Utopia and Reality: the “Culture” of Politics in Rodolfo De Mattei

Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms

Utopia and Reality: the “culture” of politics in Rodolfo De Mattei

Laura MITAROTONDO

Abstract: This work aims to deal with the composite reflection of the historian of political doctrines Rodolfo De Mattei (1899-1981) about the subject of utopia, going through some moments of his researches on 17th century political literature, between treatises about reason of State and the tradition of political utopia. The judgement on the literary-political utopian kind turns out to be perfectly consistent with the scholar’s more general conception of politics, expressed in some key essays of methodological character, which appeared during the thirties of 19th century, about the history of political doctrines discipline role and aim. It is in fact a critical perspective which is a rethinking of some traditional classifications, such as those of realism and idealism, that centres around the worth of the historical process and the lead of an ethical approach to politics, which always relies on the mediation of multiple forms and manifestations of culture.

Keywords: Utopia, Realism, Ethics, Politics, Renovation.

E cos’è, poi, questa ‘autonomia storica di tali ideali, che per essere della politica’? La politica, magari espressione di uomini e di tempi, laddove appare più scientificamente e sono anch’essi realtà viva, provvista categoricamente dedotta, è sempre in di efficacia e di proiezione sulla vita funzione del problema morale. pratica. La Repubblica platonica è, sì, (R. De Mattei, 1938) un programma massimo, ma sempre

un programma, cioè un verbo che Utopia as an ethical-political tende a farsi carne, ed altrettanto ben project può dirsi del sogno campanelliano:

quanto poi all’effettivo fascino Ma per fortuna gli stessi dissa- riscosso da detto schemi, si possono cratori dei miti e degli ideali, gli rammentare gli sforzi, le aspirazioni, stessi differenziatori degli schemi dai le cospirazioni consumate per l’at- programmi pratici, finiscono, volenti tuazione pratica dei vari disegni.1 o nolenti, col convenire sulla forza

153 POLIS

With these words, Rodolfo De history of culture, but of keeping the Mattei introduced the concept of theoretical aspect and the practical utopia, underlying those of myth and together of knowledge, recording the political ideal, in his treatise on the manifestations of civil life, of a lite- method and aim of the history of rary kind, juridical, economic, reli- political thought. We are in 1938 and gious, established in a well-defined the Sicilian professor is immersed in historical framework. The history of the folds of a debate on the episte- political thought was in fact intended mological statute of his discipline.2 as history of heterogeneous reflection His position is clearly anti-idealistic, on reality and on political-social polemical against ‘la pregiudiziale activity and, so, as history of the pro- “scientista” e positivista’,3 and the cess of human civilization.4 From a doctrinaire notion of the discipline theoretical scope defined as such, not expressed, among others, by the could be excluded myths, ideologies, Gentilian Felice Battaglia in 1936, in utopias, which held an extraordinary his Lineamenti di storia delle dottrine historical force.5 politiche. It is a critical perspective The interest towards the kind of chosen in a lively argument among utopia, which leads De Mattei, in the philosophers of law, philosophers of immediate post-war period, to com- politics, scientists of politics, histo- ment works such as Harrington’s La rians of philosophy. In his claiming Repubblica di Oceana, Zuccolo’s La the distance between the history of Repubblica d’Evandria, Campanella’s thought and other subject matters, La Città del Sole, and to turn his such as political science, which attention to lesser witnesses of the aimed at ‘fornire la conoscenza esatta utopian tradition, is consistent with a delle leggi regolanti la natura sociale broader view on politics and its aims, dell’uomo’, De Mattei goes in search which had grown a theoretical soli- of the political in multiple mani- dity right in the course of the lively festations of man’s life in history, debate on the study of political which include literature, poetry, doctrines in Italy. Historian Carlo theatre, art. In this sense, putting Morandi, from whom De Mattei also distance both between the excesses of drew inspiration, reflecting upon the science, and the conceptual rarefac- evolution of political thought in the tions of doctrines, he proposes to join field of ‘philosophical-historical the practical dimension, realistic, of disciplines’, acknowledged that the politics with its theoretical expres- distinctive trait of political utopias sion, receiving witnesses of various was in being somehow out of their kinds, which marked relevant stages time because replete of future.6 An in the historical process of social and idea, this one, that De Mattei for sure civil life. As it was already underli- approved to the extent of reading in ned, it was not a matter of reducing utopia not something unreachable, the history of political thought to a but a heartfelt projection of the

