barett 1954:pl.XXIX) depicts a pair of such seated yak^a figures bearing on their shoulders a thick garland, with one of these wearing a bird-shaped kundala in his ears. (FIG.73:b) Two other 42

yaksa figures one of them standing (Knox 1992) sprouting a vegetal scroil from his mouth; and the other seated with a jewelled ornate scroll emerging from the navel are (FIG.74:d) also endowed with similar ears (Knox 1992:213). The site of Dhulikatta.A.P, (Krishna Sastry 1983:178) has yielded a carved slab of a squatting load-bearing yaksa whose lower limbs resemble that of an elephant, while his ears are pointed (FIG.72;i) and are marked on the inside with incised oblique lines. Mention should also be made of the yak^a-Wke mount of the well-known Guddimallam §iva-lii)ga (Coo/Waraswamy 1927:pl.XVIII.66) whose ears too are pointed like the above figures. 4. Kinnara figures: Hybrid representations of kinnara figures resembling in their imagery the contemporary Central Indian depictions, have come to light from the precincts of the Pithalkhora caves too. One such fragmentary sculpture was found in the debris in front of cave no. IV (Deshpande 1959:84) bearing a bowl in one of his hands, with the other hand scattering its contents. The other depiction (in situ) is delineated above the entrance doorway of the cave no. IV, (Deshpande 1959:75; Harie 1986:pl.33) with figures of dignified dvarpWas depicted below. Such depictions of hybrid kinnaras also hail from the Amravati one of which is depicted en face (FlG.30.e) (Sivaramamurti 1942:pl.lV,30). The others fomi part of Buddhist scenes such as, the "enlightenment" relief slab, housed in the British Museum (Barett 1954: pl.v) flanking the stupa dome. All these figures hold a bowl containing floral offerings which they scatter with the other hand. 5. Elephant-headed yaksa: A rare and unique carving of a seated elephant­ headed, corpulent, yaksa figure (FIG.72:k) on a coping stone hails from Amravati (Sivaramamurti 1942:158), This coping actually depicts a thick undulating garland borne on the shoulders of yak^a figures. 6. Asvamukhi Yaksini: From the Deccan hails one such representation carved on the side wall of the Bhaj^ vihSra, containing the famous Indra and Surya panels (FIG.1:b). This figure has no connection whatsoever with the Asvamukhi of the Padakusalamanava Jataka, and appears to be some kind of a fairy/denizen of the forest (Coo/Waraswamy 1927:26). Standing below in front of the left hind leg of the elephant, with a male figure closeby, she is surrounded by various beasts - grotesque in their respective countenances and actions. 43

7. Donkey-faced vaksa: From Pauni (Bhandara district) was unearthed a railing pillar carved with the depiction of (FIG.72:j) a donkey faced yaksa figure (Deo & Joshi 1972:47,pi.xxv.1). 8. Elephant limbed vaksa: A load-bearing yak^a figure (FIG.72:i) possessing pointed ears and carved on a slab hailing from Dhulikatta (Karimnagar district, Andhra Pradesh) interestingly possesses lower limbs which resemble those of an elephant (KrishnaSastry 1983:178). 9. Balarama: Although actual visual evidences of this Brahmanical divinity are so far unknown from this region, interestingly a reference to the v[sni heroes Vasudeva and Samkar§ana besides a host of Vedic divinities, finds a mention in the invocatary lines of the famous Nanaghat cave epigraph (Sircar 1942:186,No.82) located near Junnar, Maharashtra, caused to be inscribed by the Satavahana queen Naganika. 10. Gamda: The figure of Garuda in juxtaposition with the naga is delineated as mentioned earlier, on the fa9ade of the unfinished Buddha Lena caitya, in the Manmodi hills at Junnar (Dehejia 1972:FIG.55). Gamda is depicted as a winged, fully anthropoid figure. 11. Lion-faced dwarf: A colossal standing yak^a hailing from some place around Bombay is flanked to the right by a female figure, with a male attendant on the left side who is carried on the shoulders of dwarfish figure having a huge lion face. (Agrawala 1951-52b: 187).

NORTHWEST FRONTIER REGION 1. Winged Greek deitv-Nike: Coins of several Indo-Greek and Scythian rulers of Bactria have representations of the winged deity - Nike as the reverse device. The robed, winged deity, stands to left or right holding a wreath and palm in one of the extended arms. (FIG.38:c) In a few rare cases however a winged Nike is represented as being supported on the extended right hand of Zeus seated on a high-backed throne as in the case of the coin of Antialkides (Gardiner 1886: pi. IV, 6, 7). Other rulers on whose coins the winged Nike device is noticeable are Eucratides, Anthialkides, Strato I, some coins of Menander, Epander, Antimachus II, Nicephorus, Philoxenus, Maues, Azes, Gondophares, Hooerkes, Eucratides,® Hermaios, Antimachus Theos, Abdagases, Orthagues, Pakores (Whitehead 1971:pl.XI,682, pi.XXX,7; 44

pi.XVI,72,76). A terracotta sealing from Sirkap (Taxila) depicts a winged Nike to left, holding a wreath in the extended hands (Marshall 1951:682,207, 29) 2. Balarama: Depictions of the vr$ni heroes - VSsudeva and Samkarsarja- Balarama as coin devices is distinct in case of the coins of some Indo-Greek rulers, unearthed during the course of excavations at Ai-Khanum in the Oxus valley (Gupta 1969:19). These numismatic evidences mainly constitute six rectangular bronze coins issued by Agathocleus (C. 180-165 BC). Balarama here incidentally is depicted minus the ophidian features. 3. Triton: A copper coin of the Indo-Bactrian ruler Hippostratos depicts on the obverse a triton holding a dolphin and rudder, with the reverse depicting a city goddess. (Whitehead 1971:77,pi.VIII,631). Also the obverse device of a coin of Telephose described as a figure with serpent tails (Whitehead, 87) appears to represent a triton with bifurcated tails. The figure wraps his arms around the tails. The reverse device of this coin is a god and goddess standing to front.

WESTERN INDIA

1. Animal faced mother goddess: One of the earliest evidences of a therianthropic figure is an elephant -faced female figure (F!G.43:d) depicted on a terracotta plaque exposed during the excavations at Rairh (Jaipur), Rajasthan (Puri n.d.26) and dated to c 1®' century B.C. Scholars tend to identify the figure with VainayakJ{Agrawa\a 1978:21). 2. Animal-eared vaksalpana: Excavations at Sambhar (Jaipur, Rajasthan) brought to light a thick tablet of badly burnt clay exhibiting a male figure with a fat belly, whose preserved left ear distinctly resembles,the fan-shaped ear of an elephant. On the basis of the caun placed on the right shoulder coupled with the corpulent physical features the figure is tentatively identified as a gapa (Sahni 1939 :38,51,pl.vii.d). 3. Balarama: From Rajasthan hails one of the earliest inscriptional references of the deity Samkarsana. The Ghosundi epigraph (Joshi 1979a:20-21) dated to c. 2"'' century B.C on paleographic grounds refers to the construction of a Narayana-vatjka for the worship of Samkarsana and Vasudeva. However no actual visual evidences belonging to the present Phase have been brought to light so far. 45

4. Kinnara: From the Sambhar excavations was unearthed a kinnara representation of terracotta (FIG.30:h) possessing a human face and winged avian body (Sahni 1939:pl.XV,b).

2.5 THERIANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE VISUAL ART OF PHASE IV: (c.1®^ TO 3'^° CENTURIES AD/ KUSH ANA PERIOD)

NORTHERN INDIA

1. Serpent figures: A proliferation of iithic representations of naga-n^g7 figures is evident during this Phase especially from the region of Mathura. These constitute largely (a) the theriomorphic depictions which are very rare, such as the Katra Keshevdeo stone slab shaped into a seven-hooded reptile (MM. No.40. 2886) [FIG.]. (b) Anthropoid figures most of them carved in the round with turbanned heads sunmounted generally by a seven or five headed serpent hood canopy. Their coils are depicted to either sides of the body lengthwise, of which numerous instances are known.® Some of these images are colossal, life-size figures such as the Khamni nSga (Vogel 1910 ;89-90, MM.No.C14); or the Chargoan naga (Vogel 1926:pl.v,MM.No.C13) [FIG.50:d]; or the exhibit in the Guimet Museum, Paris (Deneck 1967:pl.10). (c) The other naga representations constitute carved slabs accompanied by other figures comprising either attendants or worshippers. Evidences for such slabs are comparatively small in number. These include the inscribed slab (Sharma 1994;116.MM.No.12.211) installed in the S"’ year of Kanishka's reign whose upper side is rendered with the figures of a naga flanked on either sides by a nagT, all of them holding an amrtaghafa. The lower side depicts a row of standing human figures including couples clasping their hands in adoration.^ Other Mathura slabs depict a nagi, five- hooded, flanked by lance bearing male attendants (Vogel 1910:116,112,F32.F3.4; MM.No.F3). Some of these naga sculptures bear inscriptions mentioning the name of the donors who dedicated the image as well as the year of installation such as the inscription on the reverse side of the Chargaon nagd (Agrawala 1949) recording that the image of the snake deity (bhagwan naga) was installed by two friends 46

Senahasti and Bhonuka, in the 46*^ year of king Huvishka in order to appease the Lord Naga. The carved slab of a naga from Jamalpur mound (Sahni 1924- 25:150,pi.XL,a) is inscribed on the base with the name 'Dhadhikama' thus representing a naga of that name [FIG. 50:e], (FIG.50:e) The name Dhadhikama finds mention in the snake-spell (ahnika-), the daily prayer recited by Baladeva and Krsna. Significantly a shrine dedicated to him is also alluded to, in a stone slab inscription of Kushana year 26 now deposited in the Lucknow Museum (Sahni 1924-25). The inscribed naga (Vogel 1910:91,C21) holding a cup-attribute and akin to the Chargoan n§ga figure in its iconography has a basal inscription mentioning the installation of the image in the rainy season. Also depicted is a naga kanya paying her respects to the ascetic Kanha, carved on an inscribed slab hailing from Kankali Tila (Smith 1901:24, pi. XVII) along with the figures of donors of the slab and other female worshippers. Likewise, terracotta depictions of the naga (Agrawala 1936:33,pl.XIII,46) nagl figures (MM.No.34. 2434), very much similar to their lithic counterparts are also known. Two such naga figures were brought to light, during the course of excavations at Mathura (Joshi & Margabandhu 1976-77:27-28,pl.VIII, figs.32/1, 34/2) with highly stylized serpent hoods. (FIG.50:f) Probably these figures were affixed to votive tanks. The extensive nature of the excavations at Sonkh, a site located in Mathura district brought to light remains of some temples dedicated to the naga deity too whose foundations were however laid in the previous Phase III i.e. during the rule of the Mitras (Hartel 1993). The area revealing the remains of the Apsidal Temple No.2 also yielded carved slabs depicting naga figures consisting of, theriomorphic (Pl.XXVIII.A) depictions (Hartel 1993:430- 31,No.SolV28); fragmentary reliefs and sculptures; ® and fragments of terracotta figurines as well. ® Other sculptures include a unique sarvotabhadra or four-sided naga image (Hartel 432,FIG.22,p.443); a lintel depicting a naga court scene (Hartel 429-30,SolV36); and architectural fragments carved with naga figures (Hartel 433,432, figs.25,p.445,23,p.444). All these figures are anthropoid with a serpent hood shielding their heads. Besides from Sonkh are known two instances of naga figures, whose imageries are conceived in a totally different manner. The first (Hartel 1993: pl.26,16,p.442) is a staff bearing, corpulent, human figure, with the portion above the shoulder line fashioned so as to represent a snake hood (Pl.XXVII.A). The other representation (Hartel 433, So IV2) is a human torsoed 47

figure having the lower body assuming the coiled tail of a serpent. The head’s shielded by a serpent hood canopy (Pl.XXVI.B). Naga figures also hail from other sites in the Gangetic Doab. These comprise the colossal figure from Nagaria, Mainpuri district (Agrawala 1943) installed close to a water tank [puskarinis]; the terracotta naga figurine from the same site (Agrawala 1943:226-227); the fragmentary terracotta naga from Sringaverpur, Allahabad (lAR 1978-79:pl. XXIX,B) with the hood absent; a damaged seven- hooded naga from Jhusi, Allahabad dist. (Chandra 1970a;61); a life size nag! found from Nadan [Firozabad Tehsil], of spotted red stone and originally fashioned at the Mathura workshop (Sharma1979b:249-50); a naga torso housed in the Allahabad Museum (Chandra 1970a:98,Cat.No.224) possessing an ovalish serpent hood canopy and whose exact provenance is however unknown; the head of a nag/image from Ahichchhatra (Kala 1993: 80, pi.144), sporting a seven­ headed serpent hood canopy; a seated naga of sandstone from Kausambi (Sharma 1969: 77,pi. LI,B) ; a fragmentary terracotta plaque from Jajmau (Kanpur) preserving only the lower body with theriomorphic serpent figures to either sides (Kala 1993:75,pi.134); a terracotta naga of unknown provenance preserving only the head with the hood depicted as finger-like projections (Kala 1993:54, pi. 93). A carved fragmentary relief from Mathura (Khandalavala 1982:145,FIG.138) identified as representing the scene of Vasudeva carrying Krshna across the river Yamuna (FIG.50:h) depicts the raging river by means of undulating lines, with a variety of aquatic creatures like fishes, a makara, as also a naga, seven-hooded, with hands clasped in adoration to the right side. A finely rendered naga from the Bhuteshwar mound holds a vase and is inscribed at the base, with the inscription citing the installation of the image in the rainy season (Vogel 1910:91,MM.No.34.2564), with only part of the hood preserved, the hand holding the cup attribute is missing. Another carved slab (MM.No. H2) depicts a nude human figure in the centre standing on a high platform flanked by seven- hooded naga figures emerging from a tank with hands clasped in adoration, while above are depicted musical instruments. Other naga figures include the fragmentary theriomorphic naga (FIG.49:b) preserving only the coiled lower body and inscribed base (Vogel 1910:90); the much damaged head of a five headed n§ga, with a circular mark over the nose (Vogel 1910). *Three other images include, the naga statuette flanked by a male and female worshipper on either sides (Vogel 91, MM,No. C22), and the naga and nagl couple standing with right 48

hands raised,with the other holding a vase(Vogel MM.No. C20); the fragment of a dressed stone carved with a cobra on one face (Vogel 123, MM.No. G49). A standing female nag! (Vogel 112, MM.No. F4) from Mathura, raises one hand to shoulder level, while the other, probably holds a water vessel [?]. Her snake hood canopy is mutilated. Another inscribed slab depicts a naga, flanked on either sides by a nagT, all three of whom hold an amptaghata. A circular drum of a Stupa depicting the various life events of the Buddha also delineates the annointment by the naga chiefs- Nanda and Upananda (Shamia 1994: 107, MM.No. N2). 2. Goat faced male fiqures/A/a/gamesa: These images are largely iithic representations. They are usually identified with the goat- faced deity Naigamesa, the presiding deity of childbirth among the Jainas (Agrawala 1947-48). Images of this Phase again, like the serpent figurines, hail mainly from the Mathura region such as, the Kankali Tila carved slab, (Smith 1901:25, pi. XVIII) inscribed on the lower side with a label that reads as "Bhagava Nemeso" (PI.XXXI.A). It depicts a goat headed male figure, seated majestically on a high-backed seat, with two bowls of offerings placed in front of his seat. The figures of a little boy, as well as three female figures one of them bearing a cauri, with another cradling an infant occur towards the left side A Jaina tympanum relief hailing probably from Mathura (Pl.XXXI.B) divided into three registers depicts in the lower most register a seated couple to whose right occurs a seated male figure possessing a horned zooidal head, with a prominent snout and identified with Harinaigamesa of the Jaina tradition (Agrawala 1974: 50-51). Several instances of standing independent male figures possessing a horned, goat-head, with pendulous ears are known from Mathura, with one of the hands in abhaya (Vogel 1910:107, MM.Nos. 15.1115, 34.2547, El). One such figure from Mathura, is also (K. Deva & Trivedi 1996: 51, FIG. 158) housed in the Allahabad Museum. Tiny figures of children, with their hands at times clasped in namaskaramudra, are also delineated as seated astride on the shoulders of the figure; or standing to either sides of Naigamesa figure near the feet (Pl.XXXIll.A). Rarely, Naigamesa may hoW the suspended figure of infants too. A fragmentary Mathura relief depicts a standing couple where the male deity is goat faced. Identified as a "fertility couple" (Pal 1986: 189, 866) the male figure holds a basket containing the tiny figure of an infant, with the right raised in abhayamudra. Between the two figures is rendered the figure of a small boy 49

too (PI.XXXII.B). Besides lithic representations this Phase continues to witness the depictions of terracotta male figurines endowed with stylized goat faces hailing from Ahichchhatra (FIG.44:g) (Kala 1993: 102, pi. 186); Masaon, Ghazipur(|AR 1964-65: 43, pi. XXXVI, 14-15, 6). 3. Goat faced female figures: Like the goat-faced male figures, lithic representations of female figures having the visage of a goat too usually cradling infants come to light during this Phase. They possess prominent, heavy breasts that emphasize their motherhood status. {FIG.44:h;45:j) These figures are mostly known from the vicinity of Mathura (MM.Nos. E2, E3: Pannikar,1996; pls.9, 11). The Shah Qazi well, Isapur (Mathura) figure (MM.No. 799), carved on a small slab however is seated in godohikasana. A mottled red sandstone from Mathura carved with the figures of Matrkas seated in godohikasana also depicts a figure to the extreme left end possessing the visage of a goat (Pal 1986: 188, S65). Terracotta depictions of the same (FIG.44:i) but having a stylized goat-face have also come to light from Mathura (Pannikar 1996: pl.8); Bhita (FIG.45:k) (Marshall 1911-12: 75, pi. XXIII,35); and Kausambi (Sharma 1960:60, 66). Besides one also comes across terracotta depictions of anthropoid-faced female figurines possessing the long and dangling ears of a goat. Sites yielding such evidences Bhita (Marshall&Foucher 1911-12:pl.XXIII,34) and Kausambi(Shanma 1960:60,pl.XXIX.B,2). 4. Animal-eared fiqures/v^a/csa: A unique terracotta portrait identified as representing an old or sick person from Kausambi (Sharma 1960:63, pi. 32, A, 5) has ears whose upper helix points upwards like some of the following yaksa figures from Mathura. The Mathura cherubic-faced figures carved in the round carry a large bowl over their heads with their upraised hands. Such yaksas with pointed ears are known from Maholi and Govindnagar ; (Mishra 1981; Sharma 1984:107) near Mathura (PI. III.B). Vogel's catalogue (Vogel 1910: 149, MM.No. J35) too reports a yaksa carved on a railing pillar endowed with a moustache and pointed erect ears. 5. Garuda: Again the site of Mathura has yielded a large number of visual evidences pertaining to the Garuda figure. These visual evidences constitute mainly religious carvings; sculptures in the round; Ga(uda motifs executed on pilasters and doorway panels; on jewellery such as armlet bands; or as adornments of turban crests and headdresses (FIG.21:c). The relief carvings 50

of Gapjt^a are executed on various architectural fragments such as torana beam-ends, corners of tympanum ends, where the Ga[u(^a motif is so rendered as to function as triangular space fillers (FIG.21:a). Such architectural fragments hail from Mathura (Pis. XIV.A&B), (Smith 1901: 28, pis. XXV, XXXIX,2 ; Joshi, 1972: 94; Czuma, 1985:57-58; Ashton, 1950), and Sonkh (Harte, 1993; 254, figs. 26a, 26b) (Pis. Xlll.A&B). Here Ga/iida in avian form is either depicted in profile or en face with a serpent wrapped around his neck and clutched between the beak, sporting a cudS (crest) and anthropoid ears adorned with heavy kundalas. The sculptures of Garuda in the round (A/agar1942:471; Joshi 1972: 93, FIG.17; Sharma 1984:pl.57; Joshi 1971:182; Srivastava&Mishra1973:FIG.4) delineated en face and supported on the tail with outspread wings and anthropoid ears are known in plenty. The hood of an anthropomorphic naginl is clenched between the beak. Interestingly two such sculptures in the Lucknow Museum possess a pair of human hands clasped in front of the chest in namaskaramudra (PI. XV.B). Another damaged Garuda figure (Sharma 1994: 116, MM.No. 40. 2889) is depleted as holding a pair of serpents in the left hand (PI. XV.A). Garuda motifs on pilasters and doorways are meant to function probably "as an auspicious and protective motif (Raven 1994:1, 145), as evident from the pilaster hailing from Jamalpur, Mathura (Vogel, 1930: 103, pi. 22, c-d). The Garuda here possesses a tear-drop shaped body, and dons kundalas, with the naga feature absent. Likewise are the Garuda motifs executed on a doorway frame housed in the Mathura Museum (Raven, 145, MM.No. 57. 4446). As a jewelry motif, the Garuda adorns the armlets of a seated Bodhisattva image, from Ganeshra, Mathura (Sharma, 1994: 104, MM.No. A45), as ✓ also a Srilaxmi figure (Raven, 147 ). It also forms the central ornament of the keyura, worn by a Bodhisattva or perhaps an Indra figure, again hailing from Mathura (Raven, 147, pis. 4-6). Garuda motifs also adorn turban crests of princely or divine figures, such as in case of the crest of the headgear of a princely figure, probably representing a Bodhisattva, hailing from Mathura (Raven, 146, pi. 3)