154 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms possible, which however held a link a suo modo sempre attuale. Sempre with religion, not intended in the attuale, forse a preferenza dei pro- denominational sense, but as trans- grammi contingenti, proprio perché a cendent dimension intrinsic to man, carattere permanente, cioè perché his spirituality, an essential compo- appunto interessando l’universalità, nent of his matter, of his humanitas. tocca la parte generale ed eterna The utopian tradition origins them- dell’uomo.8 selves, which De Mattei distin- This passage enables to under- guished between utopianism with a stand the ostensible paradox of the “citizen” background and “universa- likeness between utopia and realism listic” utopianism, were to be sear- that De Mattei proposes again in ched also in well-established cultural many of his studies about Italian traditions, such as Neoplatonism and political tradition between the Christian Humanism.7 Truly in his Renaissance and the Baroque age. historiographical researches about Even in Machiavelli, father of the political thought, the scholar would tragic separation between ethics and reaffirm the connection between politics, pioneer of modern political utopia and religion, in the name of a realism, a markedly anti-realistic modern conception of man, obser- attitude, according to the scholar’s ving that non vi è utopia che non judgement, can be found in the inte- abbia in sé un carattere religioso; e gral dedication to the classical para- non perché sia connessa, come pur è digm of Roman respublica. Accor- possibile, a una data credenza meta- ding to the Florentine Secretary – son fisica, ma perché provvista di quella of that Humanistic tradition, soaked sua assolutezza che le conferisce with the cult of Classics –, who trusts appunto una fisionomia e un’esi- in the permanent effectiveness of the genza mistica, sì che necessaria- model, the political exemplarity of mente si arricchisce di quel pathos Rome becomes timeless, universal, che è della medesima natura del not bound to any judgement what- fervor di religione. Pathos, fervore, soever, prudential in kind, of con- peraltro, che si riscontrano ugual- tingency.9 It is as if De Mattei meant mente, magari di più, presso i pro- to underline that it does not exist a grammi politici per avventura ispirati neat break between realism and uto- a una visione ‘realistica’ della vita: pia in the Italian political tradition, in appunto per ciò, sorretti da mistica the right of nature itself of that sicurezza, da religiosa assolutezza. E tradition, marked by various cultural se nell’’utopia’ è già – come gene- ancestries. In many works, since ralmente si dichiara – qualcosa della 1924, the scholar stigmatises the realtà o della realtà futura, non v’è realism-utopianism dialectic compa- dunque utopia senza realtà, che sarà ring, for example, Machiavelli and futura nell’attuazione, ma è già Campanella, the mundane author and presente nella elaborazione, e quindi the metaphysical, though convinced

155 POLIS that they represent the two poles of a being universal and not personal, national political culture of great hints at politics to be intended as a complexity, but “spiritual” in cha- project, up to utopia, never resolved racter, made of possible oscillations in the immediacy of aims, in the of thought, but never of definitive techniques to preserve the “reason of contrasts.10 Actually, according to De States”. Rome is the place of histo- Mattei, the modernity of the writers rical memory, but also the location of of the national tradition modernity, a universal spiritual order, to which their historical continuity, is ex- to refer human political order, finite plained through that combination and contingent, paying reverence to a which crosses a vast political litera- view of politics, maybe even impo- ture among ‘domestic experience’, litic, as a project that procures, in practice of reality, and bookish primis, man’s moral improvement. experience.11 A vitality that still Utopia, therefore, represents one allows thinking about a cultural of the forms through which De identity suspended between utopia Mattei rethinks and makes it relative and reality. the idea of politics finiteness, as Also Utopia, which for De Mattei, politics is a subject that refers to the therefore, is to be thought as an complexity of human nature, to its ethical experience, not necessarily as being irreducible to a single dimen- a critical imagination of an ideal sion. What De Mattei celebrates elsewhere. Utopia is the possibility throughout all his literature, it is a that refers to the value of a project, of strongly ethicised version of politics, a model of perfecting potentially which spreads its roots deep into an achievable. In this perspective, the image of man matured right after a city of Rome, which is an authentic precise reading of the Humanistic muse in the Sicilian scholar’s tradition, effectively expressed by scientific and artistic imagination, Petrarch, a pioneer of Modernity. In can be thought as a place of utopia the definition of a politicity of the par excellence, because it embodies a Aretinian poet, condensed in the reality in precarious equilibrium pages of the long essay Il sentimento between immanence and transcen- politico del Petrarca (1944), De dence, between ancient history, from Mattei insists on the character of that which civilization descends, and the great cultural revolution that places eternal history of Christianity, in its in the centre an unprecedented view ideal projection that refers to a of man, marked by Petrarch’s universal set of rules. Rome, in a contribution. De Mattei writes: nel synthesis between a glorious histo- Petrarca è l’homo’ che trova la sua rical memory and the spiritual di- celebrazione, l’individuo che, in mension’s eternity, is the place where quanto creatura, prima ancora che De Mattei’s political view becomes farsi membro di consociazione poli- concrete. The Eternal City, in its tica, ha in sé la sua possibilità di

156 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms redenzione e di perfezione, magari al distinguishes those lesser witnesses di fuori della società. E quasi contro from those well settled in the line of la ‘civilitas’ dantesca, è l’’humani- thought that from Plato arrives to tas’ che viene rivendicata e onora- Thomas More. ta.12 From Petrarch, therefore, a new Between 1944 and 1953, De view of man would derive, inspired Mattei edited the “Collana degli by the great human models, educated Utopisti” for publisher Colombo in on the virtues of the Classics and Rome. In this period La Repubblica Christianity, on the lesson of Cicero d’Evandria di Ludovico Zuccolo, La and Augustine, who does not con- Repubblica di Oceana di James ceive politics as a space devoid of Harrington, La Città del Sole di those virtues themselves. Also through Tommaso Campanella are published this interpretation, De Mattei’s with his preface. remarkable attention for the research Extremely indicative of a view of civil life’s moral value is con- on utopia as political theory is what firmed, for the constitution of a De Mattei writes in 1947, exactly in spiritual dimension, and not a natu- the preface to the most well-known ralistic one of the political man, work by Harrington: D’altra parte, which opens for a new age, for a la contingenza pratica, così densa di modernity whose father is Petrarch. fermenti, così suscettiva di capovol- gimenti, così ricca di improvvisa- zioni – regimi che crollano, forme Discontinuity of the utopian inedite che si affermano, minoranze tradition che impongono la loro formula alle maggioranze – possono bene auto- De Mattei therefore seems to turn rizzare qualsiasi arditezza novatrice his attention to the kind of utopia nel campo del pensiero. E, del resto, moved by a fundamental curiosity. a che scopo affondarsi nello studio He interests himself in those delle discipline politiche, se non per numerous manifestations of civil ricavare fruttificazioni pel futuro?14 literature that deal with the subject From the prefaces to these works, of politics embracing an ideal di- all belonging to the 17th century mension, metaphysical and not only classical tradition, particularly dear iper-realistic. In this direction, he to De Mattei, do his theoretical con- also inspects expressions less known stants emerge. The scholar mainly and theoretically less structured of intends to lay some distinctions in the utopian kind: it is enough to the matter of utopia, referring the think about the Repubblica delle Api origin of political models and di Giovanni Bonifacio, judged as a hypotheses to well-defined contexts ‘contributo ambiziosetto’,13 from and historical moments; secondly, which yet does it emerge the curio- he puts some distance from More’s sity of the scholar who however Utopia and concentrates his

157 POLIS attention on authors who go beyond flattened onto the ideal dimension. a narrowly idealized view of poli- He is convinced instead that that tical forms, not very concrete and tradition should be examined in its almost unobtainable. It is not a coin- composite nature, which reflects the cidence that he identifies in anguish of an era. Ludovico Zuccolo (1568-1630), an Even Campanella, more este- exponent of 17th century political emed for the Monarchia di Spagna moralists, that ‘fiuto della realtà’ rather than La Città del Sole is not which enables him not to fall into abstractly utopian, to De Mattei’s More’s “visionary” politics with its eyes, but he is a utopian in his questions and contradictions.15 The rejecting an iper-realistic model of Sicilian scholar’s scepticism reflects politics. About the ‘metaphysical’ that of the politician from Faenza, Campanella, who looks at politics critical of the idea of the exemplar through moral directives and uni- city, which would be founded on the versal virtues, De Mattei remarks: Il presumption of a benevolent human suo lirismo, è, del resto, nella stessa nature, of which he had no opera politica, nella commozione experience. And so De Mattei, in the delle sue visioni universali, nell’ author of Repubblica d’Evandria innocenza dei suoi sogni generosi e (1625) doesn’t recognise a utopian, si manifesta in espressioni abban- but a reformer who, although donate in cui Machiavelli non attracted by the optimum State ideal, cadrebbe mai.17 In many places, the has reached, thanks to experience Sicilian scholar, in fact, strives to and study, the primary value of the correct the vulgata of a utopian historical process and the belief that Campanella recognising, especially the solidity of political models is in works like the Monarchia di measured by means of proofs, and Spagna or the Aforismi politici, the not desires.16 In his reflections on more politically meaningful texts by the political thought of authors like the author from Stilo. He intends, in Campanella and Zuccolo, De Mattei this way, to describe the complexity therefore insists on the ‘dramatic of the author’s critical landscape, the nature’ of a time in history when the depth and complexity of his thought, difficulty of reconciling the reason yet meaning to emancipate of State urgent logic with ideal Campanella from the image of the government forms, which then turns Renaissance philosopher, in order to into a political doctrinarism torn underline his stature as an autho- between experience and imagina- ritative exponent of an Italian poli- tion. The statement of such a limit tical culture history. The work made reveals the scholar’s difficulty in in this direction is never devoid of thinking about the political utopia an extremely attentive critical-philo- widespread in the 17th century, espe- logical coverage of Campanella’s cially the citizen one, as a tradition papers, essential for identifying in