6. Winged Surva: From the Sapta Samudri well (Mathura), hails the rare depiction of Surya (Dhavalikar, 1977: 36-37, MM.No. D46), riding in a chariot. He is endowed with, a pair of tiny leaf-shaped wings, emerging from behind his shoulders (FIG.71:g). 51

7. Human-faced animal/sphinx-like figures: A fragmentary coping of red sandstone (Czuma 1985 56), of unknown provenance but, most probably hailing from some Northern Indian site, portrays a frieze of animals alternated by floral motifs (FIG.17:g) where two of these animals possess anthropoid visages. Somewhat similar to these figures, is the rail bar medallion figure (FIG.16:b) from Kankali Tila (Smith1901:pl.LXXVI;2). Such type of figures also decorate pillar capitals, as evident from two such instances known from Mathura (Czuma1985:59-60;lyer1977:pl.2), where each of these pillar tops depict, four chimeras. (FIG.16:c) Seated back to back, possessing a winged lion body and a chubby human face (Pl.XLIV.A). Under this category can be included the type, where a complete human trunk is affixed to the body of a winged lion. Such figures are portrayed on a fragmentary tympanum from Mathura, (Czumal985:57-58), and Kankali Tila (Bajpai1948:118;FIG.2), the latter clasping the hands in namaskaramudrS, paying their respects to a symbolic representation of the Buddha; or border ayagapatta slabs hailing from Kankali Tila (Smith, 1901: pi. VIII). These figures either hold a bowl of offerings or flower garlands. Interestingly, such types of sphinx-like figures exude an impression of graceful feline gait (FIG.16:d,e). Vogel's catalogue of the Mathura Museum, also reports a number of such human-faced animals, carved on the railing coping stones or crossbars (Vogel1910:158-160, MM.Nos. K7, K3, K5). The depiction of a human-headed bull too is known from Mathura (Iyer, 1977: 30). Again, a terracotta figurine housed in the Lucknow Museum (Kala, 1993:156, pi. 285) of unknown provenance possesses an anthropomorphic visage affixed to an animal body (FIG.17:h). 8. Kinnara figures: Hybrid Kinnara figures, resembling somewhat the Barhut representations of the previous Phase also hail from Mathura. The Kankali Tila frieze (Smith1901:22 pl.XV) delineates, the adoration of a Stupa, by fabulous beings, namely kinnaras, half-human, half-bird and centaur-like figures. One of these hold a garland, and the other bears a bowl of offerings. These figures are delineated to either sides of the upper portion of the central Stupa. Comparatively different, is the depiction of a Kinnara, on a tablet from the same site (Smith1901:pl.15,B). Winged, he possesses a human head and trunk, while the suspended long legs with clawed feet, resemble those of a bird. Several other instances of such hybrid, half-bird, half-human type of Kinnaras. (FIG.31:1) Carved on fragmentary stone slabs hail from Mathura 52

(Michell et al 1982:117, pi. 80) and Kankali Tila ( Smith1901:pl.XVI,23). Some other fragmentary depictions are like those, carrying a garland (MM.No. 123), and the winged turbanned figure holding offerings, form part of a relief, that also depicts a damaged Stupa; (Vogel: 138,139;MM No.134). 9. Animal-faced mother goddesses: Such figures are known in plenty during this Phase from the Gangetic Doab with the region of Mathura yielding the maximum number of evidences. These matrka figures are depicted as, seated in bhadrSsana/ godohikasana, cradling with one of their hands, the tiny figure of an infant placed in their laps. The other hand is generally raised In abhayamudra. Instances include, the bird-faced terracotta figurine seated on a high backed couch (Joshil972:121 ;FIG. 54); the seated, five matrkas (FIG.43:f) carved on a stone slab (Pannikar:1996 No. 2331) possessing bird or animal faces [not identifiable specifically], with one of them, endowed with an elephant head (Agrawala, 1978: 21) the highly corroded Mathura fragmentary slab, in the Lucknow Museum (Joshi:1972:123) depicting two Matrkas, one of them bird-faced and the other animal-faced; the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Mathura fragmentary plaques, possessing an avian face (Joshi, 1971:180, B.K.B No. 2330), one of which resembling that of a parrot (Joshi,FIG.347). Interestingly, a bird-faced mother bearing a bird-faced child (Pl.XXIiI.A) also hails from Mathura (K.Deva&Trivedi;1996:45;FIG.112). Unlike the above, therianthropic Matrkas are also known figures whose, theriomorphic faces can be specifically identified, as belonging to a particular animal species. To this category belong the Lucknow Museum relief (Joshi1972:122:pl. 8) from Mathura, depicting a series of human figures, where the figure to the extreme left, is a lion-headed seated matrka, cradling an infant on her knees. A lance- bearing male, standing to her right, is identified as Kartikeya, while to the far right is delineated a large cylindrical jar, whose mouth is surmounted by the head of a ram. To the right hand corner are depicted miniature figures of devotees, their hands held in namaskaramudra (PI.XXII.B). Another lion faced mother goddess seated with child in lap in abhayamudra, with figures of devotees to the left,their h ^ s in the namaskaramudra (Srivastava&Mishra1973:68;FIG.5). Noteworthy too, is the metallic image of a cat-faced goddess from Sonkh, (HarteH 993:281 :pl.2) accompanied by a male figure. The cat-faced standing female raises her right arm in abhayamudra while with her left arm she nestles 53

an infant( PI. XXII.B). Hartel identifies the accompanying male figure, as probably representing , agreeing with Agrawala, who remarks that this goddess represents, Charcika-Shasthi, a mother goddess presiding over child-birth, and assimilated with Devasena-SasthT, the spouse of Skanda (Agrawala, 1977:64, as quoted in Hartel, 1993). A few terracotta figurines from Ahichchhatra (Agrawala1947-48:137;Nos.6067;11074), depicting a squatting cat, minus the head, and curled up tail are identified as Charchika, -the cat-faced goddess by V.S.Agrawala These figurines are also pierced with a prominent hole in the back, for the insertion of a decorative head appendage. However, this particular identification of Agrawala seems questionable, because he has identified certain cat figurines (minus their heads) as the goddess Charchika. And significantly majority of the therianthropic Matrkas of the Phase IV are shown with an animal head affixed to a female form, characterized by heavy breasts, with the hands cradling an infant too, at times. As against which, the so-called Charchika figures, exhibit none of the above mentioned important characteristics, and thus cannot be regarded as representing mother goddesses. From Mathura again, are reported certain animal-faced matrkas such as M.M. No.880 showing two animal-faced divine mothers, with two attendants; M.M No.929, fragmentary, with the second matrka having the face of a bull, nestling a child on the lap; M.M.No.1002 depicting three mothers in abhayamudm, with second and third figures having the face of a boar and lion respectively (Agrawalal949:61); and finally, M.M.No.2491 depicting a row of divine mothers with attendants. In the latter case only four mothers are extant today, of which three of them are animal-faced. (162). A boar-faced mother goddess, is reported from Mahewadi [Sitapur] seated on a pedestal (Singh&Singh:1972;31); while, from Kausambi hails a unique bronze image of a lion-headed, female figure. Seated in pralambapadasana, the raised right-hand (palm turning inwards slightly) of the latter figure is in abhayamudra, and the left holds an animal, identified as some feline creature (Kala:1973:48 FIG.17a,b). Heavily adorned, the figure possesses large rounded breasts, with exaggerated broad hips (FIG.43:e). 10. Elephant headed vaksa: A stone frieze from Mathura (Agrawalal 978:M.M.No.2325), depicts on its lower most portion a row of five elephant-headed yak§a figures, preserving only the elephant head and a part of the shoulders. 54

11. Merman/Triton-like piscine figures: Several instances of triton figures both, male as well as female hail from the vicinity of Mathura, displaying a great deal of diversity in the rendering of their iconographies. Some of the ayagapatta tablets depict such figures, both seated, male and female torsoed (FIG.6:i,j,k,l) their arms upraised. The lower bodies of these figures, culminate into a pair of bifurcated coiled fish tails, and they wear a triangular loin cloth of foliage. These figures are carved in the corners of the square tablets (Smith:pl.VIII,15;Czuma1985;52,53). Besides, a number of architectural fragments such as torana beams (FIG.7:a) and architraves too, are carved with this motif, like the torana beam representation (FIG.6:n) from the Kankali Tila mound (Smith1901;pl. XXIV, 1; Vogel, 1930: pi. IX,a); the Bhuteshwar fragmentary representation (FIG.6:m); the Saptasamudri [Mathura] figure(Vogel1930:pls.lX;d;b;&pl.LIX d). The triton motif is also figured on a red sandstone capital, whose lower side is decorated by four chimeras, resembling sphinx-like figures. This triton motif is described as a Vya/a yak§a' (Czumal985:59). The present figure wraps his arms around his bifurcated tails that curve upwards (FIG.7:b). A similar motif interestingly, is also figured on the plaque belt of Chastana’s statue from Mathura. According to Rosenfield the twin-tailed triton on the plaques of Chastana's belt bear a striking resemblance to tritons in classical art (Rosenfield; 1967:182; 183). An abacus fragment from Jamalpura well (Mathura) depicts on both sides a figure of a triton, flanked by a pair of rampant lions, supporting the volutes (Vogel1910:181). Below a Mahaparnirvana scene from Mathura, is depicted a triton like yaksa whose, laterally spread out legs are thrust into the mouth of makaras, his hands wrapping itself around the raised tails of the makaras (M.M No. 44.3118). 12. AsvamukhT YaksinT: A fragmentary terracotta plaque from Mathura (Joshi & Margabandhu1976-77:27;pl.X,35),can be identified as depicting the abduction of the Brahmin youth by the Asvamukhl Yaksinl (FIG.1:d). Here, only the equine neck of the Yaksinl attached to the anthropomorphic body is preserved, along with the Brahmin youth, seated astride on her right hip. 13. RshvasmQa: A railing pillar again, hailing from Mathura (Schlingloffi973:306 FIG.6), is identified as representing, the episode of the seduction of the young ascetic Rshyasmga, spread over three individual frames. This relief tends to tally with the Nalinika Jataka version (Cowell 1895-1913: NO.526). Rshyasmga is depicted, with a small horn emerging from the top of his head as evident in the second register. A railing pillar from the Chaubara Tila (Mathura), is carved with the representation of a turbanned youthful figure, from whose forehead emerges a horn, with his hght hand fingers raised, and placed on the chin- indicating astonishment and reflection. This boyish figure is identified as Rsyasmga, in a state of ecstasy, after his seduction (Agrawala 1936b:62) by the princess/courtesan. 14. Human-lorsoed horse bodied centaur-like male/female figures: Visual evidences pertaining to these therianthropic figures hail from Mathura, whose visual tradition, was already aware of this motif, as evident from the instances of the previous Phase III. A red sandstone slab (Vogel1930:pl.LVIII;b) is carved on both sides by a richly adorned, female centaur (FIG.3:1) on whose back is astride a male rider. The state museum, Lucknow houses a torana beam from Kankali Tila (Smith1901:pl.XV,22), that depicts the worship of a Stupa by centaurs, who flank the Stupa on either sides, wearing a triangular lower garment, resembling a loin cloth of foliage, and carrying baskets of offerings (Pl.IX.B). Another instance (Pl.XLlV.B) from Mathura is placed adjacent to a Grthahkara image (Khandalavala&Doshi 1987: pi.2.2). 15. Balarama: The present Phase IV, also indicates a marked fondness for images of Balarama, as evident from the large number of figures, hailing especially from, the Mathura region; although, one also comes across a few, but rare instances, of images of extra-Mathura provenance too. Independent images of Balarama being more prevalent, there are also images of Balarama with Ekanamsa, his sister, or in the company of other members of the \/^hnJ clan. Independent images are in plenty, some of them preserved only up to the thigh (Joshi, 1979a:pls.20,18; M.M No.C15, C18); some headless (Joshi.pls.16,23, M.M. No.17,1325; SN150); while others preserve only the head with the serpent hood canopy (Joshi.pl.21-M.M.No.14,406,pl.22- SML.57;457). Both two and four-handed figures are known, although, two- handed figures predominate. Interestingly some of the Balarama images, especially those depicted with Ekanamsa possess no serpent hood canopy except, in a few cases. A large number of slabs are known, depicting the Balarama-Ekanam^a-Vasudeva trio. Besides a two-handed terracotta Balarama figure (Joshi, 1979a: 69, figs. 2,3), the serpent coil depicted on the reverse side of the figurine is also known. Balarama is also depicted with other members of the vrshnJ clan, where, a multiple image from Mathura, (Joshi1979a;pl.19) identified as a Chatur/yuha- mOrti, depicts, the inclined figure of Balarama, with his wine cup attribute. He emerges from the right shoulder of the main, four-handed Vishnu image, with the figures of Aniruddha and Pradyumna not extant today. Besides Mathura, a fragementary Balarama image also hails from Jhansi (Chandra1970a;61;pl.33,84), Balarama figures are also known in the visual language of the Jaina sect, where as the ninth Baladeva. He stands beside the 22'^ tJrthahkara Neminatha. In these sculptures (Joshi;1979a:65,92;pls.11,10) Baladeva is identifiable, on the basis of his five-headed serpent hood canopy. Generally, he stands with hands held in namaskara mudra or holds a gada and plough attribute, (Joshi 66 pi. 12). .16. Mahisa sura: A small stone slab from Mathura (M.M.No. 2317), depicts a four handed Durga, with the figure of Mahi^ rendered in an interesting manner, that however, cannot be strictly described as a therianthropic form. Here Durga presses downwards, a prancing Mahi§a in buffalo form, whose, buffalo-head is missing and instead, from the slashed neck emerges a human bust facing the goddess. This representation can be identified as the demon in human fomi, emerging from the slaughtered neck of the buffalo (FIG.75:k). 17. Gomukha yaksa: Housed in the state museum Lucknow (Mishra1981:pl.78) is a yaksa figure, whose exact provenance is however unknown, possessing the face of a bull, with right hand in abhayamudra (Pl.XXXII.A). 18. Ganesha: The Mathura region, has yielded some pre-fourth century A.D. images of Ganesha, carved in the characteristic red sandstone of the region. These images (Dhavalikarl987:472, pl.114;Banerji1993) are generally two- handed standing figures, with the left hand holding a bowl of modakas and possessing a nude body, with prominent genitals. (FIG.54:b) Also, an image from Sankisa (Getty, 1936:26, pl.2,a), carved in high relief on a slab, is exactly similar to the above Mathura images (FIG.54:c). 19. Narasimha: From Kausambi (Pal 1986:192 S69:Kala1950) hail certain leonine figures, ithyphallic, seated on their haunches, on a somewhat high base, with forelegs resting in front. Their lion face is, characterized by the tongue sticking out (Pl.XXXV.A). These figures have been tentatively identified as 57

representing Narasimha, the man-lion avatar of Vishnu (Pal 1986) The seated postures of these Kausambi figures are, akin to the Narasimha figures, delineated on some contemporaneous plaques hailing from Andhra Pradesh. Another noteworthy feature of the leonine figurines is the complete absence of any Vaishnavite attributes. 20. Vishwarupa-Wshnu: A fragmentary and damaged stele, in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, of unknown provenance, is identified as probably representing the eariiest instance of the Vishwarvpa form of Vishnu (Agrawala 1971:173 pl.336). The carved rows of figures are mutilated and hence unidentifiable. 21. Varaha: From Mathura is also known an image of Varaha, constituting one of the earliest evidences. This standing headless four-handed figure (FIG.69;k) has the lower hands in katihasta while the upper hands, uphold two discs on which are carved, the figure of a Surya with two horses (Joshi, 1965:47, pi. XXX, 1). On his chest is depicted a kiTvatsa symbol, while the figure of Prithvi nestles on his shoulder. Other figures of the panel include devotees, a soldier and a half-reclining figure, identified as Hiranyal

With a crudely rendered simian face. The arms are flexed and delineated as though, in a clapping attitude. (Agrawala, 1947-48:125 pi. XXXVII,A, 86). 25. Animal headed vaKsas: The Mathura museum houses an elephant headed yak^a and the fragmentary bust, of a boar-faced yakqa carved in the round. He holds a bottle and a basket containing a garland. (Mishra1981.133) 26. Winged figures: A Jaina ^yagapatta fragment from Mathura, depicts winged female supporters i.e. Atlantes figures towards its extremities. (Bajpai, 1948:117-118,FIG.1)

CENTRAL INDIA

1. Serpent/ZVaga figures: A theriomorphic five-hooded naga, is depicted amidst the various animals of the forest, who pay their respects to an aniconic representation of the Buddha- i.e. a seat beneath a tree. The panel is delineated on the central architrave of the eastern gateway of Sanchi Stupa- I (Grundwedel 1893:FIG. 26). Close to the naga is also depicted a Garvda/supama figure too. Other depictions of the naga at Sanchi pertain to the following- subjugation of the poisonous serpent housed in the fire-hut of the Kasyapa brothers of Uruvilva by the Buddha, where the five headed serpent is in theriomorphic form (Vogel 1926:38,pi,IV); depictions of the nagaraja Muchilinda in theriomorphic form sheilding the aniconic representation of the Buddha; and at times, figures of nagTs sporting a single hood accompanying the nagraja both of whom are depicted in an anthropoid form (PI.XXVI.A). 2. Gamda: A figure of Garuda is delineated on the central architrave of the Eastern gateway of Sanchi Stupa I (Grunwedel 1893FIG. 25) with the naga depicted nearby. The Gamda wears a crest and possesses human ears adorned with disc -shaped kundalas (FIG.15:a). 3. Sphinx-like figures: One of the panels carved on the Northern gateway of Sanchi, Stupa I, depicts the scene of Indra's visit. Here one of the large semi­ circular crevices between the rocky boulders of the cave that dominates the panel, houses creatures which are human-faced having a curly mane and the curved horns of a ram (FlG.15:o). Another pair of figures rendered in profile possess the body of a bull human-faced, having a curly mane coupled with the 59

horns of a ram. (FIG.15;a) These figures are delineated on the eastern gateway of Sanchi Stupa I (Marshall&Foucher 1940:11,pis. XXXV,B, XLVI). 4. Kinnaras: Another category of therianthropic figures known in plenty from Sanchi are the hybrid kinnara figures winged, half-human half-avian with clawed feet and tail. These figures are generally carved on the uppermost portion of the panels thereby indicating their aerial nature. They either bear long floral garlands or wicker baskets containing some offerings in their hands. A rare depiction (PI.XVIII.A) is the two pairs of kinnaras carved towards the upper side of the panel depicting the worship of a Stupa i.e. Mahaparinin/ana (Lippe 1970:pl.6). 5. Rsvasrinqa: The northern Gateway of the Stupa I, at Sanchi is carved with a panel depicting the Rjyasringa episode (Marshall&Foucher 1940:11,pl.XXVII). Here various characters of the tale are placed against a forest background with three episodes of the tale depicted unilocaliy. These scenes consist of the birth of psya^ririga; the new-born infant [now quite big] taking a dip in the lotus pool; while to the right side of the hut is again depicted, the child Rsyasringa sporting a horn on the brow [inherited from his doe mother] and introducing himself to his father (Schlingloff 1973:306). 6. Winged Yaksa: The bottom lintel of the Southern gateway (Nehru1989:pl.95) of Sanchi Stupa I represents a series of yaksa figures with undulating vines emerging from their mouths. The yaksa, to the extreme right side of the panel is depicted as winged and in a flying posture (FIG.38:d).