158 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms advance the documentary materials by De Mattei a legacy of the hu- to study.18 There is no doubt that, manistic-renaissance culture. More- dealing with Campanella, De Mattei over, in the pages of the Prefazione, resorts to the utopian attribute with the scholar underlines affinities, but great care, and underlining, above above all the distance separating all, a specific meaning of the term, Campanella’s work from Plato’s by means of which he intends to Repubblica and More’s Utopia. establish the connection of the From the comparison between texts author from Stilo with ‘l’orienta- a greater proximity between mento metafisico-dottrinale dello Campanella’s model and Plato’s spirito del tempo’.19 emerges. Especially on the subjects Even in the preface to the of harmony, identity of thought, Colombo edition of the Città del absence of servitude and of religious Sole of 1953, the intention of disputes, uniqueness of cult, De containing the importance of the Mattei is more inclined to identify most famous political treatise by the an ideal proximity between author from Stilo is immediately Campanella and the ancient philo- evident, as it can be learned even sopher. Actually, the scholar is more from the preface title, which reads: interested in rejecting easy refe- La Città del Sole nel quadro rences to present times, informal dell’opera e dell’epoca di Tommaso comparisons and possible analogies Campanella. La Città del Sole does between La Città del Sole and other not cover entirely Campanella’s proofs, different for traditions and thought and, however, according to political cultures. Particularly evi- De Mattei, it cannot be thought as a dent, in that sense, is the refusal to proof that is separate from the rest of associate Campanella’s political the author’s production and from the view, which is ‘essenzialmente spiri- historical environment of origin.20 tualistica’, to the materialistic foun- The Sicilian scholar’s intention, dations of the modern communist therefore, consists in tempering collectivism.22 In the difficulty of Campanella’s utopianism, referring adopting traditional or scholastic it to a spiritual framework chronolo- classifications, De Mattei, after all, gically defined,21 marked by the had already expressed his view in contradictions of the post-Tridentine favour of Campanella’s realism phase. The work, however, would rather than his utopianism, reading maintain the marks of its connection in the Città del Sole a sort of with a rich patrimony of cultural ‘naturalismo permeato di trascen- sources and suggestions, obtained denza’.23 In the conclusion of his from the classical tradition and from Prefazione of 1953, he invites to the more recent one of modernity. In accept the work of the author from this direction, even the idea of Stilo with all its ostensible contra- comunità esemplare is considered dictions and to escape the temptation

159 POLIS of connecting such an inconsistent Mattei, as he refers his view of an model to one source, or to a codified exemplar community to a precise system of thought. He, instead, in- historical context, from whose vites readers to recognise the under- analysis he even derives innovative lying inspiration of that work in an theoretical achievements, like the attempt to emancipate politics from recognition of an interdependence reason of State and in proposing a between economic and political po- well-defined model, almost an wer.28 The realistic tension towards ideology,24 of social-economic ba- the treated matter is visible, after all, lance founded on moral requests.25 in Harrington’s relationship with his Similarly, in the pages preceding sources: in the great importance Harrington’s Oceana, De Mattei given to the Machiavellian model, insists on the vocation for a possible especially on the side of method, De change held inside a work which Mattei identifies an analytical would inspire the political tradition approach, a comparative one, devoid of constitutionalism; a work which of preconditions and attentive to is anything but abstract or utopian, reading the changes in reality.29 precisely owing to its project- Even Harrington, therefore, proves oriented solidity. In reconstructing De Mattei’s difficulty in separating Harrington’s profile, still a reformer the project-related phase, the pro- and not a dreamer,26 De Mattei not jection, the inventive imagination, only lingers attentively on the from that of a disenchanted reading structure of Oceana, but justifies the of politics traditionally realistic in quota of idealization contained in kind, that, instead, would move on the British philosopher’s work by the track of its own autonomy, means of historical reasons, re- obeying the only laws of the State ferring that to the tumultuous histo- primacy. Through the Oceana, the rical and political upheavals which Sicilian scholar goes back again to hit England in the heart of the 17th the importance of an ideal design for century, underlining how contin- the improvement of society that may gency, rich of upturns and impro- actually affect politics: it is a matter visations, had allowed courageous of recognising the value of an innovations in the field of thought ideology as a program, especially and of political proposals.27 Even among the authors of the 17th Harrington nurtures his proposal of century tradition, sons of a time that civil reordering on a democratic gave generously intelligence and basis, which then merges into the energies to make politics an exact option of a mixed set of rules, science. Precisely referring to that moving from the twofold datum of context, strongly characterised in the experience and school, of the books. sense of historical change, De The result of his reflection is Mattei reaffirms the importance of anything but ideal, according to De keeping dream, ideal, project within