EASTERN INDIA 1. Serpent figures: A somewhat fully preserved terracotta serpent figurine characterized by the highly exaggerated hips and another broken specimen preserving only the lower body, minus the hood were unearthed during excavations at Vaishali (Sinha&Roy 1969: 169-170,pls.LX,11,5,6). Likewise from Chirand (FIG.50:i) [Saran district] is known one such fragmentary terracotta serpent figurine (lAR 1963-64: 8.pl.lV,B) . Digs at the Maniyar Matha site at (Nazim 1936-37) brought to light fragmentary remains of naga figurines, some of them inscribed on the pedestal. These inscriptions are datable to 1®' or 2"'^ A.D. These sculptures of spotted red sandstone of the Mathura region were brought to Rajgir from Mathura. Depictions include a slab 60

carved with a series of seven standing naga figures (Nizam, 45-47,pi.XIII,b) and independent naga (Nizam, pi,XIII a) and nag/figures . 2. Goat faced female figures: At Vaishali continued the tradition of fashioning terracotta goat-faced female figurines during the present Phase IV too. Four such figurines are known with pinched-out nose, pierced halr-crest and possessing prominent breasts (Sinha&Roy 1969:162,pi.Lll,1-4). With reference to the dating of the goat-faced male / female figures of terracotta from Pataliputra, the excavators remark "that Naigamesa figures with horns were prevalent in c.100 AD to 300 A.D" (Sinha&Narain 1970:114). The site of Pataliputra too (FIG.45:b) has yielded two such goat-faced female figures (Sinha&Narain 1970:43,pi.XIII,B,2,3). The Kumrahar excavations too (FIG.45:c) unearthed one such figurine (Altekar&Mishra 1959:110,pi.XLIII,B,1) possessing long legs of which the left is broken with long dangling ears, pierced with a wide gash. 3. Goat-faced male figure: One such male figure with a stylized goat-face, a pierced crest, long, pendulous ears and homed is known from Kumrahar (Altekar&Mishra 1959: pl.XLIII,B,4). 4. Winged figures: Such figures seem to have come to light mainly from West Bengal. Such as the fragmentary terracotta plaque from Haroa, a village adjacent to Chandraketugarh preserving only the head and part of the left wing (Biswas 1981 a: 186, pl.L,d). 5. Kinnara figures: These figures constitute mainly hollow vessels, one such made of terracotta hails from Kumrahar (Gupta 1965:251,III,No.4409). It is in the form of a human with the head missing, body pierced with number of holes and possessing a pair of avian wings and a tail. The other specimen from Patna (Gupta, 350,III,No.8819) represents a thin concave metal shape of a bird with tail and wings, female breasts,and interestingly the face of a ram. 6. Animal-faced mother goddess: From Chandraketugarh comes an interesting cat-faced [?] female figure possessing voluptuous breasts and a pronounced abdomen. The figure wears a skirt like lower garment (Dasgupta 1959:49). 7. Triton-like figure: The Pataliputra excavations (lAR 1955-56:pl. XXXIV) unearthed a terracotta depiction of a triton-like figure whose outspread lower limbs are fully thrust into the wide open mouths of makara figures whose, upraised tails the figure grasps tightly (FIG.7:d). 61

8. Asvamukhl Yaksinl: Representations of this YaksinT are also known from this Phase but unfortunately majority of these are extremely fragmented and do not preserve the mare head but, are yet identified as depicting the Padakusalamanava Jataka. From Chandraketugarh are reported two such terracotta fragments (Chakravarti 1985-87:93; Biswas 1981a) of which one is identified as that of the abduction of the young Brahmin. The other plaque delineates the Asvamukhl wearing a vastra-upavita. The Haroa fragmentary terracotta plaque (Biswas 1981:167, pi.XXVIII,c) too depicts the abduction of the Brahmin youth by the ya/cs;n7(FIG.1:c). 9. Miscellaneous figures: From Patna hail two instances of terracotta plaques one depicting a demon with exaggerated feline features and the other, a figure possessing a leonine visage and animal ears (Gupta 1965). 10. Animal faced figures: From Patna hails a terracotta plaque depicting a human figurine with a leonine face animal ears and large abdomen(Gupta 1965:238,240). 11. Animal-eared figure: A dwarfish figure of terracotta, from Chandraketugarh (Biswas 1981a:l88,pl.LIV,b) devouring a crocodile and holding a wine cup is endowed with pointed ears. 12. Centaur-like female figure: From Chirand hails a terracotta circular plaque enclosing within its decorative border a female centaur, with a male rider astride on the back (lAR 1963-64:pl. Iv.b ).

THE DECCAN

1. Naaa figures: The base of the pillar situated in front of Kanheri, cave no.3 is carved with a naga figure having a unique iconographic form. Here the portion of the body below the human trunk is fashioned to form a coiled serpent tail. The head is shielded by five serpent hoods, individually delineated. Also are known anthropoid nagas (Pl.XXVII.B), with three hoods rising from the turbaned head, a stylized lotus bloom held in the right hand. The interior of the cave X also contains depictions of naga figures mainly anthropomorphic with serpent hood canopy. The back wall of the entrace hall of the Karia caves depicts between the donor couples Buddha seated in pralambadasana with feet resting on a lotus whose stalk is upheld by a pair of anthropoid nagas with a serpent hood canopy. The region of Andhra Pradesh, especially the ancient 62

Buddhist sites of Amravati, A/agarjunakonda and Goli have yielded several carved slabs of naga-naginl figures, in anthropomorphic form with ophidian appendages as also purely theriomorphic depictions of the same. Amravati depictions of the serpent pertain to a] relief depictions of a Stupa covered with the intertwined coils of three or five hooded serpent figures (Knox 1992) identified as representing the being guarded by naga, which, according to legend was attempted to be forcibly opened by Asoka . b] naga or nagini figures depicted as devotees / worshippers. The nagas have three or more than three serpent hoods while the nagTs have a single hood. These figures with hands clasped kneel or bow down in adoration in the presence of the holy one-depicted symbolically, c] depictions of the Naga Muchilinda episode, d] slabs carved with theriomorphic depictions of nagas with central hood larger than the remaining hoods, a collar at times encircling the neck with coils arranged to form a figure eight placed horizontally (Knox 1992). Naga evidences also hail from the site of the Goli stupa too(Ramachandran 1929). Those from /Vagarjunakonda depict naga Muchilinda (Pl.XXIX.A) shielding the Buddha (Longhurst 1938:pls.xxiii,b, xxxi.c); a relief (PI.XXVIII.B) depicting the Buddha upholding two relic caskets before a group of hooded nagas (Longhurst, pl.xxiv.b); a naga couple with the naga resting his left leg and left flexed elbow on the coils of a serpent (Longhurst, pi. xxix,c); the tale of the novice Sumana and naga King Pannaka (Longhurst, pl.xxxvii,a); and representations of the Mandhatu Jataka (Longhurst,pls.xxx,c&xxxi,a;Rama1995:101ff)where king Mandhatu is depicted as trying to crush / subjugate the naga Manikanta in theriomorphic form. A bejeweled mani adorns the neck of the naga on which Mandhatu presses his foot arrogantly. The naga and Garuda in conflict is also rendered here with the Gamda pursuing a petrified naga in the scene depicting the descent of the Buddha in the form of a white elephant (Rama 1995:pl.3). As devout worshippers they are depicted with their hands all clasped in adoration (Rama, 72,74; Longhurst, pi. XXIV,c). 2. GamdalSupama: A terracotta Garuda figurine hails from Paithan [Aurangabad]. (FIG.24:k) The avian face reveals attempts at anthromorphization with the human ears adorned with heavy bulbous kundalas. The broad beak tightly clenches a five-hooded naga. The figurine also possesses a vertical perforation with a channel at the top suggesting that it may have perhaps been used as a lamp (Dhavalikar 1975-76:69, pl.XXV,8). The Gamda and the naga also figure as the obverse device of a coin found at 63

Junnar. The Garuda stands en face on the tails of a pair of serpents that flank the Garuda on either side, their hoods facing towards the bird (Ghokale 1996:59ff). From the site of Amravati too are known a number of Garuda and nags depictions carved on coping stones (Sivaramamurti 1942:pl.XLI,2; Barett 1954:pl.XL). The Garuda stands en face (FIG.25:l,m) on the tiered coils of the serpent whose hood is clutched between the beak of the mythical bird. Another depiction of the Garuda from Amravati is that of a winged anthromorph, (FIG.25:n) hands held akimbo to suggest power and defiance (Sivaramamurti 1942: pl.lV,31). From A/agarjunakonda too hails the depiction of a male figure, winged with hands akimbo, which is identified with Garuda. (Longhurst1938 pl.XIX.d). The avian figure fixes his gaze towards the naga figure to the right who appears to slink away from the hostile presence of the Garuda. From village Tirumalagiri hails the relief of Garuda standing to front clasping a five- hooded serpent in the beak. The Garuda does not stand on the serpent coils (KrishnaSastry 1983). 3. Satvr/Horned figure: A satyr head with a horn on the forehead is depicted on a pair of metallic handles of wine jugs brought to light during excavations at Brahmapuri (Khandalavala 1960:58,pl.XlV,4,5). 4. Winged male: An ayaka slab from Nagarajunakonda (Longhurst 1938:pl.XlV,b) depicting the theme of 'the transportation of the headdress to heaven' is carved on the lower side with a winged male, legs flexed in the flying posture. A winged cupid / amor also finds depiction on one of the bronze handles hailing from Brahmapuri, Kolhapur (Khandalavala 1960). 5. Human-faced animal-sphinx-like figures: Such figurines already evident from this region during the pre-Christian era such as at Bhaja, Pithalkhora also came to light during the early centuries of the present Phase IV from Nasik. Here a pair of such figures (Vasant 1993:66,pl.2) are located atop the inner side of the porch pillar of the Nahapana vihara.The Junnar (Vasant 1993 pl.3) pair are seated atop a pillar capital, inside the apsidal caitya grha no. IV of the Ganesha Lena group; and at Karla (Vasant,pl.4) the left pillar no. 13 in the interior of the caitya is surmounted by a sphinx with riders astride on the back (FlG.18:i). Interestingly excavations at Paunar (Deo&Dhavalikar 1968:112) brought to light a fragmentary frieze depicting a human-faced animal with a vyala rider. Besides the above one also comes across depictions in terracotta and bronze, unearthed during the Brahmapuri [Kolhapur] excavations 64

(Khandalavala 1960:66, pis.XIX,28,29). The terracotta specimen (PI. XLV.A) preserves only the human head, and stylized feline ears and is, almost comparable to the bronze specimen. The bronze figure (Pl.XLV.B) forms part of a group of four mythical creatures surmounting a moulded metal ring. A row of sphinx-like animals is delineated on the lower portion of a relief depicting the temptation by hailing from Goli (Ramachandran 1929:13, pl.VII.A). 6. Hosts of Mara: The temptation of the Buddha by Mara also forms a theme in the visual representations of the Krishna valley besides the North-West Frontier region. First encountered at Amravati, here the demonic hordes of Mara are just depicted as grotesque, terrifying, dwarfish creatures without any zoomorphic features. On the other hand the site of Nagarjunakonda (Longhurst 1938:pl.xxii,b) has yielded some depictions of the Temptation scene, where the demonic hosts are depicted in the therianthropic manner either with a boar head or possessing an indistinct animal head (Pl.XXIV.A). An ayaka slab located in the site museum depicts a ram-headed dwarfed figure belonging to one such Temptation scene. From the site of the Goli Stupa, [Palnad, Guntur, A.P] hails a damaged frieze depicting a similar theme where the demonic hosts of Mara are depicted (Ramchandran 1929:13, pl.VIII,A). 7. Female Centaur: A somewhat badly damaged carving in the Nasik, Cave no. XIV (Dhavalikar 1986:160,pi. xxi,A) is identified as representing a female centaur with a male rider astride on her back. The head and part of the forequarters of the female centaur are however missing today therefore, preventing its exact identification. 8. Balarama: A panchavTra pata from Kondamotu, A.P.(Khan 1964) depicts the figure of Balarama without any of his ophidian characteristics in full anthropomorphic form holding the usual attribute of a wine cup. 9. Ganesha: One of the earliest images of Ganesha (FIG.54:a) from Ter [Aurangabad] and dated to 2'^ century A.D is a two-handed figure seated in utkutikasana (Shetty 1995:F!G.6). 10. Narasimha: Representations come mainly from Andhra Pradesh where one such slab hailing from Kondamotu,Guntur district (Khan 1964) depicts all the members of the vrsn7 clan such as Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha along with the figure of a seated lion. This lion is provided with a pair of human hands holding attributes of cakra and gada and is identified as 65

Narasimha (PI.XXXV.B). Besides a number of stone plaques from Addanki [Prakasam] district housed in Vijaywada Museum, also depict a lion-headed figure seated on its haunches on a high seat. He is accompanied by a series of other figures such as Brahma, Siva linga, with crouching bull mount below, lotus headed mother goddess/ Lajja Gauri without hands, a standing male figure holding a long spear and the figure of a devotee, depicted in a row.

WESTERN INDIA

1. Triton-like figure: The Sambhar [Rajasthan] excavations (Sahnil939:29,pls.VIII,A& .XVI,b) yielded a pottery pendant depicting within it's scalloped border a seated figure whose lower limbs, appear to be completely thrust into the mouths of makara figures. The tails of the makara curve upwards and are held on to by the male figure (FIG.7:e). 2- Winged Cupid: The bronze handle of a jug from Akota, near Baroda depicts a winged cupid (Wheeler 1954:154,pi.XXVI,A,B) seated on a low bench clutching a rod-like object. According to Wheeler, the present object represents a Roman find in India (FIG.38:f). 3. Balarama: A unique depiction of a ^iva-lihga from Nanda, Rajasthan(Agrawala 1968-69:53-54) delineates towards the lower most side four figures, one for each cardinal point. These figures constitute a Visnu and an Ekanamsa group where Balarama is figured as two-handed and carrying a heavy plough. 4. Buffalo-headed figure: Excavations at Sambhar [Rajasthan] brought to light a badly baked, hand-made pottery plaque depicting a buffalo-headed male figure holding a staff or spear (Sahnil 939:pl. IV,d).

NORTH*WEST FRONTIER REGION

1. Napa figures: Depictions here mainly pertain to legends which involve the nags and the Buddha such as, a] Buddha's victory over the black serpent at Rajagrha carved panels of which are known from Rawalpindi (Ingholt, 1957:72,No.86); with two other panels housed in the State Museum.Lucknow (Joshi 1969:64-65,pls.18,19). Here the poisonous black serpent is depicted in the therimorphic form lying coiled in a bowl, b] panels 66

depicting tine subjugation of naga Apalala housed in the museums of Lucknow; (Joshi 1969:65-66,pi.20) l\/lathura(l\/I.M.No. 34,2540); and Prince of Wales{Chandra 1974: 14,pi.35) depicting the figures of the Buddha in abhayamudra and Vajrapani striking the mountain with his vajra and the naga king Apalala and his queen. The naga and his queen kneel in adoration as in the Lucknow panel; or appear frightened as in Mathura Museum panel; or emerge from a tank as in the Prince of Wales image, c] hailing from the same region is a panel depicting the scene of the visit of naga Elapatra (Chandra 1970a: 14-15,pl.36). 2. Goat-faced figures: These include a terracotta figurine from Peshawar (Kala 1993:89, pi.161) housed in the Lucknow Museum, endowed with a crest above the head (FIG.45:d) and prominent breasts as also a a male figurine from Dir, Pakistan (Pal 1986:170,848) also of terracotta. 3. GamdalSupama: A large number of representations of this avian therianthropic figure have been brought to light from this region. These constitute the mythical bird on the lower end of a half-arch within which is framed the scene of the Dipankara Jataka (Joshi 1969:51,pi. 1); as also the one depicted on the upper half of a thick undulating garland borne on the shoulders of amorini/Eros (Joshi 1969:96,pi.83) figures. (FIG.21:e) Other instances of the Garuda and nagJ conflict theme include the impressive Sanghao Rhode (Bachhofer 1929:ll,pl.150) sculpture. (Fig22:f) Here the Ganida clutches between his sharply hooked prominent beak, the hood of an anthropoid voluptuous nagl The image housed in a U.S collection abroad (Czuma 1985:182) depicts a fully avian Garuda with outspread wings, surrounded by three human figures- two males and one female identified as personifications of naga figures. (FIG.23:h) These figures unsuccessfully attempt to overpower the Garuda with the ropes held in their hands. The Garuda is devoid of the usual features of crest and kundala. The other representation (Ingholt 1957:No. 350) too is that of Garuda with wings outspread to form a fan shape holding an anthropoid nagi in the beak. (FIG.22:g) Some fragmentary remains too are known, constituting mainly the heads of such Garuda figures (Ingholt1957 No.352;Maxwell 1997:257 pi.25). These heads, (Figs.24;l,j) reveal attempts at anthropomorphization of the avian features, with heavily hooded, frontally placed eyes, prominent, rounded chin. A beaded chain. 67