160 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms politics, overcoming the distinction miglioramento, e deve crederlo e between utopia and reality, crossing sperarlo perché il negarlo signifi- the convention of the non-feasible cherebbe umiliare l’opera della construction as an answer to the creazione, dubitare di Dio.31 decaying political reality. About this In the pages of an essay of 1965 subject, he writes: i disegnatori di on Savonarola, De Mattei expresses comunità esemplari e di reggimenti in these terms the trust in man, made perfetti si scandalizzerebbero della of ethical substance, which he taccia di utopisti, presumendo essere derived from the Dominican friar’s disperatamente, rabbiosamente, re- reflections. In that contribution the alisti.30 Clearly, utopia, inserted into theme of spiritual renewal of indi- such a critical landscape, does not viduals was given value as a premise refer to an alien historical dimen- to any government reform. It was in sion, but to a reform intent that fact a renovatio that spurned, accor- moves from a solid knowledge of ding to De Mattei, ideal or abstract reality, although resorting to a diffe- political hypotheses, denying also rent expressive rule, to turn into Machiavelli’s iper-realistic lesson, political thought, to propose a better rooted in a substantial lack of con- order compared to the existing. fidence in the human nature. Accor- ding to Savonarola, instead, the renewal of men, plausible and desi- Towards the renewal of man: rable, was an indispensable and De Mattei’s realistic utopia trusted companion to renovate the institutions. Clearly, at the basis of È illusorio che siano le istituzioni this interpretation by De Mattei a mutare gli uomini: sono gli uomini there was a subjective faith in a rinnovati che rinnovano le istitu- political life intended as a projection zioni. […] L’inconfondibile messag- of moral life.32 gio del Savonarola consiste in un In the Sicilian scholar’s overall alto e disperato appello a quel view, if the political project takes mondo morale che dovrà essere ar- the forms of utopia, in the sense of chetipo e generatore del mondo adopting a specific literary genre, it politico […]. Su questo punto, net- refers anyway to a quest for impro- tissimo è il distacco del Savonarola vement, for progress. In utopian dal Machiavelli, schernitore d’ogni designs, he reads the confidence in tentativo mirante a migliorare la the possible realization of a better creta umana, giudicata inguaribil- society, not the dream of a model mente inferma; e negatore d’ogni that is not achievable, suspended in ‘repubblica immaginaria’ cioè d’ogni time and devoid of connections with mondo migliore. Al contrario, il history. Judging utopia a non-place Savonarola crede e spera che gli is equivalent, for the scholar, to uomini siano suscettibili di disown the institution renewal

161 POLIS capabilities intrinsic to man; utopias from Stilo is never separated from a become in this way an expression of careful analysis of the traces of anti- the ideal overcoming of the contin- Machiavellism in his political thought, gent and of the confidence placed in as to let the problem of a research for a creative capability of man, which a metaphysical identity of politics is the reflection of the divine one. In come to light. One should think this spirit, it has been observed that about La politica di Campanella, utopias for De Mattei maintain a where a chapter of studies related to character of perennial modernity, as the publication of the Nota about the their being universal touches ‘la parte hypothesis of the plagiarism of generale ed eterna dell’uomo’.33 Campanella was examined in depth, The paragraph opened with a then identified as an interpolation reference to the Savonarola- intervention of La monarchia di Machiavelli relationship; in De Spagna to the Ragion di Stato by Mattei’s studies on utopia, in fact, it Botero.34 In those pages, Campanella, is not difficult to come across the like Petrarch later, already represen- figure of the Florentine secretary. ted an ideal antidote to the Floren- Although he never dedicated a tine secretary, to politics reduced to monograph to him, the Sicilian the practice of techniques and ploys scholar keeps in fact Machiavelli as needed to maintain the power. an implicit interlocutor in many De Mattei, evidently, also by circumstances. He, not by chance, is means of the comparison between called to represent by means of con- these two authors, intends to esta- trast a stigmatised view of politics: blish a precondition ethical in every reference to this author helps character that enables to deal with to mark a distance and claim a the political matter preferring the perspective where politics is bound reasons of a superior moral order, of to ethics. At the basis of De Mattei’s a subjective conscience, to those of reasoning there is the belief in the the earthly political order. And in necessity to cross the hic et nunc of the case of the reflections on utopia, politics, which cannot be reduced to Machiavelli too is declared an the sole materiality and immanence, author whose political thought can and to mainly look at man’s per- be associated with the realistic fectibility, to the possibility that stream, following an ancient classifi- man, once ‘rinnovato’, improved, catory custom. The whole De may affect politics. Even Savonarola, Mattei’s work is pervaded by this in this sense, takes the features of urgency, by the haste to ward off the the anti-Machiavelli. An analogous most dangerous legacies of tension animates De Mattei’s early Machiavellism, of the effectual studies on Tommaso Campanella, in reality primacy, of the interest of the which the historical-philological State and the self-sufficiency of approach to the work by the author politics.35 If this ethical tension hits

162 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms the scholar’s whole reflection, it but for having reached a markedly becomes more accentuated precisely pessimistic view of human nature, in the context of his studies on that would not allow imagining a Counter-Reform political literature spiritual redemption of man, and and hence also in the political utopia that would compel to look at the chapter of the 17th century tradition. verità effettuale only, condemning As it is conveniently observed by any form of immaginazione.40 Luciano Russi, in fact, after the In the different approach by De Council of Trent, according to De Mattei, also on matters such as the Mattei, re-establishing the connec- realism-idealism dialectic, clearly tion between ethics and politics and expressed in the pages of the well- strengthen that between religious known essay Sul metodo, contenuto tradition and political authority e scopo d’una storia del pensiero became indispensable.36 politico (1938), a conception of poli- On the methodological approach tics emerges that is closely connec- level, and in a more general evalua- ted with man’s experience, with the tion of the duties and goals of forms of participation to civil life, to political thought, De Mattei makes historical events. This aspect shows the distinction between utopia and with evidence when the scholars reality a faint one, asserting that if in tries to temper a strict and doctri- every utopian construction it is naire view of his own discipline, already present something that be- giving value also the dramatic nature longs to a future reality, there cannot connected with the birth and evo- be utopia without reality.37 After all lution of a thought that reflects the this principle is consistent with the complexity of human experience. belief of the necessary relationship About this topic, De Mattei rethinks between the study of political ideas the role of those who write and and that of history, which is a study politics: Ciò che interessa allo scientifically unavoidable precondi- studioso non è far la storia d’una tion for De Mattei.38 Moreover, the dottrina, risultata “vera”, ma la scholar, intending to reject even the storia del travaglio degli spiriti in distinction between the two critical ordine alla soluzione di un pro- streams of realism an idealism, blema; e a tal fine ugualmente pro- underlines the importance of man’s fittevole apparirà qualunque mate- education that becomes fundamental riale di pensiero maturatosi attorno especially in the moment when it is o in contrasto a quella data dottri- stated that the goal of an ideal State, na.41 After all, even on the relation- a high point of political life, may be ship between the practical and theo- achieved also by means that are retical value of the history of poli- realistic.39 Machiavelli, actually, tical thought, De Mattei does not would distinguish himself not so progress by means of cuts, but re- much for his disenchanted realism, sorting to reconciliations. He,

163 POLIS actually, believes that one may not progress, it is the expression of the adopt those classifications that are possible amendment of historical positivistic in flavour, which tended experience, since, the scholar obser- to separate political science from ves, pur nei suoi aspetti inevitabil- any ideal political project, but he’s mente caduchi, l’“utopia” resta un convinced that the history of thought documento non solo del cammino is to be read through a study that is della civiltà, ma anche della pe- “morale” in its kind, which educates renne aspirazione umana a un “do- the spirit to critical and comparative ver essere”; resta una preziosa testi- analysis, to historical knowledge, to monianza della confidenza dell’ the construction of a political uomo nella sua virtù attiva, ritenuta conscience.42 capace di ricreare il mondo.43 In the sixties, the Sicilian would This ethical view of politics, come back to reaffirm the connec- therefore, especially when it is a tions of utopia with reality affirming matter of utopia, refers to the search the very strong link existing between for virtues that are universal in the any ideal construction and the histo- history of man and hence in politics, rical time when it was conceived, out of the breath of history and of but deciding that the conceptual strict doctrinal arrangements. De precondition of such a belief lies Mattei, in fact, though admitting first in the confidence in human with difficulty that utopias can be perfettibilità. If, in fact, utopia can sometimes ideal constructions, even be represented as a tree that ‘eleva i anti-historical, is convinced that suoi rami fronzuti nell’aria, ma these embody a perennial human affonda le sue radici in terra’, does quest originating from contingency, the awareness show that utopia, one that is endowed with great when it embodies a quest for reform propulsive strength, and that refers or renewal, though contingent, as it to a system of virtues capable of is bound up to a precise historical producing the change, of achieving moment, testifies a phase of human the ideal practically.

Notes

1 R. De Mattei, “Sul metodo, con- 2 On the forms of the participation of tenuto e scopo d’una storia del pen- De Mattei in the debate, refer to R. siero politico”, in Archivio di studi De Mattei, “La storia delle dottrine corporativi, XI, 1938, n. 2, pp. 200- politiche nell’Ottocento italiano”, in 36, then in Id., Aspetti di storia del Scuola e cultura, X, 1934, n. 3, pp. pensiero politico, vol. I: 248-70; Id., “La storia delle dottrine Dall’antichità classica al sec. XV, politiche in Italia nell’ultimo Giuffrè, Milano, 1980, pp. 51-87, p. trentennio”, in Scuola e cultura, XI, 65. 1935, n. 6, pp. 424-36; Id., Sul