adorns the forehead of one of the heads; while, another head wears a turban, and is further endowed with anthropoid ears adorned with heavy rounded studs. A reliquary from BiMaran, Afghanistan, depicting a series of figures, contained within an arcade, has eagle motifs with outspread wings, filling up the spaces between the arcade (Huntington, 1985: 113, pi.7) 4. Winged figures: An assortment of winged figures are known from this region during the present Phase IV. These include, the winged cupid delineated on a flat oval seal of nicolo from Taxila (Marshall, 1951:Vol. 11,679-80,pi. 207.6), depicted as chasing a bird; or the copper relief of a winged Eros known from Sirkap, Taxila (Marshall 605,pl.186.419) ; and the bronze image of a standing winged female figure from Akhun Dheri (FIG.38:g) [Peshawar district, Pakistan] with a duck standing below, close to her feet (ASIAR 1913- 14:No.661,PI.XLIV, FIG.1). Certain architectural fragments consisting of slabs and brackets are also carved with such figures. Such slabs hailing from Nathu (PI. LVIII.B) (Marshall1960:pl.62.91), Kalawan (Pl.LVIII.A) (Marshall1960:pl.107.148), are carved with the frieze of a luxuriant, undulating floral garland, borne on the shoulders of youthful nude figures (Erotes), with the upper interstices carved with the busts of winged, semi-divine male or female figures. From Begram hails a variety of winged figures (Figs.39:j,k,m,l). Around four-five instances of winged figures depicted as bracket figures, are known mainly from Taxila (Marshall 1960:Pls. 19.22,21; Pls.20.23,20.24 Pl.21.25), of which, four are male and only one, of them is female (Marshall1960:pl.19.22,21;pl.20.23,24;pl.21.25). These figures emerging from an acanthus leaf base are depicted only up to their thighs, with wings rendered in a vertical fashion behind their backs. Their hands are held in a variety of postures (PIs.LIX.A&B; Pl.LX.A ). 5. Sphinx: Such figures come to light, mainly from the site of Begram in Afghanistan. Their iconography reveals types, already known from the sites in the Gangetic Doab and the Deccan, but with some minor modifications. Such representations include, a human-faced animal (FIG.18:j) standing erect, with a female rider (Hackin, 1954: 163, FIG. 36); the bronze statuette (FIG. 337) of a seated winged sphinx, forelegs extended, and sporting a skullcap on the head (FIG.18:k). The latter’s protruding chest is apparently akin to that of a female figure. Besides, a carved ivory frieze (Hackin 1954 161,FIG.33), delineated with a number of fabulous creatures and a lion, contained within 68

squarish vegetal frames, also depicts a standing sphinx, with the human head turned to front (FIG. 18:1). Certain decorative fragments (Hackin, 1939:75, pl.XLVII, 113-115) are incised Vi^ith pairs of sphinx-like figures, depicted face- to-face. These have an anthropoid head and torso, attached to a winged, animal body, and are bald-headed, with a prominent nose (FlG.18;m, 19:n). A somewhat semicircular shaped ivory plaque (Hackin 1939:77 pl.XLVII 118) too, is incised with one such winged figure, with the body stretched out and possessing, a long curved neck, with a glum facial expression (FlG.19:o). Two other similar figures, having the body of a lion and human faces, (Hackin 1939 173,172,) appear comical, due to their body postures and facial expressions. One of the figures dons a broad bracelet on the left forearm (FIG.19:b) with the corresponding right raised. On the head of the other slouching figure, rests a small cap, with right arm raised to chest level, as though saluting (FlG.19:a). 6. Satyr: From the premises of the apsidal temple, besides the main street at Sirkap,Taxila (Wheeler, 1954:161, pl.XXI,B, p.164?), hails a stucco head, bearded and moustachioed, of a fawn or satyr possessing pointed ear (FIG.76:h). 7. Human-torsoed fish-tailed-triton figures: Hailing from the Buner area (Czuma 1985 178), are triangular shaped panels of gray schist which may have formed part of stair raisers depicting bearded and mouchstachioed human figures, winged, having the scaled, coiled, lower body of a fish (Figs8:f,g). These figures which may be described as ichthyocentaurs, and are also endowed with a pair of dwarfed legs. According to Czuma "the style and type of figures repeat almost precisely that of the "Marine deities" and that "the creatures depicted here represent traditional Hellinistic tritons". The Lucknow museum (Joshi, 1969:61-62, pi. 14) houses, an architectural freize of schist from Gandhara region, divided into several bands, with the central band depicting, the Buddha flanked by three kneeling devotees, one of whom happens to be a winged ichthyocentaur, Incidently a rare depiction of a winged triton (FIG.11:f) standing upright, on the bifurcated coils of his lower body, is delineated on a carved plate hailing from this region (Frankfort 1979 :pl, XXV.No. 40) . The site of Begram too, has yielded plenty of such triton figures with bifurcated tails. These figures however appear to belong, to three different iconographic orders such as, [a] male figure, with portions from below the ankles assuming, the reptilian coils with caudal fins, such 69

as, the figure delineated on a fragmentary relief, who stands on a fortification wall (FIG.8:i) identified by Hackin as representing the god Posiedon (Hackin, 1939:42,pl.XVI,37). The second type is the seated male, whose lower bodies appear to be completely thrust, into the wide-open mouths of makara figures of which, two instances are known. (Figs.8:j;9;k) These figures (Hackin, 1939:63, 86, pi.XXXIII,74,73) executed within a rectangular frame, either wrap their arms around or clutch tightly, the upraised tails of the makara figures . The last type, are a freize of figures possessing a female trunk, (Hackin1954:FIG.175) and wearing a triangular shaped loin cloth of foilage. Her lower bifurcated body culminates into stylised makara figures, whose heads, are held away from the bodies of these triton-like figures, thus, facing outwards. The figures from Shotorak, Afganistan (Meunie 1942) are bearded, with coiled, bifurcated tails having caudal fins (FlG.9:n). One of them, a winged figure, holds a stringed music instrument (FIG.9:o). Other fragmentary triangular slabs from the same site depict, ichthyocentaurs, winged, with a single coiled piscine tail. The Sahri Bahlol figures (Stein1911-12: pi.XXXVIII,6), carved again on triangular slabs consist of, winged ichthyocentaurs. Another depiction delineates the dorsal portion of a merman, from whose lateral side of the left nude bottom emerges a coiled fish tail. The Jamalgarhi triangular slab (Smith, 1930:pl.41,c), is an interesting depiction where, a triton with bifurcated tails is engaged,in an aggressive tussle,with a male figure who, stands to the left. (FIG.IOrc) This man, bearing a heavy club, attempts to strike the triton with the club. Smith identifies this representation as "Gigantomachia"(Smith 1930:M.41.C). A can/ed circular, flat dish, hailing from Taxila depicts a triton, with his coiled bifurcated tails curving upwards, holding a rod-like object, with another winged ichthyocentaur rendered opposite, to the above triton (Francfort 1979). 8. Winged Atlantes: Another category of therianthropic figures, that find depiction in the visual language of Phase IV, for the first time are the winged Atlantes [Sing.Atlas] figures (Marshall 1960:pl.106.145,146). Predominantly depicted as seated anthropomorphic figures, possessing a pair of wings that emerge from behind their shoulders, they appear to bear, the over head weight, either on their shoulders or their upraised arms. Their nude upper bodies are brawny, as evident from the musculature of the chests, biceps and indrawn belly. The figures on the whole, exude great strenght and power. Majority of these figures have come to light from the following sites, such as Sahri Bahlol /o

(Bachhofer 1929 Vol.l,pl.149) which depicts a freize of six such winged atlantes; (FIG.40:h) the Jamalgarhi specimen (Smith 1930;P1.41.B), wearing a bell around his (FIG.41:j) neck and others (Smith1930:PI.41;A) whose exact provenances are unknown that are housed, in the collections of the State Museum, Lucknow (Joshi,1969:92,pl.75) (FIG.40:g), Chandigarh Museum (Pl.LXI.A, Pl.LXII.A). One of the Chandigarh images reveal attempts at Indianising the motif, and thus providing the figure with a chubby, corpulent trunk akin to that of a yaksa (Pl.LXII.B). Other specimens are housed in the Cleveland museum,U.S.A (FlG.40:i) (Czuma 1985 184-85); the Bristol Museum, U K (Nigam, 1962:137,pl.VII); California, U.S.A (Czuma 1985 184,pi.97.1); Prince of Wales, Bombay (Chandra, 1974: 21, pi.56) (FIG.41:I). 9. Rsvasrnqa: A broken panel from the Gandhara region (Schlingloff 1973) preserves to its left side, a single event of the Rsya^rhga tale, that of the conception. Here the gazelle is shown as drinking at a pool [?], with the hermit seated a little away, performing some human function. 10. Demonic hosts of Mara: Therianthropic depictions of the demonic hosts of Mara, the god of death and desire- created as the prime adversary of the Buddha (Karentsky 1982) are also known. Here, one such panel depicting the seated Buddha, surrounded by soldiers in Scythian costumes brandishing weapons, delineates towards the upper side, the demonic hosts of which, one, possesses a hairy and grotesque face of a goat, while the other figure is endowed with a horse-head. The Freer Gallery panel (Lippe, 1970:17-19, FIG.1) again depicting the demonic hordes towards the upper side, possess the heads of a boar, ram and a monkey too. Another fragmentary relief, belonging originally to a Temptation panel (Smith1930:pl.37), depicts again towards the upper portion, two rows of demonic hosts possessing a grotesque appearance, that is characterized by zoomorphic facial features of a composite type, thereby making it difficult to specifically identify the animals delineated here. 11. Centaur: A carved relief from Sahri Bahlol (Stein, 1911-12:104,pi. 38,6) depicts, a centaur facing to his left, and holding a sword, in the right hand streched backwards and a shield in the other (PI. X.A). Another such figure from the Gandhara region, housed in the Lahore Museum must have once decorated a Stupa base ( Ingholt, 1957:156). 71

12. Kinnara: Another category of avian therianthropic figures, known only from this region are the human faced bird bodied figures. Two such depictions hail from Begram, one of which is identified as a Kinnan pot (FIG.35:o) (Hackin1954;figs.241,242).The other is a carved ivory plaque, delineating a torana where, a pair of such Kinnan's flank a seated yaksa on either sides, their avian bodies in profile, with their anthropoid faces to front (Hackin 1954;FIG.8). The (FIG.32:n) other figure happens to be a male human- faced duck, a somewhat comical representation, identified as Hermes by Czuma (Czuma 1985 183 No. 96). 13. Balarama: Rock carvings at Chilas III, (Dani1983;120,122,FIG.97,p.121) a premier city on the upper course of the Indus river, Gilgit area [Pakistan] depicts, the inscribed standing figures of Balarama and Vasudeva, wearing a skirt-like lower garment. The crowned Balarama holds attributes of club and plough- topped banner, but minus the characteristic snake-hood canopy. The Kharoshthi inscription above reads as "Rama-Krishnasa Dharmaputra" of [Bala] rama [and] Krishna [erection] of Putra. 14. Ganesha: From Akra(Getty1936:26) is reported a terracotta, two handed Ganesha, that can be dated to the present Phase IV, on the basis of the associated finds of pre-Gupta date of circa 2"'^ century A.D (Dhavalikar 1987).

2.6 THERIANTHROPIC FIGURES IN THE VISUAL ART OF PHASE V: (FOURTH TO SIXTH CENTURIES AD)

NORTHERN INDIA

Thrianthropic forms of Phase V from Northern India include the following — 1. Narasimha: Narasimha images of Northern India V include both seated and standing figures, as well as instances of the ugra [ terrifying] and saumya [calm] types. Standing figures of this lion - headed, avatara of Vishnu, both two - handed (FIG.65:1) and four- handed,are delineated on one of the faces of two pillars housed in the Bharat Kala Bhavan(Biswas&Jha 985;pl.viii,12d,Acc.nos.225.29) holding Vaishnavaite attributes (PI. XXXVI.B). From Mathura hails, a standing, four-handed figure, (Pa) 1978 ; 102,PI. 52 ) flanked by the ayudha pumshas- gadadevi and cakra purusha (PI. XXXVII.A); 72

a tiny standing Narasimha (Vats 1952:12,PI.9), is depicted towards the right side of a seated Adi^esa Vishnu, carved on a doorway lintel from Deogarh [Laiitpur] (FIG.65:m). Some seated images are also known. One of them hails from the vicinity of the Bhitargaon [Kanpur] Brick Temple(Zaheer 1981 :109, FIG. 169 ) seated on its haunches, with hands stretched - out in front [PI.XXXVIII.A]. This posture resembles that of the Phase IV Kausambi terracotta - lions, and the Deccan plaques hailing from Darsi, Kunidane and Kondamotu in Andhra Pradesh.The figures are depicted without th6 characteristic Vaishnavite attributes. The other figure carved within a caitya windovy frame of an architectural fragment, found in the vicinity of the Deogarh" temple{Vats 21,PI.22,c) happens to belong to the iconographic tradition of certain Deccan [Ramtek, Maharashtra] and Central Indian [Sindursi, Madhya Pradesh] Narasimha figures. This ferocious looking four- handed figure, holds the attributes of cakra, sahkha and gada [PI.XXXVIII.B]. Of the Ugra-Narasimha figures, the one [PI. XXXVII.B] is depicted as engaged in a fierce fight with Hiraipyaka^ipu, attempting to tear open the victim's belly (Biswas &Jha 1985:52); the other a terracotta tile relief (FIG.65:n) hailing from some unknown site in U. P, (Poster 1986:153,pl.91) is a four- handed Narasimha, grappling with Hiranyakasipu. A terracotta lion head from Jhusi [Allahabad] (Chhabra 1961;13,pl.iv.3)is identified as belonging to a Narasimha figure. It has a moustache with the tongue curiously sticking out. This identification Is questionable, on account of the absence of certain important distinctive features that would enable the identification of this figure as Narasimha. 2. Ganesha: From the Mathura region are known both lithic and terracotta depictions of two- handed, seated, Ganesha images, with attributes of bowl of sweets and pomegranate [?]. The lithic images hailed from the Shah QazI well and Bhagichi Birhal well, (FIG.56:j) [Isapur] (Agrawala 1949 :138, 139;Banerji 1993:11,Pis.11,13)while the terracotta image hails from Mathura (FIG.56:k) (Banerji pi. 12). A standing image too is known from Mathura (Sharma 1979a:pl.6) two- handed [missing today] and depicted with prominent genitals, with a considerably elongated upper torso (FIG.56:1). Gaiiesha figures are also delineated on pillar capitals [PI.XII.A] as evident from the two-handed bare headed figure, seated in rajalilasana, rendered on a capital (Pal 1986:251,8127) housed in a U.S. collection, abroad. From the Bhitargaon Brick Temple are known two instances, (Zaheer 1981:87,FIG.64) one of which 73

is considerably damaged; the other is some kind of a narrative panel where a four-handed Gapesha, holding a bowl of sweets in one of the hands, is depicted as scampering away on his knees from a male figure [depicted to his right] who, appears to pursue him. This pursuing male figure is identified as Karttikeya, and the panel is identified as probably depicting a quarrel between the two siblings over a bowl of modakas [Pl.XI A], A sixth century terracotta tile seated Ganesa, (Poster 1986: 172,FIG.110) is a heavily adorned, haloed figure, with a wreath-like ornament adorning the head. (FIG.57:o) Interestingly this figure is surrounded by certain subsidiary figures, consisting of a pair of Gandharvas and a devotee. Cei;;tain unusual multi-figured panels of Gapesha from Mathura (Sharma 1j968:pl.vi) depict the figures of an abhisekha Gaja- LaksmT, flanked to the right* by the seated figure of Ganesha with a bowl of modakas, while to the left’^c^urs Kubera holding a moneybag. (FIG.58:d) Certain other sites, that have yielded Ganesha images are Kausambi (Sharma 1960:77,pi.51,A), from where a four-handed (FIG.56:m), seated, sandstone figure; and a terracotta weatherworn plaque, (Kala 1980:106,FIG.299) depicting a four- handed, are known; Ahichchhatra where, excavations unearthed three such two -handed moulded terracotta Ganeshas assigned broadly to C A.D 450-750,(Agrawala 1947-48:132 ) . Another terracotta four- armed image (FIG.57:a) of unknown provenance has a pendulous pot belly (Kala 1993 :135,pl.248); while, an interesting four- handed figure, of unknown provenance (FIG.58:c) and assigned to the later Gupta period, depicted with the musaka vahana carved beneath the foot at the base (G.L.S 1953:12) constitute the other images .Lastly from the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh hails a Ganesa (FIG.57:n) four-handed, enclosed within a pillar medallion and flanked on either sides by a pair of two standing gana-like attendants ( Snead 1989: pi. 150) 3. Vishvampa Vishnu: From Mathura hails a fifth century fragmentary image (Desai 1973:FIG.41) preserving part of the halo stele. Here the heads of a lion and boar flank the central anthropoid face, amidst the rows of other human heads. The Garhwa [Allahabad] sandstone lintel (Harle 1974:47,pl.71) depicts a large number of human figures consisting of attendants, offering-bearers and musicians, proceeding towards a shrine carved towards the right end of the slab. Enshrined here is a six-handed Vishvarupa - Vishou, possessing a highly worn out central face, flanked on either side by the heads of a boar and lion. 74

Curiously the bust of a human figure, occurring above the central head possesses a horse face. 4. Havaanva: Carved on an architectural fragment hailing from Mathura (Joshi 1972-73:38), is a slightly damaged four-handed, horse-headed incarnation of Vishnu, having a subtle pot belly and holding attributes of club and conchTOne of the hands is held in abhayamudra. A later Gupta image is also reported from Mathura (Joshi) forming part of a four-fold Vaishnava image depicting, the figures of Vishnu, Varaha and Narasimha too. Hayagnva is also figured in the context of a Vishwarupa-Ws/7nu image, from Garhwa discussed earlier. 5. Ravana: A rare terracotta plaque (Sivaramamurti 1974:pl.56) hailing from some site in Uttar Pradesh, depicts a male, portrayed as a mendicant, with a donkey head emerging from above the knotted hair, turban and identified as Ravana in disguise (Pl.XL.A). 6. Elephant-faced aoddess/VainavakT: A solitary instance of the eariy Gupta period housed in the Mathura Museum is identified as Vainayaki (Sharma 1979 :28,pl.5). This standing two - armed figure, preserves only the left hand which holds a drooping lotus bud. (FIG.71:f) 7. Gana: Not many therianthropic gana figures are known from the Gangetic Doab, with the exception of a Kumbandha gapa figure, carved on a frieze, hailing from Khandava village [near Benaras] (Stadtner 1981:187,FIG.439) This figure has the face of a boar delineated on the belly . 8. Balarama: Images of Balarima, both two as well as four-handed are known in plenty from this Phase, especially from Mathura. Two-handed images hail from Jamnabag [Mathura] (Joshi1979a:71) which is a badly damaged torso holding a wine cup ; Girdharpur tila [Mathura] (Joshi 70-71,figs.4,5) which is a standing image, carved in the round, with serpent coils depicted on the reverse. Four handed images consist of the Bajna image (Joshi 71,pl.26), sporting a long vanamala, preserving the musala attribute ; and a Mathura image, housed in the Berlin Museum (Hartel 1960:63,pls.21-24) . Other images of Balarama include, the Bhitargoan one, squatting,with a serpent hood canopy, sans any of the distinctive attributes, but nevertheless identified as Balarama (Zaheerl 981:92,FIG.79). A unique depiction is that of Balarama with a plough, being abducted by the demon Pralamba, where, Balarama is astride on the shoulders of the demon and is depicted without the ophidian features (Poster1986:162). Here Balarama is shown as trying to render a powerful blow 75

to the demon with his raised hand. Lastly, a later Gupta representation renders Samkarsana in the Ananta form . He is carved on one of the faces of a san/otabhadralcaturrnukha-murti from Kutah [Allahabad] (Chandra1970a:FIG.203d; Joshi 1979a:78)The other figures here are those of Varaha, Vamana and Hari-Hara. Jaina Balabhadra figures of this Phase resembling their Brahmanical counterparts hail from Mathura.These diminuitive-sized figures flank the figure of Neminatha.(Joshi1979a:pls. 24,25) 9. Simian characters of the epic Ramavana: A number of reliefs illustrating various episodes,involving mainly the epic's simian characters such as Vali, Sugnva and Hanuman are known from the present Phase V. Such carved fragmentary reliefs brought to light from the vicinity of the Gupta Temple at Deogarh (Vats 1952:17-18,pl.17,c,b,e) have been identified as- a] Hanuman carrying a peak of the Himalayas with the mrita-sanjivani herb; b] An injured Vali with an arrow embedded in his chest and surrounded by other figures, c] Laksamana garlanding Sugffva with the gajapushpi mala. The site of Newal (Shukla 1983:16,17, figs.8,10,11) has yielded certain terracotta panels which have been tentatively identified as representing- a] The scene of the monkey chiefs, on the seashore,watching Hanuman [indistinct in the panel] who is ready, to jump across the channel, b] A relief probably depicting Hanuman,poised to take a vigorous leap, in order to cross the ocean, c] Hanuman in the Asoka vajika. Other plaques depicting episodes pertaining to the simian characters of the epic include, the Shringawerpur [Allahabad] pink sand stone relief slab (Chandra 1970a:97,pl.LXXlX) depicting simian as well as anthropoid figures, identified as probably representing the meeting of Rama and Lakshamana with Sugnva and Hanuman in the Rsyamukha forest ; a terracotta relief housed in a private U. S. collection abroad (Poster 1986:157,pi. 95 ) identified as Lakshamana and his monkey lieutenant; a Bharat Kala Bhavan panel (Agrawala 1971:175,FIG. 340 ), found at Benaras and depicting setubhandhana or the bridging of the mighty ocean ; a terracotta panel, unearthed during the course of excavations at Sahet- Mahet(Kala1988:pl.27), depicting two simian figures engaged in a duel, probably representing the fight between Vali and SugrTva ; the Sarnath Museum, late Gupta panel (Sahni 1914 :320 ), identified as illustrating, the installation of Vibhlsai^a as king of Lanka. A red terracotta tile relief from U.P depicts a hunter accompanied 76

by a monkey. These figures are tentatively identified as representing Lakshmana and /-/anuman.(Poster1986:157). Some later Gupta panels hailing from the precincts of the Temple at Deogarh (Vats 26-27) are identified as probably representing Sugriva, holding a club in his right hand, depicting a facial expression of surprise and facing a human figure. This scene is identified as the astonishment of Sugriva at Rama's feat in picking up the skeleton of Dundubhi with an arrow at a single stroke. The other panel probably delineates Hanuman's first encounter with Rama. The various Gangetic Doab simian characters are composite figures [PI. XLI] possessing the head of a monkey, anthropoid body and wearing bodily adornments consisting of jewelry and garments. (FIG.70:b) 10. SaptaMStrkas-VarahJ: Housed in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, is a c.5**’ Cent. AD image of Varahl (Biswas&Jha 49,pl.17) hailing from Varanasi, possessing a sow-head, with an elaborate coiffure .She has heavy, pendulous breasts, and slightly bulging pot belly. Two groups of SapiaMatrkas panels are known from Deogarh. Of these the Rajghati group, (dated to the latter half of 5*^ or early 6*^ century A.D.) depicts Varahi, whose face and vahana are obliterated, although her face does not appear to have been that of a boar (Pannikar1996:pl.46) . The Naharghati matrka group, has the figure of VarahT (Pannikar pl.47) depicted in a unique fashion, two headed, with a boar head (in profile) attached to the right side of the anthropoid head, renderecjfen fa ce). 11. Vaikuntha-Catuimurti-Vishnu: From the Gangetic Doab- especially from the region of Mathura, hail a number of images of this type such as - the Florida Museum [U.S.A] image (FIG.68:h) of red sandstone (Craven 1992:145- 146,pl.onp.45) which happens to be the eariiest image of this type. Four armed, with a somewhat dwarfed physique, the figure has the faces of a boar and lion depicted, to either sides of the crowned anthropoid central face.Housed in the Mathura museum, are a number of such images (Desail970:FIG.32;Maxwell1988:pls.43,42), all lithic, multi-headed like the above (Figs.67:e;68:i). A terracotta slab depiction is also known. This four handed, three headed seated figure (FIG.67:f) (Maxwell1988:pl.45) with the lion head missing, has the backhands resting, on the personified attributes of cakra and gada. Housed in the Mathura museum againare certain fragmentary depictions of this form (FIG.67:g), preserving only the bust or head portions. [Nos.-D 28,2503,2480]. (Agrawala 1949:113). 77

12. Naaa Figures: The flatish terracotta depictions of female serpent deities with exaggerated hips are unknown during this Phase and in contrast lithic representations predominate, both zoomorphic as well as anthropoid with ophidian appendages. Evidences mainly constitute the following— the Kausambi terracotta naga preserving only the head, shielded by a serpent hood (Gupta 1965:111,311,no.8058). The site of Ahichchhatra also yielded, certain fragmentary terracotta plaques,depicting the Sun-God [Surya] where, a naga figure (Agrawaia 1947-48:129,no.8112), sporting a serpent hood canopy is depicted towards the lower side of the panel, either in pairs or single. With regard to the above depictions of naga figures in the context of Surya images, Agrawaia remarks "It is said that the nagas, as sons of Kadru, the goddess of darkness, enveloped the solar horses until they were chased away by Garv^a (Agrawaia 128). An independent naga image, wearing an elaborate coiffure, was recovered, from the floor of the Brahmanical temple at Ahichchhatra (Agrawaia 131). Also from the same site hails another tiny terracotta naga, hand in abhayamudra, dated to the later part of Phase V (Agrawaia). A two armed, seven hooded nSga, with serpent coils arranged to either sides of the trunk, hailing from the Bhitargaon Brick Temple (Zaheer 1981:88,FIG.68) ; The Gajendramoksha panel from Deogarh [Lalitpur] depicts a naga, wrapping his ophidian lower body around the limbs of the elephant standing in the waters . This naga is accompanied by a nag! too, both of whom clasp their hands in adoration, perhaps imploring for mercy, in the presence of the Gamdaruda - Vishnu (Vats 1952:41,pl.x,a). The Sirsa [Allahabad] nSga image (Chandra1970a:97,pl.LXXIX) is badly damaged,and consequently preserves only the bust and part of the serpent hood canopy Interestingly a hoard of clay sealings from Jhusi,Allahabad (Kala 1958-60:3,pi.I,a) depict a pair of theriomorphic serpents, clinging to a conical pole and inscribed with the legend " ------Pannalabha------Gupta"{Ka\a). The site of Mathura too has yielded certain images of serpent figures although, compared to the previous Phase IV, these are not all that numerous. These consist of the c. 4*^ century A.D., fragmentary nagaraja, preserving only the head and badly damaged serpent hood (Biswas&Jha 1985:82,pi. 110). A damaged sandstone sculpture from the Kansa-ka-Tila, Mathura depicts a male figure pouncing upon a naga and subduing him with a pa^a wound around the naga’s 78

neck.This sculpture is identified as Krisna subduing Kaliya. (Bajpai 1948:117,FIG. 4). 13. Goat Faced male/female figures: Terracotta female figurines, possessing the stylized face of a goat, with pinched out nasal area and long dangling ears are known from Kausambi (FIG.45:e) (Kala 1950:57,pl.3,A,1) and Sravasti (lAR 1987-88:pl.XLIII,A). The other instances include, the Lucknow museum specimen,of unknown provenance (Kala 1993:87,pl.157), whose right hand is held akimbo ; the Ahichchhatra figurines (Agrawala 1947-48:32,pls.18,A,130) have pierced, dangling ears, a pierced crest above the head, with ends of arms and legs displaying cup-like depressions [PI. XXXIV.A]; another Kausambi figure (Kala 1980 :66,FIG.165) with a pronounced female body and endowed with a pair of tiny horn-like protrusions. Male goat-faced figures hail mainly from Ahichchhatra (Agrawala 1947-48:135,pi.XLVIII,A, SI. Nos. 126,127,a,b, ) and have cup-like depressions towards the leg and anm-ends. Agrawala tends to identify these male figures with the god Har\naigame§a, (Agrawala 135) whom he describes as a deity invoked as the presiding deity of child birth originally and was considered to be but, another form of the god Skanda under the name Naigameya; while the goat-faced female figurines he identifies with Sasthi, consort of Skanda, who, as guardian goddess of child birth was the object of universal worship specially during the period from A. D. 450-650. Besides, some anthropoid-faced, goat-eared female figurines of terracotta are also known from Ahichchhatra (Agrawala 136,sl.No131) and Bhita (Marshall 1911-12:76,pl.25,46) sporting a crest above the head; as also from Kausambi (Kala 1950:57-58,pl.3,A,2) and Rajghat (FIG.46:h) [Varanasi] (Kala 1993:92,pl.167) which are however, endowed with a pierced crest . In addition to the above depictions one also comes across goat-headed male figures, depicted in association with the figures of Agni and Karthikeya. The Lachchhigir [Allahabad] image of Agni (Sahai 1967:148) is accompanied on either sides by miniature sized figures, with that to the left having a goat head, whose raised right hand holds some indistinct object .The circular sandstone image of Karthikeya from Madani village (Agrawala 1949:140-41), has an extremely tiny goat-head male figure, carved to the extreme lower left side, right hand probably holding a caun, with the other held akimbo. The goat­ headed figure with Agni, may be identified as a personification of his animal mount, while that, in case of the Karthikeya image, who is incidentally being 79

anointed by a four-faced Brahma and Siva, is tentatively identified as Daksa or the ram-headed vahana of Agni "who is said to have an intimate connection with the iconography of Swami Karthikeya (Agrawala 1949). 14. Garuda: independent images are rare, and what one mainly comes across during the present Phase V are, Garvda figures depicted as the mount/ vahana of Vishnu, thereby indicating his subsidiary status. These images constitute, the Berlin museum mutilated image, hailing from Mathura (Hartel 1960:57,pl.15) and preserving only the Ganjda standing en face, and the legs of the figure [ whose upper body is now missing] who was seated astride on the bird's shoulders. Garuda here sports a crest and clutches between the beak a serpent that encircles his neck. The badly abraded Bhitargaon image of the GarudSruda Vishnu located on the eastern face of the temple (Zaheer 1981:84 pi.57) too supports the suspended legs of the Vishnu seated on his back. The Brooklyn museum terracotta panel (Pal 1978:61,FIG.28), displays a four- armed Vishnu, seated on a Ganj(^a in flight, (FIG.26:c) the huge wings, spread out sideways . The Ganida has a human face with shortly cropped curly hair. With regard to the provenance of present image, Pal (1978) is of the opinion that it may have probably adorned the Gupta Temple at Bhitargaon while Poster is of the view that the panel was executed "in the regional style of Mathura." (Poster 1986:155). The Goenka collection's gracefully executed terracotta panel (FIG.26:d), whose exact provenance is however unknown, but,which is nevertheless assigned by Raven to the Mathura workshop (Raven 1994:1,154,,pi.11) depicts Vishnu as, seated astride on a fully anthropoid Gamda, whose only avian features consist of,the wings and fan-shaped tail feathers forming a background to the Vishnu figure. The Dasavatara temple, (Deogarh )depiction (Harle 1974:pl.104) of a Garudaruda Vishnu belongs to the finely executed Gajendramoksa panel, with Gaai<^a in fully anthropomorphic form, except for the wings, that bely his avian nature. Also the Vishnu-Anantasayin panel (Harie pi. 103), from the same site,depicts a standing figure of a fully anthropoid Gamda, whose raised left hand grasps the serpent encircling the neck (FIG.27:e).This figure occurs just behind the right leg of the supine Visnu. Incidentally, a fierce-looking terracotta Gamda head is preserved in the Linden museum, Stuttgart (Raven 1994:1,156, pi.12). The face displays a blend of both avian and anthropoid features. (FIG.27:f) Excavations at [Sonkh] Mathura also brought to light a Gamda head made of 80

heavily spotted red sandstone (Hartel 1993:252,pi.13). From Jhusi [Allahabad] (Kala 1958-60:7,pi. 15,c) hails a fragmentary terracotta plaque depicting a headless partly preserved winged figure, where a suspended human leg is distinct just above the wing,and is therefore identified as probably depicting

the Garudaruda-Visnu* • k • theme. The Garuda motif also figures as an independent device on the royal seals of the Gupta rulers, as in case of one such seal assigned to either KuMaragupta II or III (Raven 162, pi.16). Likewise, the mythical bird is commonly seen on certain Gupta gold,silver, copper and lead coins. (FIG.29:m,n) This imperial Gam^a banner is evident on Gupta gold types issued from the reign of Samudragupta upto and including that of Skandagupta (Raven 24ff.). These Garuda motifs on the silver and copper issuesjdisplay plenty of iconographic variations too (Raven 163ff.). The sealing depictions include the two specimens from Rajghat (Raven pls.17,18) [Varanasi], (FIG.27:h) Although considerably abraded,the details of cuda, outspread wings and serpent on which the Garuda tramples,are distinct . Another interesting sealing (FlG.28:i) housed in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts [U.S.A] (Raven pl.19)depicts a suparna!Garuda carrying away a nagini, confirming more with Phase IV or rather Kushana period depictions of Garu(^a and nagini, known from Mathura and Gandhara. The Garuda figure is also employed as a decorative amd perhaps auspicious motif for embellishing pillars and pilasters as evident from the Kausambi pillar(Candra 1970a:pl.Lxv), where a Garuda, seated en face is enclosed within a lunnette-shaped frame carved on a pillar having fan- shaped tail feathers [PI.XVI.A], The Bhitari Ghazipur Garuf/a with a highly stylised floriated tail flanking the rotund body, is enclosed within a pillar face demi- medallion(Agrawala 1974-74:pl.iv.2).

15. Winged Figures: Excavations at Kausambi brought to light a richly decorated pumaghata plaque of terracotta, where winged yaksa’s are depicted as issuing out of a rich fiolage of lotus flowers and leaves- one of them appearing to be a female figure (FIG.39:o). 16. Human-faced animal figures: Two such instances, dated to c.e**" A.D. are known from Ahichchhatra (Kala 1980 :pls.211,212) the anthropoid head of one of these sporting a curly,wig style hair-do. The other is bald-headed and cherubic, with lower limbs of animal body missing (Figs.20:c,d). 81

17. Kinnara figures: Kinnara figures either depicted singly or in pairs, possess a lower body consisting of a stylised floriated tail, minus the clawed legs, a human trunk. Such floriated-tailed kinnara figures have come to light from a number of sites in the U.P, such as Bhitari Ghazipur (Biswas&Jha 1985:75,pi.96[a-g]) where these figures are executed on pillar faces, enclosed within a lunnette or rectangular shaped frames, depicted either frontally or in profile; Kausambi (Chandra1970a:pl.Lxv,200,a) where a kinnara-mithuna is executed within a demi-medallion carved on pillar face (FIG.33:b); Deogarh (Vats 1952:29,pl.xiv) again where kinnara-mithuna, framed within a circular sunk medallion, standing to either sides of a kalpvriksa possess a corpulent body, clawed bird legs and wings; Sarnath (Hargreaves 1914- 15:104,pl.Lx1v,d) where a carved freize depicts one such plump figure in profile, with other motifs consisting of a pair of glum-faced seated )^sa-iike figures flanking, a central figure resembling a triton-motif with bifurcated tails. Certain other representations of bird figures, possessing a human head are also known, such as the terracotta depiction unearthed during the Sahet- Mahet [Sravasti] excavations possessing a wig like hair style and large pendulous belly (Marshall 1910-11:21,pl.xii,a,7); or the Purana Qila [New Delhi] (lAR 1969-70:5,pl.xiv) moulded pot with the lid fashioned to represent one such figure richly adorned and possessing an arc shaped bird body (FIG.31:k). From Sirsa, Haryana (Shanna 1976:129-30 FIG. 16 ) hails a terracotta depiction of a female figure, winged, possessing clawed feet, identified as the spouse of Garuda but,more appropiately can be classed as a kinnari figure. 18. Triton-like fiqures-merman/mennaid: A carved freize from the site of Sarnath, (Hargreaves 1914-15:104,pi.LXIV,d) depicts in the centre a figure, whose iconography somewhat confirms to the twin-tailed triton-like figures. A red sand stone fragment of a halo unearthed from Govindnagrar [Mathura ],depicts a head less merman, lying on it's belly [PI. L.A]; while another such halo fragment (Sharma 1984:115,figs.48,50) hailing from the same site, depicts a mermaid figure. Interestingly, a terracotta depiction of a headless mermaid with clasped hands in anjalimudra, appears to emerge from the wide open mouth of a fish with the eyes prominently indicated (FIG.12:h). 8 2

19.Jaina Balabhadra fiQures: These figures resembling their Brahmanical counterparts in their iconography hail from Mathura, flanking the figure of Neminatha along with Vasudeva (Joshi 1979a:pls.24, 25). 20. Human-torsoed horse-ftqures female centaur-like: Such representations are known from Rajghat (Agrawala 1941:5,pl.iv,13) from where a terracotta circular plaque depicts within a bearded border, a female centaur-like figure on whose back is astride a male figure holding a sharp pointed object in an aggressive manner, appearing to stab the centaur-like figure, who probably pleads for mercy,with folded hands (FIG.3:j). The Ahichchhatra excavations,(Agrawala 1947-48:170,pl.Lxv) yielded such depictions on clay plaques, and were identified by Agrawaia, as ’kinnera-mithuna" (FlG.4:k). Here one such square plaque found within the precincts of the Siva temple remains, unearthed in the ACI area at Ahichchhatra, depicts a similar equine female hybrid figure, with one hand in tripataka pose and the other hand embracing the male rider seated astride on her back; Two other plaques from the above site too depict the same motif (Agrawala 162,pl. Lviii.A). 21. Varaha: Images of the boar headed, anthropoid bodied {NrVaraha) hail mainly from Varanasi where, a pillar housed in Bharat Kala Bhavan (Biswas&Jhal 985:40,pi.ix,13c)is carved on one of its faces with a two armed,standing Varaha [PI. LII.A]. The figure of Prth\^ is suspended from the left tusk of the figure The Bhitargaon figure (Zaheer1981:89,FIG.71) is a powerfully modelled one, boar head in profile, with a partly preserved PrthvT figure [PI. LIll.A]. While the Kutari Allahabad pillar \/ara/7a(Chandra1970a:90- 91) with the boar-head missing, wraps his left hand around the lower body of the PrthvT figure [Pl.LII.B]. The State Museum,Lucknow sandstone sculpture, hailing from Mathura,(Joshi1972:89,FIG.10) preserves only the lower part of the image, with none of the distinctive and hence identifiable iconographic features is tentatively identified as representing the lower portion of a Varaha image. 22. Mara hosts: A Sarnath fragmentary relief, depicting the temptation of Buddha, has the demonic hosts rendered with a lion and bull face. The bull-headed figure also has a tusked face delineated on his belly (Sahni 1914:65). 23. Kumbandha figure: A small panel from the Siva temple at BhuMara depicts a dwarfed, corpulent figure,with a lion -face delineated on the belly (Vats 1952:10, pl.1x,a). 83