164 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms

metodo, contenuto e scopo, cit., poi delle Api’ di Giovanni Bonifacio”, in Id., Aspetti di storia del pensiero in Studi sull’utopia, raccolti da L. politico, vol. I: Dall’antichità Firpo, Olschki, Firenze, 1977, p. classica al sec. XV, cit.; Id., Gli studi 157. italiani di storia del pensiero 14 J. Harrington, Oceana, con politico, Zuffi, Bologna, 1951. prefazione di R. De Mattei, 3 Id., Sul metodo, contenuto e scopo, Colombo, Roma, 1947, p. 9. cit., p. 52. 15 L. Zuccolo, La Repubblica 4 Ibid., pp. 54, 86. d’Evandria e altri dialoghi politici, 5 See: S. Testoni Binetti, La stagione con prefazione di R. De Mattei, dei maestri. Questioni di metodo Colombo, Roma, 1944, p. 15. nella storia delle dottrine politiche, 16 See: Ibid., pp. 27-28. Carocci, Roma, 2006, pp. 63-64. 17 R. De Mattei, Campanella contro 6 See: C. Morandi, “Lo studio delle Machiavelli, cit., pp. 278-79. dottrine politiche e la storia”, in 18 About this subject, refer to Id., Studi Rivista internazionale di filosofia del campanelliani, Sansoni, Firenze, diritto, IX, luglio-ottobre 1929, p. 1934. 653. 19 Id., La politica di Campanella, 7 See: R. De Mattei, “Contenuto ed Anonima Romana Editoriale, Roma, origini dell’utopia cittadina nel 1927, p. 169. And again: ‘A ben Seicento”, in Rivista internazionale guardare, il quesito si scioglie da sé, di filosofia del diritto, IX, luglio- sol che non si isoli la Città del Sole ottobre 1929, p. 420. nella solitudine teoretica delle 8 Id., Sul metodo, contenuto e scopo, utopie, ma la si inserisca negli cit., p. 66. svolgimenti spirituali del secolo 9 ‘[…] quella di Roma appare al decimosesto. Non è possibile che Machiavelli una grande, l’autore degli Aforismi politici, lo insostituibile, perenne lezione, alla scrupoloso osservatore della realtà, quale tutti i popoli, e principalmente quegli stesso che avverte che “certe i Fiorentini, dovrebbero ispirarsi’. R. regole non riescono in pratica”, e De Mattei, Machiavelli e Roma, vuol che i fatti siano esaminati “per Istituto nazionale di Studi Romani, via d’istorie e non per fantasie”, e Roma, 1970, p. 20. non vuol parlare “di cose astratte”, 10 See: Id., “Campanella contro diventi a un tratto un sognatore Machiavelli”, in Rivista d’Italia, solitario, un utopista: se mai le XXVII, 15 ottobre 1924, n. 10, p. “utopie” che il suo spirito vigile gli 279. suggersice saran quelle utili o 11 On this subject see also Id., consone al suo tempo’. Ibid., p. 168. “Tradizione e scrittori politici”, in 20 About this subject see also R. De Educazione fascista, VIII, 1930, pp. Mattei, Fonti, essenza e fortuna 466-70. della “Città del Sole”, in ‘Rivista 12 Id., Il sentimento politico del internazionale di filosofia del Petrarca, Sansoni, Firenze, 1944, p. diritto’, XVIII, luglio-ottobre 1938, 9. n. 4-5, pp. 405-39. 13 Id., “L’esaurimento della tendenza 21 ‘È lecito, dunque, concludere che la utopistica in Italia: La ‘Repubblica visione campanelliana non va

165 POLIS

considerata qual sogno solitario di Botero e la “Ragion di Stato”, Atti un utopista, ma va collocata nel del Convegno in memoria di L. vasto quadro spirituale del tempo’. Firpo, (Torino, 8-10 Marzo 1990), R. De Mattei, La politica di Olschki, Firenze, 1992, pp. 454-55. Campanella, cit., p. 177. On Campanella, and about his 22 T. Campanella, La Città del Sole, spiritual vocation to politics, see con prefazione di R. De Mattei, also R. De Mattei, Campanella, in Colombo, Roma, 1953, p. 26. Dizionario di Politica, Istituto della 23 R. De Mattei, La politica di Enciclopedia Italiana, Roma, 1939- Campanella, cit., p. 217. 40, vol. I, p. 376. 24 L. Russi, Il passato del presente. 35 On this subject, see also R. De Rodolfo De Mattei e la storia delle Mattei, Machiavelli e il nostro dottrine politiche in Italia, Edizioni tempo, in ‘La Carovana. Rassegna Scientifiche Abruzzesi, Pescara, trimestrale di cultura’, XIX, aprile- 2005, p. 98. giugno 1969, pp. 63-66. 25 T. Campanella, La Città del Sole, 36 L. Russi, Il passato del presente, cit., cit., p. 27. p. 85. 26 The concept of “reformer”, in this 37 See: R. De Mattei, Sul metodo, sense, refers to the notion that would 38 ‘Giusto, quindi, necessario, che lo be Luigi Firpo’s. See L. Firpo, studio delle idee politiche non vada Appunti sui caratteri dell’utopismo, scompagnato da quello della storia: in N. Matteucci (ed.), L’utopia e le anzi, che le idee politiche vadano sue forme, il Mulino, Bologna, 1982, storicamente rivissute, cioè, all’atto pp. 11-27. della critica, commisurate alle 27 See: J. Harrington, Oceana, cit., p. 9. contingenze atte a illuminare non 28 See: Ibid., p. 24. solo la portata di una teoria, le 29 See: Ibid., p. 23. ragioni del suo nascimento e della 30 See: Ibid., p. 9. sua diffusione, bensì i limiti entro 31 R. De Mattei, “Istanze politiche e cui va inteso il significato di una sociali nel Savonarola”, in Studi in data terminologia, necessariamente onore di G. Zingali, Giuffrè, Milano, condizionata a determinate 1965, vol. III, pp. 285-316, then in situazioni di vita empirica’. Ibid., p. Id., Aspetti di storia del pensiero 76. politico, cit., pp. 277-309: p. 309. 39 See: Ibid., p. 67. 32 See: Ibidem. 40 See: Ibid., pp. 69-70. 33 S. Testoni, “La storia delle dottrine 41 See: Ibid., p. 72. politiche in un dibattito ancora 42 See: Ibid., p. 75. attuale”, in Il Pensiero politico, IV, 43 R. De Mattei, Antologia degli 1971, n. 3, p. 347. utopisti e dei riformatori sociali, 34 See: L. Russi, “Il Botero di Rodolfo Edizioni “Ricerche”, Roma, 1960, p. De Mattei”, in A.E. Baldini (ed.), 8.