CENTRAL INDIA The Phase V therianthropic depictions pertain largely to the following types: - 1. Narasimha: Only a single instance of a seated Narasimha image is known. A rock cut sculpture hewn on the northern side of the Kaimur sandstone hills of the Vindhyan ranges at Sindursi [Jabalpur district] (Trivedi 1976:35, pi.3) is somewhat comparable to the Ramtek [Maharashtra] Narasimha images [PI. XXXVI]. Standing images of Narasimha, two handed,are predominant in Central India and hail from Ramgarth hill [district Vidisa] (Berkson1978:FIG.6), Besnagar (FIG.64;h) (CooMaraswamy1927:pl.XLV,170), Eran (FIG.64:i) (Harlel 974:38-39,pi.25)and Pehiajpur, (FIG.64:j) Sagar dist.(Bajpei1964:pl.v),wearing a thick vanamala necklace . Representations of the ugra-Narasimha are also known from Nachna Kuthara, Panna, ( Spink 1971:164-165,FIG.321)which is interestingly a narrative panel, where the four handed man lion is depicted as grappling with Hiranyakasipu (FIG.65:k). The panel, at the same time, also expresses the fact of Hiranyakasipu's failed attempts of escaping from his aggressor. As pointed out by Spink (1971) infact there seems to be another representation of Narasimha's head, just behind the figure of the demon, as if to confirm the latters impending doom." The Gupta period [c.5*^ c. AD] Vamana temple at Marhia [Jabalpur dist, M.P] too, houses a narrative sculpture of an ugra-Narasimha, tearing open the entrails of Hiranyakasipu and thus follows a completely different iconographic idiom when compared to the other representations of this type (Candra 1970b, 127). 2. Ganesha: A large number of Ganesha images are known, the earliest of which (FIG.54:d) are carved in the Udayagiri caves(Banerji 1993:11,pi.14)and the Ramgarth Hill,Vidisa (Berkson 1978:216,FIG.3). Both are two-handed and seated in ardhaparyahkasana however the Udayagiri one is ithyphallic .The other seated images consist of the two handed Ganesa, carved in a niche of the Parvati Temple from Nachana-Kuthara (FlG.54:e), Panna dist- (Banerjil993:11,pl.16)who is seated in rajaliasana ; the BhuMara images, of which one is two handed, adorned with a number of bell ornaments (FIG.55:f) and wearing a mukuta (Banerji1924:14,pl.xv,a,b); while, the other BhuMara Ganesha( Getty 1936:27,pi.3, a ), interestingly has his female sakti seated on his lap,and is four handed and bare headed (FIG.55:g). A caitya window fragment, hailing from the vicinity of the Siva Temple at BhuMara (Banerji 84

1924:12,pi.12,a) is carved with a four handed, seated Ganesha, possessing slightly inclined elephant -head (FIG.55:h). 3. Naaa figures: Several independent images of naga and nagiril figures are known from the Vidisa region. From Firozpur hails a pair of life-size independent naga- nagl couple, the naga holding a bunch of flowers and a small water flask. He has seven hoods while the nagJ only five (Williams 1976:176, figs.5,6). Housed in the Sanchi museum is a nagl from Sanchi somewhat damaged and akin to the above naga in the delineation of the postures as well as attributes. Other such standing, lotus as well as flask- bearing naga figures [PI. XXIX.B] too hail from Sanchi (Hamid et al 1922:33- 34.A103; Rao 1987-88:64,pl.6). A naga representing Sega (Harle 1974:pl.14) in a subsidiary position is delineated as possessing an ophidian lower body, on which rests one of the legs, of the Varaha of the Udayagir cave. The naga with hands clasped is accompanied by a naginJtoo (FIG.51 :n). 4. Ganas: From BhuMara hail (Banerji 1924: 9-11,pl.1x,c) several carved architectural fragments, divided into squares or rectangular shaped niches, containing therianthropic gana figures All these nude gana figures, with a chubby, dwarfed and corpulent physique have faces of a tiger, boar, bull, monkey, elephant as well as a parrot. A Kumbandha- type gana figure too is known from the same site (Banerji) human-headed, but with a feline face [probably a tiger] delineated on the protruding belly. Interestingly a Siva Stele from the village Afzalpur (Schastok 1985 : pi. Lxii), dated to A.D.630 and housed in the premises of the Mandasor fort depicts a lion-headed (FIG.70:d) dwarfish gana, ithyphallic and flanking the imposing ithyphallic Siva figure. From Nachna-Kuthara.Panna dist. (Stadner 1981:187) are reported two gana figures one of them possessing a lion face [in situ] and the other, a ram face, housed in a private collection abroad. [New York, U.S.A]. 5. Simian characters of the epic Ramavana: From Nachna-Kuthara hail several carved stone reliefs, that have been identified with the following episodes from the epics (Krishna Deva 1981 :12-13,figs. 13- 16 ) - a] Rama's meeting with Hanuman in the Pampa forest [PI. XLI.A] where Hanuman squats on the ground with folded hands with two other monkey figures, standing to the proper left. Krishna Deva explains this scene as the time when Sugriva, while leading the life of a fugitive on the Rshyamuka hill, on being suspicious of the presence of two strangers [Rama and Laksman] in the uninhabited Pampa 85

forest, sends Hanuman to spy on the strangers (Krishna Deva). b] The duel between Vali and Sugriva [PI. XL.B] who hurl rocks at each other- the whole scene being witnessed by two male figures dressed as warriors and identified as Rama and Laxmana. c] Rama killing Vali where the brothers are engaged In a duel like in the above panel, with the figure of Rama shown as taking aim and shooting an arrow at Vali. d] Hanuman at the court of Ravana who as king is seated in maharajalilasana in his palace, while in the garden outside the palace, occurs the seated figure of Hanunian, all tied up and being dragged to the presence of Ravana. The Nachna-Kuthra simian figures are depicted in their fully simian form. 6. Bull-faced figures: Housed in the Gwalior Museum is a bull-faced figure from Pawaya [Padmawati], identified as a yaksa wearing a bell on a chain slung around the neck as also an udarabandha. Another similar figure although fragmentary, whose exact provenance is unknown but may have probably hailed from some site in northern India (Agrawalal 989-91 :figs.8,9). A figure from Tumain, Guna district is endowed with a bull face [PI. VI.B]. 7. Varaha: The earliest representation of a NrVaraha hails from the Uadaygiri cave no.5 which (Harie 1974:10,pi.12) is a colossal two handed figure sporting a long vanamala and resting the raised left leg on the coils of naga (sesa) with the figure of Prthvi clinging on to his tusk towards the left side [PI. L.B]. The other standing figures of N^Varaha are from Eran (Harie 39,pl.26)a boldly executed image; from Ramgarth hill (Berkson 1978:225,FIG.4), which is a badly abraded image whose, iconography resembles the above two images ; from Badoh (Desai 1973:FIG.59), whose posture is like the above, and holds a lotus bloom on which stands a Prthvi figure [PI. LI B], The fully zoomorphic representation of the Varaha is known only from Eran, (Harie 1974:38,pl.24) with the body surface carved, with rows of closely packed human figures representing sages, and the figure of Prthvi suspended from the tusk, while a cuboid -shaped bump occurs on the head-cuboid in shape. The Nachana- Kuthara depiction is interesting, (Spink 1971:630) in that a four-handed NrVaraha kneels down on the streched out coils of the naga (sesa) (FlG.69:m) with his projecting front hands grabbing at the Prthvi figure, who in turn hooks her raised left hand on to the tusk of the Varaha. A carved pillar from Mandasor [Dasapur], (Mankodi 1980:37,pl.iv,9) dated to second half of 6*^ 86

A.D. depicts a four -armed Varaha with the uplifted figure of Prthvi supported on his left palm and standing on the coils of some nagas. 8. Goat-headed male figure: From the premises of the Deorani temple at Tala (Bilaspur), hails a goat-faced male figure, standing, with the right hand holding a danda [staff]. Described in one place as a rare image of Naigameya,(IAR 1986- 87 : 118,pi. xL,# A ) and in another case, it is identified as a gana (Dhaky 1984). 9. Garuda: Cave no. 13 Udayagiri, contains the carved depiction of a Gam^a (FIG.25;a), above the Visnu-anantasayin image (Raven 1994:150,pl.7). The figure possesses an anthropoid visage and an avian body with a pair of human arms and a snake encircling the neck. The Pawaya lintel carved (Raven 151,pi.8) with t}ie relief of the amrtamanthana (churning of the ocean) also depicts the Garuc/a figure standing en face (FIG.25:o), with wings spread out side ways, having clawed feet and incidentally without the serpent.^^ A column from Eran,Sagar dist.(Harle 1974:12,pl.23) is surmounted with a capital consisting of a pair of Garuda figures standing back to back, against a huge cakra (wheel),with one of the hands, clasping a serpent, at chest level. The strange stump- like projections, of the cakra stand, that occur between the backs of the Garuda figures are probably meant to be wings according to (Harle 1974:12) but Raven (Raven 1994:157 ) is of the opinion that these projections however are not wings for which he points out visual evidences of wingless Garuda figures of the present Phase V such as the Garuda of the Vishriu anantasayin panel of Deogarh,as also subsequent figures. The present dhvaja, dedicated to Vishnu, was erected by a local feudatory of Buddhagupta. This dedicatory inscription from the Gupta year 165/ A.D. 485, showers praise on Janardana [Visnu] as "the four anned lord whose ketu is Garuda. The pillar itself is called "the dhvaja stambha of Janardana." . The lintel of the sanctum doorway of the Marhia Vamana Vishnu Temple depicts a Garudam^a Vishnu relief. Garuda is an anthropoid figure, with huge wings,rendered in flight (Chandra 1970b: 128). 10. Kinnara: A doorway surround fragment from Nagod.Satna dist. (Chandra 1970a pi. Lxxi) depicts towards the upper corner, a female figure standing on the florinated tail of a kinnara figure, possessing a cherubic face, (FIG.33:c) with closely cropped curly hair. Two flying figures, with the head and hands damaged, depicted with long, floriated tails thus representing Kinnaras, hail 87

from the Bhitargaon temple. (Zaheer 1981:95,FIG.87). From Newal hails a rectangular terracotta panel, depicting a Kinnara, with a thick and heavy floriated tail, and the upper arms too, assuming the fonn of such heavy stylised curves (Cunningham 1968:pl. xviii,FIG.2, p.52) 11 ■ Balarama: A two-handed one, dated to c. 4*^ -5*^ century A.D. hails from Gwalior (Joshi 1979:a). 12. Havaanva: One of the earliest instances for this particular incarnation of Visnu hails from the Vamana temple at Marhia,Jabalpur dist. Four handed and standing to front in the samapada pose (Candra 1970b ; 127),the figure is flanked by personified ayudha purushas. 13. Donkey-faced figure: A donkey faced demon is depicted, on the basement of the remains of a Gupta temple at Eran, Sagar with the adjascent panels revealing Krsna-lila panels where two such panels depict this demon who,is tentatively identified as probably representing a yaksa or Dhenuka (Mishra 1981:133). 14. Yaksa with floriated lower body: On a pillar from Bhita, Allahabad is depicted a demi-medallion with beaded borders containing a goose with floriated tail, a lotus and a yaksa whose body is floriated waist down and holding a lotus in one hand (Candra 1970a:73,pl.L1). 15. Miscellaneous figures: A lion capital from Udayagiri, M.P of 3'^^ or 2"*^ B.C. has the abacus recut subsequently during the present Phase V on which are delineated various figures symbolising the various zodiac signs,some of which are depicted in a therianthropic form like a ram-headed man (aries), bull­ headed figure (taurus), crab- headed figure (cancer), lion-headed figure (leo), makara- headed figure (capricorn), fish headed man (pisces) (Harle 1974 :41 )

EASTERN INDIA

Phase V, eastern Indian visual evidences of therianthropic figures pertain to the following types:- 1. Narasimha: Curiously a terracotta sealing depicts a Narasimha figure, two handed and seated in ardhaparyahkasana on a high seat. This sealing was unearthed from Basarh (Vaishali) (Spooner1913-14:133,pl. xlvi,191). Sculptured images of Narasimha hail from Rajaona(Asher 1986:FIG.9,p.35) from where one of the temple architectural fragments is carved with a 88

candrasala that frames a four handed ugra-Narasimha (FIG.66:0), who eviscerates the demon Hiranyakasipu ; Shahkund.Bhagalpur dist. (Asher 1980:31,FIG.32) which Is, a four-handed Narasimha standing en face, haloed and depicted with the attributes of saiikha, aksamala, cakra and gada (FIG.66:a). 2. Ganesha: Only a few images of Ganesha are known, such as, the terracotta image unearthed during the Kumrahar excavations, which is a damaged, two- handed figure (Altekar & Mishra1959:109,pl.xiv, B. 4). Dated to the late Gupta period, is a seated Ganesa from Kumrahar (FIG.59:e), of red sand stone delineated on a rectangular slab, holding a bowl of sweet meats in the left hand. (Gupta 1965 : 47) 3. Naaa: Anthropoid depictions of naga are known from the Kumrahar excavations (Altekar&Narain1959:109,pl.xiv,A,1,f&2,b), which happens to be a fragmentary terracotta naga deva; Maniyar Matha, Rajagrha from where, a number of naga and nagJ figures are known, which are arranged aroung the base of the shrine dedicated to the naga worship and framed in separate niches. The naga figures are five or three hooded holding attributes of rosary or water pot. The serpent imagery of the Maniyar Matha stuccoes according to Asher (1980:23) appears to be local in inspiration and can be traced to a cult of considerable antiquity at Rajgir. Even the name Maniyar-Matha must derive from the name of Mani-naga whose, Kushana period image was found In a small brick shrine on the west side of the monument (Asher 1980). The Maniyar-Matha shrine like the structures dedicated to naga worship, such as those known from Sonkh are apsldal in plan. Two terracotta sealings from Vaishali (Sinha&Roy 1969:126,127, pl.32,51) depicts a theriomorphic naga with raised hood, with one of the sealings also consisting of the symbols of the sun and cross. While the legend on one of the sealings reads as "Venugra [Ma] Ke" i.e [in the village of Venu], the other reads as "Nagasya" [of the naga], the latter legend being explained as probably belonging to an individual, who was perhaps a naga worshipper, or a group of naga worshippers engaged In some community business (Sinha&Roy 1969). Besides, two fragmentary terracotta specimens of serpent goddess, very frequent in the visual medium of the previous Phases, possessing exaggerated hips and incised surface patterns (FIG.5:1), hail from Vaishali (Sinha&Roy 1969:169,pl.4,8). The naga and naginl depicted towards the lower side of the 89

Garuda image from Rajgir, have the lower bodies colled and interwined (Agrawala 1989-91 :FIG.3). 4. Goat-faced male/female figures: Terracotta female figurines, possessing the stylised goat-face, with pinched out nasal area, slit mouth and long dangling ears, hail from Kumrahar (Altekar&Mishra 1959:110,pl.XLIII,B,2). Around five such figurines are known from Vaishali (Krishna Deva&Mlshra 1950 :53,pl.XII,c,7). Male goat- faced figures hail from Kumrahar (Altekar&Mishra 1950) which are similar to the female figures and possess, a pierced crest, as also horn like protrusions, interestingly, from Vaishali, hail two instances of a terracotta, goat-faced couple (Sinha&Roy 1969:163,pi.LI 1,7) modelled as one unit, with one of these specimens, even depicting the tiny figure of a child between the male and female figures (FIG. 46:j) (Sinha&Roy 1969:163,pl.LII,9). Housed in the Los Angeles county museum and probably hailing from some site in Bihar (Pal 1986:260,8135) is a terracotta female figurine, anthropoid faced and possessing the long and pendulous ears of a goat (FlG.46:i). Interestingly a lithic representation of a seated goat-headed male figure, hailing from Dibrugarh, Assam (lAR 1983-84:199,pl.89) is identified as a Daksa figure and dated to the last quarter of this Phase [PI. XXXIV.B], 5. Garvda: Images of Garuda mainly as the vahana of Visnu- i.e the Ga/i/daruda V/s/7ni/form-are known from Pathargatha (Asher 1980:31,F1G.33) carved on a rock overlooking the Gan^a river and depicted with, an anthropoid head, outspread wings and possessing a body with avian features. A Cleveland museum Garudaruda image (Asher pi. 107) whose original provenance is assigned to Bihar is a boldly carved figure, with the standing Garu(^a, endowed with a cuda, shaped in the form of a naga and with arm like projections (FIG.28:j). The Garuda emblem was also employed as a royal device, on seals and coins of the various Gupta rulers. One such seal of Samudragupta was discovered from Gaya, (F1G.28:I) Bihar (Raven 1994:1,161). Also certain sealings unearthed at the site of the University too bears the same emblem, but belongs however to the successors of Skandagupta. Interestingly a copper plate from Gaya, being a seventh century copy of a Gupta charter has an attached seal towards the top, which is considered to be an original and could possibly have belonged to any of the charters of Samudragupta (Raven 161,pi. 15). Represented here is a much effaced Garuda, possessing a 90

kidney bean shaped body with outspread wings. From Rajgir, Bihar hails a Ganj(Ja of c.e"’ Cent. A.D. date in complete anthropoid form standing in pratyaltdha pose with left hand holding a naga and left leg resting on a slab upheld by naga and naginTw\ih coiled lower body (Agravala 1989-90:FIG.3 ). 6. Winged figures: Some fragmentary, moulded terracotta plaques, from the Vaishali excavations (Sinha&Roy 1969:159,160,pl.XLVII,1,3) depict mainly the lower limbs of standing human figures, with part of their wings too extant. These figures have been identified as female Gandharvas (FIG.39:a,b). 7. Kinnara figures: Kinnara figures endowed with a stylised floriated tail, are carved on some of the loose architectural fragments, hailing from the site of the Siva temple at Rajaona,West Bengal (Asher 1980:pls.2,4,6,) and consist of the following types- a] A kinnari lying on her back enclosed within a semicircular frame (FIG.33:d) and b] a winged kinnara with clawed feet and a stylised floriated tail, carved within a rectangular shaped frame (FIG. 33:e) (Asher 1980:pl.28,3). A pair of kinnaras with upraised floriated tails and holding lotus flowers, stand to either sides of a lotus plant. It hails from the courtyard of monastry No.I.at Nalanda (ASIAR 1921-22:pl.VII,a).The site of Bodhgaya has yielded railing pillars where the demi-medallions of the upper most portions, depict winged Kinnaras having, curved floriated tails and incidently, standing on clawed avian legs (CooMaraswamy 1935:pls.35,36; Gupta 1965:1,45). 8. HavaQriva-. From the Rajaona temple [West Bengal] is identified, a relief, illustrating a scene in Sugriva's court that of, an Abhishekha (Asher 1986:235,FIG.10,11). Towards the extreme proper left is depicted, a horse­ headed human figure, seated in rajafiJasena, and surrounded by a number of figures. 9. Balarama: From Devangarh hails, a Balarama-Vasudeva-Ekanamsa triad (Asher 1980), housed in the Patna museum.Although earlier dated to the Kushana period, the image fj|esently assigned to c.4'*' gent A.D by Asher (1980:18). All these figures are depicted independently, with the two- handed Balarama, sporting a serpent hood canopy and a lion -headed plough . 10. Simian characters of the Ramayana: From the Rajaona temple remains,West Bengal hails a carved relief, identified as illustrating an Abhishekha scene, in Sugriva's court(Asher 1986:235,FIG.10,11). The present relief most probably must have belonged to the jagatipitha of the temple- a location known to have 91