166 Politics between Ideas and Forms. Evolution of Utopian Paradigms

Bibliography

BALDINI A.E. (ed.), Botero e la IDEM, Il sentimento politico del “Ragion di Stato”, Atti del Petrarca, Sansoni, Firenze, 1944. Convegno in memoria di L. Firpo, IDEM, Machiavelli e Roma, Istituto (Torino, 8-10 Marzo 1990), Olschki, nazionale di Studi Romani, Roma, Firenze, 1992. 1970. CAMPANELLA T., La Città del Sole, IDEM, Aspetti di storia del pensiero con prefazione di R. De Mattei, politico, vol. I: Dall’antichità Colombo, Roma, 1953. classica al sec. XV, Giuffrè, Milano, DE MATTEI R., “Campanella contro 1980, pp. 51-87. Machiavelli”, in Rivista d’Italia, IDEM, Gli studi italiani di storia del XXVII, 15 ottobre 1924, n. 10, pp. pensiero politico, Zuffi, Bologna, 269-79. 1951. IDEM, “Fortuna dell’utopia”, in Il IDEM, Antologia degli utopisti e dei Tevere, 22-23 giugno 1932. riformatori sociali, Edizioni IDEM, La politica di Campanella, “Ricerche”, Roma, 1960. Anonima Romana Editoriale, Roma, IDEM, “Istanze politiche e sociali nel 1927. Savonarola”, in Studi in onore di G. IDEM, “Tradizione e scrittori politici”, Zingali, Giuffrè, Milano, 1965, vol. in Educazione fascista, VIII, 1930, III, pp. 285-316. pp. 466-70. IDEM, “Machiavelli e il nostro tempo”, IDEM, “La storia delle dottrine in La Carovana. Rassegna politiche nell’Ottocento italiano”, in trimestrale di cultura, XIX, aprile- Scuola e cultura, X, 1934, n. 3, pp. giugno 1969, pp. 63-66. 248-70. IDEM, “L’esaurimento della tendenza IDEM, Studi campanelliani, Sansoni, utopistica in Italia”, in Il Pensiero Firenze, 1934. politico, IX, 1976, n. 2-3, pp. 333- IDEM, “La storia delle dottrine 38. politiche in Italia nell’ultimo IDEM, “Il fascino dell’utopia”, in Vita, trentennio”, in Scuola e cultura, XI, XX, 23 Febbraio 1978. 1935, n. 6, pp. 424-36. IDEM, “Furono gli utopisti ad inventare IDEM, “Fonti, essenza e fortuna della il Mercato Comune”, in Vita, XIX, Città del Sole”, in Rivista 30 agosto 1977. internazionale di filosofia del diritto, HARRINGTON J., Oceana, con a. XVIII, luglio-ottobre 1938, n. 4-5, prefazione di R. De Mattei, pp. 405-39. Colombo, Roma, 1947. IDEM, “Campanella”, in Dizionario di MATTEUCCI N. (ed.), L’utopia e le Politica, Istituto della Enciclopedia sue forme, il Mulino, Bologna, 1982. Italiana, Roma, vol. I, 1939-40, p. MORANDI C., Lo studio delle dottrine 376. politiche e la storia, in Rivista IDEM, “Sul metodo, contenuto e scopo internazionale di filosofia del diritto, d’una storia delle dottrine politiche”, IX, luglio-ottobre 1929, pp. 651-59. in Archivio di studi corporativi, XI, RUSSI L., Il passato del presente. 1938, n. 2, pp. 200-36. Rodolfo De Mattei e la storia delle dottrine politiche in Italia, Edizioni

167 POLIS

Scientifiche Abruzzesi, Pescara, delle dottrine politiche, Carocci, 2005. Roma, 2006. TESTONI BINETTI S., “La storia delle ZUCCOLO L., La Repubblica dottrine politiche in un dibattito d’Evandria e altri dialoghi politici, ancora attuale”, in Il Pensiero con prefazione di R. De Mattei, politico, IV, 1971, n. 3, pp. 305-80. Colombo, Roma, 1944. EADEM, La stagione dei maestri. Questioni di metodo nella storia

168