been endowed with the Ramayana reliefs as evident from the instances at Deogarh.U P. and other sites. In the above mentioned relief, the scenes and figures depicted from proper left end,consist of a seated horse-headed figure, surrounded by a number of figures, the abhi^ekha ceremony perfonned by a figure pouring out the contents of the pot on the head of a figure, in front of whom are seated four monkey-faced figures, two seated males holding long bows- probably representing Rama and Laksman, surrounded by six simian faced figures. Besides from Chausa (Gupta 1965:pl.XLVIII), Bihar hails a terracotta fragment depicting Rama and Laxman, with the vanara amny. The members of the vanara army are identified as Sugriva, Vibhisana, Hanunrian and Ahgada. Likewise, the sixth century A.D. Swarnajateshvara temple at Bhubaneshwar,Orrisa has a panel depicting Rama cutting down the 'Saptasalas' with a pair of simian figures, probably representing Vali and Sugriva standing nearby. 11. VarahF: A massive terracotta head of VarahJUom Panna,Midnapore dist. W.B. (Biswas 1981a:194,pl.LXII) stylistrcally assigned to c. S-G"’ Cent. A.D, is somewhat realistically rendered, possessing long and pendulous ear lobes, elaborate coiffure and prominent tusks [PI. LIII.B], 12. Varaha: Both purely zoomorphic as well as, therianthropic depictions of the Boar incarnation of Vishnu are known. The zoomorphic depiction hails from Aphsad,Gaya, Bihar (Asher 1980:54,FIG.87) and its body is replete with, tiny figures of closely packed human figures, with a bump like protrusion on head and PrthvT clinging on to his left tusk . Dated to the late fifth or early sixth century, is the finely carved NrVaraha relief of the Jahangira rock, Sultanganj.Bhagalpur, Bihar (Sahai 1963:145,FIG.6) with the figure of Adisesa near his feet and none of the characteristic Vaishnavite attributes. 13. Horse-Headed figure: From Orissa hails a horse headed, dwarfish figure, identified as Hayagffva by the Bhubaneshwar Museum authorities. This standing figure curiously plays a dhol (drum) with both hands, and may be identified with Tumburu The figure can also be identified as some gana figure, on account of it's dwarfish physiognomy and prominent genitals. 14. Bull Faced figure: Again hailing from Orissa and, housed in the Bhubaneshwar Museum is an architectural fragment, carved with a pair of figures, one of the figures facing to front, pot-bellied, possessing the head of a bull. His right hand 92

rests on a short danda . This figure, may be tentatively identified as a Gomukha Yaksa. 15. Animal faced miatrka: From Saraikhela.Singbhum, Bihar, hails a matrka seated in pralambapadasana, pot -bellied, and endowed with an animal- face resembling that of a monkey (Gupta 1965). This figure’s dated broadly to sixth- seventh century A D.

THE DECCAN

The Phase V Deccani depictions of therianthropic figures can be listed as follows - 1. Narasimha figures: Some of the earliest Narasimha figures of this region hail, from Ramtek hill,Nagpur, Maharashtra. One of these is housed in the Kevala Narasimha temple,(Jamkhedkar 1991:1,198,pi.84) on whose walls was discovered a 14-line Vakataka inscription, recording that this patricular Narasimha image was, caused to be carved by Prabhavati Gupta herself[?],and which simultaneously, refers to the god as "Prabhavati swamin". This imposing figure, seated in maharajalilasana, is depicted with the cakra attribute. The other Narasimha figure, is referred to as Rudra Narasimha (Jamkhedkar 1987:111,339) and in its iconography, is exactly similar to the above Kevala Narasimha image except that, the present figure is supposed to have a ferocious facial expression. These two Narasimha figures of the Ramtek hill, appear to be royal consecrations, of Prabhavati Gupta, wife of the Vakataka king Rudrasena II and daughter of Chandragupta II. ” Similarly Narasimha images resembling the Ramtek figures, have also been brought to light from other sites in Maharashtra such as- Gurgaon -Gadchroli dist.; Bhatala, in the vicinity of Warora,Chandrapur dist.; Nandpur, Parsi-Vani in Nagpur dist.; Paunar in Wardha dist.(Jamkhedkar 1993 :111) . All these figures apparently indicating, the popularity of a cult centered around this deity, during the reign of the Vakatakas. From the site of Kunidane (Shastri 1967-68:16) Darsi, Upallapadu in Guntur dist., A. P. hail lithic plaques, (Bolon 1992 :figs.104,107) carved with a series of figures in a straight row, consisting of Brahma, Devi, ^iva-lihga with bull mount, lotus headed goddess (Lajja Gauri), a standing male figure holding a danda / sakti, with a lion-headed figure, seated on its haunches, rendered towards the extreme left end of the slab. These lion headed figures resemble those of Phase 93

IV from A.P. Another plaque (PI. XXXIX.B] hailing from Peddamudiyam.Cuddhapah dist. (Bolon FIG.126) depicts a different series of figures- Ganesha, Brahma standing, standing Narasimha, Sivaliiiga on a very high pedestal, a standing couple, seated Siva and Parvati, with crouched bull mount, Durga-Mahisasuramardini, with a pair of human hands towards the extreme left. A / feature, noteworthy in case of these plaques is their Saivite and Sakta ethos as symbolised by the depictions of Siva lihga, the bull mount, Siva and Parvati, and at times Ganesha and Karttikeya, along with Durga-Mahisasura and the headless lajja Gauri. Images of Narsimha belonging largely to the later part of 6*^ century A.D, also hail from Karnataka such as the Badami, Cave No. lll(Radcliffe 1981 :91-92 ) four handed standing figure ; the Virata purusa image of Badami cave no.Ill (FIG.66:b), also identified as AstabhujaswamT, who sports a tall kirita crown that depicts the bust of a four handed, lion-faced Narasimha emerging from, the top of the crown, with a lotus flower crowning the head(Radcliffe 88-89). Other figures include the six armed ugra-Narasimha of the upper Vishnu temple of Badami, cave no.Ill (Radcliffe 121); and finally the two-handed figures of Narasimha reported from Benge,N.Kanara dist.(IAR 1976-77:27). 2. Ganesha: One of the earliest images of Ganesa, of this region hails from Hamlapuri, (Ramtek) Maharashtra (Jamkhedkar 1991:1,201,pi.81). Dated to c. 4*^ century AD, this damaged, two armed image, is seated in maharajalilasana, with the hands missing. Of a much later date (Banerji 1993) (FIG.59:f) is the two- armed Ganesa holding a parasu carved as part of the Nataraja panel in the main hall [northern portico, west wall] of cave no.1 at Elephanta near Mumbai. Curiously the figure’s probiscis end is turned to the right. (FIG.59:g) Excavations at Paunar, Wardha dist. Maharashtra (Deo&Dhavalikar 1968:112-113, pl.XXX) brought to light a red sand stone, heavily adorned two - handed, seated Ganesa too. From Karnataka too are known certain images of this deity such as the somewhat similar standing, two - handed figures from Gokama (FIG.59:h) and Idalgunji (FIG.59:i) in N.Kanara dist., and dated to c. 3-4*^ centuries AD (Banerji 1993:11,pis. 9,10). The Badami cave no.1 [dt: 550-555 AD],(Radcliffe 1981:64,68) depictions consist of two handed Ganesha figures in a subsidiary position, the first, (FlG.59:j) forming part of the Nataraja panel, delineated towards the western flange of this cave temple [PI. XII.B];and the other, holding a bowl of modakas, is carved on the 94

subshrine wall, which also depicts an image of Karttikeya. Excavations at Peddaveggi ( anc.Vengipura), have also unearthed a burnt clay figure of a two handed Ganesa, wearing a yajnopavita{ lAR 1986-87:21) From Mahakuta,Karnataka hail two instances of seated two-handed Ganesas, with one of them holding attributes of broken tusk and sweet balls( Balasubramanyam 1965:56-57,pl.XXXV FIG.2). 3. Naaa- Naaini figures: From the hail both painted as well as sculptured depictions of anthropoid serpent figures, endowed with a serpent hood canopy shielding the head. Small sized, at times their consorts or their entire royal entourage accompany them. One of the painted depictions here delineate the naga-n^gl with a long ophidian tail. The sculptured representations are rendered above doon«/ays, pillar faces, shrine and entrance doorways, door frame lintels, exterior verandah chambers, cave interior walls. The right wall of antechamber cave no.7 is carved with the naga Muchilinda episode.The seated nagaraja and his queen(Harie 1986:pl.94) of the cave no. 19 [exterior] depicts a seven hooded naga in ardhaparyahkasana along with his queen possessing a single hood and seated on a high seat, wrth a female assistant standing nearby, onthe right side of main shrine. From the later part of this Phase come to light naga figures possessing a coiled lower body, generally depicted on the ceiling of the Badami and Aihole group of monuments such as the Badami, cave no.1 ceiling medalion, 4. Goat- headed figures: Excavations at Mandhal, Nagpur brought to light a standing goat-faced male figure (Jamkhedkar 1991:I,200,FIG.70) holding a danda and preserved only upto the thighs.The figure has prominent goat-like ears and membrum virile. 5. Winged figures: Some minor anthropoid figures possessing wings are known from the Ajanta caves, such as cave no. 17 where the verandah ceiling [towards the left hand corner] depicts a painted figure of a winged load bearing yaksa figure. Likewise the lintel of the entrance doorframe of cave no.20 too depicts a pot bellied, winged figure with extremely short legs. From the Aihole Buddhist templ6, Karnataka c dt -c.555-575 A.D. hails a winged man before whom stands a dog carved on the sanctum doonway along with other nan'ative scenes (Radcliffe 1981). 6. Animal-faced mother goddess: From Peddavegi [anc. Vengipara], W.Godavari dist., A.P (lAR 1985-86:6) is reported a unique terracotta female figurine. 95

dated to c.5*^ or early B*’ A.D, possessing a leonine face, serpent like ornaments, and holding lilies and seated on a serpent hood. 7. Kinnara: Two types of kinnara figures are known from this region. From the Ajanta caves (Griffiths 1896-97:1,FIG.19.a) hail painted depictions of kinnaras possessing an avian lower body, with clawed legs and tail .One of these is depicted as standing beneath a palm and holding a stringed musical instrument [PI. XX.A], while the other is a pair of kinnaras (FIG.33:f), standing one behind the other, one of them bare-headed with shoulder length curly hair and the other crowned with the tail feathers unfurled (Griffiths l,FIG.19,b). A similar kinnara figure holding a garland, winged is framed within a circular medallion,painted on one of the pillars of cave no.18 (Griffiths 1896- 97;pl.147,19,20) . A pair of kinnaras, endowed with a stylised floriated tail is painted in one of the corners of the square frame on the verandah ceiling of the cave no.2. The pair appears to be engaged in a tussle (FIG.34:i) with one of the kinnaras wrapping his arms around the other one - who possess a terrified facial expression (Griffiths II,43,pi.147). Like wise painted kinnara figures with floriated tails,also occur in one of the rectangular panels of the ceiling of cave no.1 (Griffiths pl.104,6f) as also the verandah ceiling of cave no.21 (Griffiths pl.1570 Some of the Badami caves contain pillar reliefs depicting a variety of floriated tailed kinnaras [PI. XXI.A] in diverse attitudes either battling with monstruos looking creatures or are single depictions (Radcliffe 1981:39,43; Banerji 1928:pls.V,a-d,pls.VI,c,e). A carving enclosed in a upper niche of the doorframe of the entrance of cave no.23, depicts a female figure standing on a cherubic kinnara, lying supine on the stomach with a floriated lower body and the anthropoid upper body held upright. From the mandapa ceiling of the Aihole, Jaina rock cut temple hail instances of floriated tailed Kinnara figures (Radcliffel 981:39) with similar depictions on the ceiling of the Aihole, Siva rock cut temple Ravana phadi (Radcliffe 43). 8. Asvamukhl Yaksinl: The Aivamukhl Yaksini of the Padakusalamanava Jataka finds depiction on the ceiling of Ajanta cave no. 17 (Griffiths 1896- 97:11,44,pi.142,f). This painting depicts the Yak^inJ seated on the ground, with her left hand placed on the back of a garlanded male figure seated in front of her (FIG.2:f). 96

9. Rsyasrrtqa: A painting on the left side wall of the front corridor of cave no. 16 Ajanta, identified earlier as representing scenes from the life of the boy Mahosadha, is presently identified with various episodes from the story of Rsyasrhga (Schlingloff 1973;306).Three scenes are identified here-the first, depicting the woman who have arrived by boat at the residence of the hermit in order to abduct the boy Rshya^rrtga. A damaged scene above probably depicts the hermit seated who appears to give instructions to the person [probably his son Rsyasrrtga], while far below is apparently discernaWe a palace gateway and below presumably the palace courtyard and traces of a stilted throne. In the abduction scene is depicted a boy bald-headed except for a tuft of hair and a strange looking growth namely a coiled pointed protruberance on the fore head, which could only be explained as being a horn. 10. Hosts of Mara: From Ajanta are known both painted and carved depictions of the Temptation of the Buddha by Mara. Cave no.1 houses a painted depiction (Griffiths 1896-97:1,pi. 8 ) where Mara is protrayed as accompanied by his beautiful daughters, aggressive soldiers, as well as the grotesque demonic hordes, with corpulent bodies some of them possessing the head of a horse, boar and another figure whose tongue assumes the form of a snake. All these figures have a threatening and fierce air around them. The Temptation panel carved in cave no. 19, is dominated in the centre by the calmly seated figure of the Buddha in bhumi-sparsamudra surrounded at the top by the figures of Mara on his elephant, his daughters, soldiers with the various ferocious looking, therianthropic demonic hosts (FIG.42:m,n) such as a horse-headed figure, a kumbandha figure, with the face of a ram, a boar-headed dwarfish figure, on whose stomach is carved a grotesque face, a tiger [ or a feline faced figure] as also a donkey /horse -headed dwarfish figure. 1 1 .Gana figures: The prince of Wales museum Mumbai, houses a lithic representation of a lion-head corpulent, dwarfish male whose exact provenance however, is unknown. He wears a naga girdle, and with the membrum virile exposed. This figure identified as a yaksa, is somewhat similar to the figure carved on a Siva stele from Afzalpur [M.P]. In one of the Elephanta caves, Mumbai is delineated an elephant headed dwarfish figure, probably representing a gana figure (Parimoo 1988:38). From Karnataka too hail a number of such therianthropic gana figures(Dhaky 1984:pl.213). The 97

carved freize in the Bada^'cave no.1, depicts dancing and gambolling ganas, among whom is figured a horse-headed gana. (FIG.70:c) Another freize carved with the figure of eight ganas (Dhaky pi.214), one of them feline faced and the other as simian faced. A carved panel from the Badami [dt. C.578 A.D] depicting the figures of Kama and Rati also depicts a dwarfish male figure endowed with a horse-head and holding a club (Radcliffe 1981;84;Banei]i 1928:pl.X,b). 12. Balarama: Both independent as well as narrative panels are known, notably from Maharashtra. From Paunar,Wardha dist. hails a panel dated to C.475- 490 A.D. identified as depicting the Dhenuka-vada tale(Jamkhedkar 1985:83,pi.120). Here the figure of Balarama in pratyalidha pose, grabs the hind legs of Dhenuka in asinine form and is posed to hurl the ass demon against the tala tree depicted to the left side. From Bhokardan cave temple (IAR1960-61 :pl.XCII,C) in Aurangabad hails the figures of Baladeva and Subhadra, Baladeva being two handed holds the atribute of a plough. 13. Mahisasura: A therianthropic depiction of Mahisasura is known from the Badami, cave no. I (Tartakov&Dehejia 1984:325,FIG.30,31) where one of the narrative panels which decorate the lintels of the porch depict a four-handed Durga, with her left leg placed on the lower limbs of a buffalo-headed Mahi sasura, fallen on his knees . 14. Simian characters of the Ramayana: From Paunar.Wardha dist.(Mirashi 1961:278) hails a stone panel representing the duel between Vali and Sugriva, where they stand behind one another locked in combat. 15. Varahi: The VarahJ T\gure of the Elephanta cave matrka group (Pannikar 1996) holding an infant in their arms and are identifiable on the basis of their animal standards-depicted on the background wall, has her animal standard mutilated, which is also the case with her visage, but it appears that probably she was endowed with a human face. The §iva rock cut temple at Ravana phadi cave(Radcliffe 1981:45-46) at Aihole [Dt. C.545-555 A.D] has a sub­ shrine carved with the figure of a nataraja dancing amidst a group of matfka figure. Here the figure of Varahi is identifiable by her sow face crowned, and with a pleated halo behind [PI. LIV.B]. 16. Bull-faced figure: A Hari Hara panel located in the Siva rock cut cave no.I at Badami (Agrawala 1989-91 :FIG.6) [550-55 A.D] has to the right and left sides 98

depicted,their respective vahanas I.e.the bull and Garuda, where the bull mount is depicted in a therianthropic form i.e. bull faced human figure holding a danda. (FIG.75:j) Another such figure is also reported from the Alhole Siva cave temple (Raddiffe 1981:69). 17. Varaha: A theriomorphic depiction of Varaha dated to around the second quarter of the fifth century A.D. hails from Ramtek,Maharashtra (Jamkhedkar 1991:198,pi.85) .Housed in a pavillion this colossal image stands on the serpentine body of sesa, with the Prthvr figure clinging on to the mutilated tusk. The Badami rock cut caveNos. II andlll houses two four armed Varaha images (Raddiffe 1981:75,90) while another image of the deity is delineated in the Aihole Siva rock cave (Raddiffe 48). 18. Garuda: Garuda figures mainly hail from the latter part of this Phase. The figure from Elephanta (Chandra 1974) in the Prince of Wales is depicted in a flying posture and is somewhat mutilated . The Badami cave no.lll, (FIG.29:o) figure is anthropoid (Banerji 1928) with beak and wings while the Visnu on Garuda delineated on the verandah ceiling of Badami temple II as also the same theme executed in the antarala of Aihole, Siva rock cut temple, Ravana phadi. 19. Animal eared figure: A small square painted panel on the ceiling of Ajanta cave no.1 depicts a yaksa corpulent bodied, having pointed ears resembling that of some bovine creature (Griffiths 1896-97:pl.105,13).

WESTERN INDIA

From Western India hail the following therianthropic figures - 1. Vishwarupa-Vishnu: From Samalaji,Gujarat hail a number of such images [PI. LV.A] dated by Schastok to the first half of the sixth century A.D one such figure housed in the Vishramghat shrine (Schastok 1985:pl.XX,XXXI,35) is seated in pralambapadasana, with the feet resting on the intertwined coils of serpents. This eight- handed figure with three anthropoid heads depicts on the stele forming a background to the head, rows of human figures, amongst which are also depicted the horse-headed Hayagnva, Brahma, a boar headed NrVaraha and a lion faced Narasimha. The Desai Vishwarupa (Schastoc 1985:pl. XVI) exactly similar to the above housed in the National museum Delhi preserves on the huge semicircular sirascakra a horse headed human 99

figure [Hayagm/a], while another fragmentary prabhavali from the same site i.e. Samaiaji (Schastoc.pl. XXV,40 ) preserves the figure of a four handed Varaha only. 2. Ganesa: Ganesa images of this region hail from Samaiaji (Schastok pi.VI, 10) [dt.c.Mid-sixth century A.D, Dt Ca A.D.525] two-handed, forming part of a matrka group (FIG.60:n); Tintoi (Schastok pl.XXXI,51) which is a dancing GaneSa with Camunda, (FlG.61:o) Amjhara (Schastok pl..XL,69 ) [dt.c.530 A.D], a two handed figure seated in maharajalilasana holding the attributes of a modaka bowl and a radish/lotus bud (FIG.61:a). 3. Naga: The naga-pbana-tirtha temple located a few miles off the highway between Dungapur and Kesariyaji, Rajasthan (Shah 1967:51) houses a nags image which is in worship today in this Jaina temple. Dated to area 5“^ or 6*^ c.AD it is a seated anthropoid figure with a seven- headed serpent hood canopy . Another depiction of a naga is that of Kaliya, who was slain by Krsna. From Mandor, Rajastan (Bhandarkar 1905-06) comes a pillar carved with various lilas associated with the fives of both Krsna and Balarama, among which is also represented the Kaliyamardana episode . Here Kaliya is depicted as a human torsoed ophidian tailed figure with serpent hood canopy on which Krena places his raised left leg. 4. Animal eared figures: A square shaped decorative brick from Devnimori (FIG.74;f),Gujarat (Harle 1974:53,pls.122,126) portrays a grotesque human face, endowed with animal ears. Also a grotesque human face delineated on a decorative brick from Mirpur Khas (FIG.74:g), Sind (Harle 53,pl.126) has stylised animal ears- triangular in shape. 5. AsvamukhT- Horse-headed female qoblin/fairy: One such instance is known from a Brahmanical context, where a panel illustrating a Krsna-lila, that of Govardhanadhari Krsna carved on a door jamb from Mandor, Rajasthan, (Desai 1973:FIG.91) depicts towards the upper portion the bust of a female, horse-headed figure peeping from amidst the various undulating mountain peeks, along with some other creatures of the wild such as a cobra and a lion - all of whom are purturbed at the turbulance, caused due to the uprooting of the mountain by krshna (FIG.1:e). 6. Horse headed male figure: A terracotta tablet unearthed during the Sambhar, Rajasthan excavations, (Sahni 1939:33,pl.VII,c) depicts an equine headed male figure, holding a rosary in one of the hands (FlG.67:d). Probably the 100

figure may be identified with Hayagriva on account of the aksamala which happens to be one of the attributes of this incarnation of Visnu. 7. Ajaiel

NORTHWEST FRONTIER REGION

The following types of therianthropic figures are known from Phase V - 1. Ganesa: A c.fourth century A.D.standing image is known from Sakar Dhar Kabul, Afganisthan (Dhavalikar 1971:FIG.2) four handed with only the upper hands preserved, which stretched down sideways to rest on a pair of dwarfish 101

attendents. (FIG.60:1) He is depicted as urdhamedhra . Like the above image the other c.early 6*^ c AD,two- handed Ganesa from Gardez.Dargah Pir (Dhavalikar 332,FIG.1) too is urdhamedhra, bare headed, with the probosis end and hands missing. The lower drapery of this figure is adorned with a lion face and pairs of claws (FIG.60:m). 2. Naaa figures: A number of reliefs depicting the naga figures and dated broadly to c.300-400/460 A.D revolve around the following episodes - a] Victory over the black serpent at Rajagriha depicted on a relief from Ranighat (Ingholt 1957:74,No. 92), with the serpent in theriomorphic form .Reliefs depicting the presentation of the serpent by the Buddha to the Kasyapas, hail from Sikri, Sahri Bahlol (Ingholt 71,73 Nos.81, 88,89). b] Hymn of the naga Kalika and his wife figured on a panel from the Sikri Stupa(lngholt 63, No.56) with the nagas in anthropoid form having serpent hood canopy clasping their hands in adoration. Two other panels housed in the Peshawar museum (Ingholt 63- 64,Nos.57,58) whose exact provenances are unknown, c] A panel housed in the Gai collection, Peshawar ( Ingholt 148, No.349) depicting a group of nagas emerging from a tank consisting of a nagaraja flanked on either sides by nagirii figures clasping their hands in adoration, d] Another relief (Ingholt 158,No.399) described as illustrating an example of the fondness of the nagas for dancing and music - depicts a couple of musicians and dancers - all of whom are represented either as nagas or nag/s. This relief is housed in the Lahore Museum, also depicts a sacrificial altar before which stands a king and a nagf. e] Episode of the naga king Apalala hailing from Karamar (Ingholt 101,No.163) kneeling before the Buddha hands clasped in adoration along with the figure of Vajrapani holding a thunder bolt to right, f] Panel depicting the visit of Indra, where in level with the Buddha's right knee appears- a figure identified as a naga king with six hoods( Ingholt 1957). Interestingly a Sahri Bahlol relief (Ingholt 127,No. 261) depicts a Buddha seated on a lotus seat carried by three elephants instead of the usual naga figures. A similar relief hails from Yakubi (Ingholt 123- 126,No.256). 3. Winged female figures: A fragmentary carved slab from Charsadda mount (Ingholt 1957:153) [Dt. c 300-400 A.D] depicts a thick undulating garland borne on the shoulders of amorini figures, with a winged female figure depicted in one of the upper spaces. A terracotta plaque from the Gandhara 102

region depicts a female figure hands clasped and endowed with a pair of huge wings (Ashton 1950:pl.23,FIG.168). A Lucknow museum carved slab (Joshi 1969;97-98:pl.87), hailing from some site in ancient Gandhara depicts a pair of yaksas/amorini amidst acanthus leaves, appearing to hold garlands, with the figure at the top endowed with a leaf shaped wing. (FIG.39;n)This piece is much Indianised and particularly the lower figure has many features of the Gupta period. 4. Kinnara figures: A panel in the Karachi museum ( Ingholt 151-152; Foucher 1955:188, FIG.28,2) depicts four figures, human trunked with portion below waist assuming the shape of a flounced skirt of foilage. These figures are described as kinnara figures and perhaps the faunal lower body represents stylised plummage. 5. Triton: A number of such figures are known from the sites of Karamar (lngholt155,No.389 ) where a triangular panel- depicts a pair of ichthyo centaur,-male and female,their piscine tails inte^ined with the female offering a drink from a cup to the male whom she embraces tenderiy with the other hand. A frag mentary gable, (Ingholt 116-117,No.238) divided into three sections, has the top most section depicting a Buddha figure flanked by devotees as also an ichthyocentaur whose hands are clasped in adoration. . A freize from the Charsadda mound (Ingholt 156,No.390) depicts triton figures of which three are preserved, (FIG.11 :g) the central one being young and without a beard, while the figure to the right has a beard and moustache. The triton to left has long flowing hair holding a bowl to his mouth. From Shotorak (Meunie 1942:pl.38.119) from where hails two instances of a winged ichthyo centaur as well as a triton with bifurcated fish tails, holding a thick staff in one of the hands. Besides, an ichthyocentaur is depicted as paying homage along with other human devotees to a seated figure of a Buddha, executed on a relief depicting also the scene of the submission of the naga Apalala (Hargreaves 1930:11,pi.5,a). A fragmentary base housed in Peshawar museum depicts between a leonine feet, a pair of tritons who "appear to be engrossed in conversing to one another" (Ingholt 156,No.395 ). A turbanned ichthyocentaur (FIG.10:e) in the role of a devotee is again figured on a false gable hailing from Takht-i-Bahai, which depicts the Buddha in meditation worshipped also by three princes (Ingholt 106,No.188). A similar figure is also executed on a pediment slab from Loriyan Tangai and is housed in the Calcutta Museum 103

(Grundwedel 1893:131, FIG.p.38). Likewise from Taxiia (Marshall 1951:11,711) is known a fragment from a false gable-window consisting of parts of two arched frames between which are depicted a conventionalised garland and part of the coils and leafy tail of a triton - a creature according to Marshall commonly found in this position in the false gable windows". 6. Winged atlas/atlantes: Several such instances of winged atlantes figures dated to c.300-400 AD are known from various sites of these regions (Ingholt 154-155,Nos.382 -383,385-387)'AII of them are winged and bearded except for No.382 sans a beard with each of these figures [Nos.388, 383] wearing wreaths around their necks, while right hand of no.386 seemingly supports the moulding above and no.387 is an impressive figure with hair, beard and facial expression described by Ingholt as "clearly reflecting Herackles". 7. Vaikuntha caaturmurti visnu: A bronze image of c 4-5*'' century AD date hails from the Gandhara region (Hartel 1960:1,pls.42-43). This four handed standing figure has the central anthropoid face flanked by the heads of a boar and lion which are attached to the shoulders and depicted with attributes of padma and sahkha and personified attributes of cakrapurusa and gadadevTaX the bottom. Between his feet occurs a winged female figure emerging from the centre of a lotus (FIG.68:j).

CONCLUDING REMARKS The broad-scale survey of the diverse therianthropomorphic visual evidences, across space and time reveals how from their small beginlngs in Phase I (c.600 B.C.- c. 300/200 B.C. ) when they make their visual presence felt for the fist time in the terracotta medium, they gradually gain wider provenance to almost becoming by Phase III (c.200 B.C.-100 B.C.), a pan-Indian phenomenon with practically all the regional zones yielding such diverse therianthropic figures. Simultaneously along with their gradual ascendancy spatially and temporally, thematic-wise too a great variety of figures such as some major cultic figures of the established religions, decorative forms, semi-divine figures, certain non-vedic ‘popular’ divinities, as well as malevolent demi-gods and others begin to assume the therianthropomorphic form in their visual language . Certain broad trends are also discernible so far as the historical development of the therianthropic figures are concerned . These pertain to the following stages : 104

1. Genesis: Embryonic Stage: This stage coincides with Phases I and I! (Pre- Maurya and IVIaurya periods ) respectively . It witnesses the inauguration of the therianthropic forms of the historical period in the visual language which are mainly concentrated in Northern and Eastern India i.e sites in U.P. and Bihar .The figures constitute largely hand-modelled terracotta figurines of animal / bird - faced Mati^as, goat- faced figures,a few serpent goddesses,ambiguous animal-faced figures,and a few human-faced animal figures,homed human heads and certain rare cases of winged humans rendered on terracotta plaques .A rare instance of a Garuc^a probably on a sealing mould, as also a lithic sculpture of an anthropoid naga, in the round are the unique depictions of theranthropic forms of Phase II . 2. Innovations: New Endeavours: Phase III marks the innovative stage when, large numbers of new categories of therianthropic figures emerge on the visual scenario These include a prodigious amount of lithic naga-naginT figures,sphinx- like figures,/c/nnaras,triton- / icthyocentaur-like piscine therianthropic figures,AsvamukhJ yaksinT,rsyasrnga,centaur-like male female figures,Balarama,animal-faced / eared / limbed ya/(sas,winged Nike on coins of the Indo-Greek rulers .Also abundant numbers of certain pre-existing figures such as terracotta figurines of serpent goddesses,goat-faced figures,and terracotta plaques of winged figures too .Likewise the therianthropic form also assumes a pan- Indian presence . In the previous stage most of the figures are seemingly bereft of a particular religious context .Now a majority of the figures,especially the lithic representations can be linked to a specific religious context and here it is the visual language of the heteredox sects that display the maximum number of therianthropic figures when compared to those of the Brahmanical faith, where however these figures are poorely represented . 3. Efflorescence and Maturation: Phase IV coinciding with the rule of the Kushanas in the north,appears to continue the depictions of therianthropic forms fashioned in the preceeding Phases although now numerically they are in abundance with plenty of variations in the rendering of the iconographic features of individual figures of one type. Nevertheless the basic composition of the form remains the same. .Significantly there also appears a flowering of pre-existing terracotta figurines in the lithic medium at Mathura such as evident from the ample number of independent naga figures,slabs carved with bird/animal-faced Matrukas,goa\- headed males and females along with 105

infants or children .Even the Garuda versus naga conflict theme is widely depicted . Northern India yielded the largest number of therianthropic representations, followed by the North West Frontier Region and the Deccan. Certain new categories of figures are the rare instance of the winged surya, Brahmanical deities like Varaha,Ganesha,Narasimha,Hayagnva,ar\d others such as gomukha ya/csa,demonic hosts of /Wara,Satyr heads.winged Amor/Eros/atlas/atlantes, winged males and females as bracket figures and the Jaina Baladevas. 4. Abatement-Waning in the creation of new categories of therianthropic fiqures- Phase V coinciding broadly with the rule of the Gupta dynasty is characterised by a general and gradual decline so far as the fashioning of novel types are concerned Evidently there is an efflorescence so far as the Brahmanical therianthropic figures are concerned,with therianthropic figures associated with the heterodox sects taking a back-seat. Neo- Brahmanical imagery also gains wider provenance quickly, not being restricted to places where they had formerly found the earliest visual expression . At the same time some new types also come to light like the figures of VarahT,VainayakT,s\mar\ characters of the epic Ramayana.Vaikuntha-caturmurti, all of these pointing to their Brahmanical affiliations ^Curiously,certain common figures vanish from the visual language like the triton/icthyocentaur -like figures terracotta plaques of winged figures,sphinx-like figures especially therianthropic Buddhist imagery. h. i r - ^ T - r - r * i a m-rrr^ o i^ivj I C O I v-»nA r i c r \ z.. 1. Agarwal (1936a) attempts to identify the facial features of these mother godess riyuiiiies as iwbBiiiulitiy tiiuse of an y a y itj oi S u jjaiiia and cjOiiSwqueiuiy tefeis iu these figurines as godesses supamaA/inata- mother of the Great Eagle or Garutman. This identification however seems in appropriate because such terracotta mother godesses are known, endowed with a pinched out nasal area. Secondly, hardly does one come across eagle faced godesses in the visual language of the subsequent Phases but in contrast, several lithic representations of such goat faced figurines as also bird faced ones are known forming parallels to the crudely rendered teracottas with their pinched put nasal areas, resembling a beaked face or at times a goat face.

2. For such instances of mother godesses on ring stone refer Shere (1951).

3. The identification of such lotus bearing terracotta plaques of winged figures have been somewhat problematic. Their exact sex too is unidentifiable in a large majority of cases, and hence they are regarded as either male/female figurines. But largely female figures have come to light . Auboyer (1981) has collectively presented the various identifications of these figures. Thus, they have either been identified as Sri- Lakshm? type of fertility figure, or as a winged Yaksa, or a winged godessses or as deva gandharavas, or an iconographic prototype of Surya, (Auboyer 1981; 160 ) or, the winged male holding bow have been identified as Kama. (Agarwal 1987-89).

4. Huntington (1985:66) remarks that probably the Garuda capital,, must have. , iconographically been similar somewhat to the bird -man creature type like the Kinnara dhvaja held by a horse riders, delineated on the Barhut railing .

5. These are illustrated by Gardiner, (1971) PI. VII, 9,11,12-14; pi. X I,5,4,13; PI X I I , 1,8; PI X I I , 3,9; PI XVI,2,7,8; P1XV11,12; PI XX11,10; pl.XXVIil,13; PL.XXX,12.

6. M M. Nos. 33.2074; 439 fromKacheri Ghat Mathura; No.47.1303, Vogel 1910:91; 1926; Joshi 1972: 118, SML No 60.171,47.112 (which how ever stands on the serpent coils and is similar to the Mathura Museum Dadhikama naga (No 25-26 1610).

7. The inscription on the pedestal refers to a tank and garden that were dedicated to the divine lord Bhumin^a.

8. I lartel 1993: 125, So I 286,So I 287; 431, So IV 33, So IV 384; 432, SolV 94; Fig 24, p. 445;Fig I9,p. 442; 443,Fig 22, p.432; Sharma 1994: 133, So IV 370.

9. Hartel 1993; 453, SolV 195, 454, Figs 14-18 p. 459, 125, pis 142-144, p.138; 453, Fig 7, p.457.

10. The present panel has identified variously. Hartel, (1993) identifies the main seated nagaraja and the accompaying nagi as representing Vasuki and his sister Jaratkaru; while Sharma (1984:86ff) describes the panel as illustratiing some scene of a naga court; and on the otherhand, Tewari (1986: 523-532) relates the carved relief with the story of Astika as narrated in the Astika Parvan of the Mahabharata and futher identifies the tallest of the children depicted here as Astika. Astika here appears to be snatching away the uttariya of the nagaraja, identified as representing Vasuki, and the nagani as his mother Jaratkaru.

11. The identification label of the Museum housing the relief reads as Harina/gamesa transferring the embryo of Mahavira, from the body of Devananada, to the womb of Trisala. 10/

12. Agarwala (1978) attempts to identify this elephant faced matrka, with the prototype of Goddesses Vainayakl.

13. Hartel(1993: 281) on the other hand identifies this hasta- mudra as the vya vrtta mudr§

14. Agarwal (1947-48) is of the opinion that the pose of such terracotta cat figurines suggests that it was not merely an animal but represented some form of a deity. In this connection he calls ones attention to a reference in the Kadambari of Harshachahta of BanaBhatta where reference is made to a godesses. This godesses Jatamatr- devata also called Carchika is worshiped at the time of child -birth and she possesses the face of a cat. This evidence coupled with other such textual references are used to substanticate his identification of these teracotta cat figures.

15. Joshi and Murgabandhu lend to describe this representation, as displaying the Aivamukhl or horse-headed women carrying a child. This identification however appears somewhat far -fetched for the human figure which the yaksirfi bears is that of an adult as also from the fact that she happens to heave his w eight.

16. This identification is mainly based on the fact that these leonine figures are ithyphallic, a feature that suggests that the lion probably is divine rather than mortal. Also, the seated posture of these figures are very much similar to Narsimha figure from Kondamotu (AP) (Pal 1986).

17. A number of carved panels here, associated largely with the life events of the Buddha depict such kinnaras figures towards the upper portion Marshall and Foucher (1941:!!) pis XI-XIII, XV, XVIa, XVII, XIX, XXII, XXIV, XXiX, XXXII, XXXIVa, XXV, XXXVI,XL, XLI, LXII, XiVa, LXVa ; Marshali&Foucher, III, pis. XCVI (96), 97,98,103 (d)

18. The motif of an arcade containing a series of figures is a western motif, directly adopted from Roman sarcophagi of the 1®' and 2"*^ centuries AD(Huntington 1985).

19. The exact provenance of this image is however unknown. Pal (1986) assigns the provenance of this image to the Sarnath area.

20. This image of Ganesa, unearthened during the course of excavations is assigned by the excavator to sub period VIII- ie 250-350 AD. (Sharma 1960). However here it is assigned to Phase V.

21. Zaheer (1981) identifies this snake canopied figures as Balarama, which seems highly improbable on account of the absence of the distinctive hand held attributes due to the abraded conditions of the image.

22. Williams (1982) remarks that the presence of he Garuda here in this visual account of the am rtam ^ana myth "emphasises both the Vaishnava and royal aspects of the theme.”

23. Prabhavati Gupta infact refers to a certain 'Bhagavat Ramagiri’? in her donatory records which hold the deity in high esteem. This name refers to a Vaishnavite divinity, consecrated on the Ramagiri hill. Recent researches too have indicated that one of these Narasimha shrines on the Ramatek hill was infact built and consecrated by her and styed as Prabhavati Swamin (Jamkhedkar 1987:334,340).