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From Cold War to North Pole Alliance: Canada and the Changing Face of Defence and Foreign Relations in the Arctic

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From Cold War to North Pole Alliance: Canada and the Changing Face of Defence and Foreign Relations in the Arctic FROM COLD WAR TO NORTH POLE ALLIANCE: CANADA AND THE CHANGING FACE OF DEFENCE AND FOREIGN RELATIONS IN THE ARCTIC Ian D.D. Livermore JCSP 37 PCEMI 37 Master of Defence Studies Maîtrise en études de la défense Disclaimer Avertissement Opinions expressed remain those of the author and do Les opinons exprimées n’engagent que leurs auteurs et not represent Department of National Defence or ne reflètent aucunement des politiques du Ministère de Canadian Forces policy. This paper may not be used la Défense nationale ou des Forces canadiennes. Ce without written permission. papier ne peut être reproduit sans autorisation écrite. © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the © Sa Majesté la Reine du Chef du Canada, représentée par le Minister of National Defence, 2014 ministre de la Défense nationale, 2014 CANADIAN FORCES COLLEGE – COLLÈGE DES FORCES CANADIENNES JCSP 37 – PCEMI 37 MASTER OF DEFENCE STUDIES – MAÎTRISE EN ÉTUDES DE LA DÉFENSE FROM COLD WAR TO NORTH POLE ALLIANCE: CANADA AND THE CHANGING FACE OF DEFENCE AND FOREIGN RELATIONS IN THE ARCTIC By Ian D.D. Livermore “This paper was written by a student “La présente étude a été rédigée par attending the Canadian Forces College un stagiaire du Collège des Forces in fulfilment of one of the requirements canadiennes pour satisfaire à l'une des of the Course of Studies. The paper is exigences du cours. L'étude est un a scholastic document, and thus document qui se rapporte au cours et contains facts and opinions, which the contient donc des faits et des opinions author alone considered appropriate que seul l'auteur considère appropriés and correct for the subject. It does not et convenables au sujet. Elle ne reflète necessarily reflect the policy or the pas nécessairement la politique ou opinion of any agency, including the l'opinion d'un organisme quelconque, y Government of Canada and the compris le gouvernement du Canada et Canadian Department of National le ministère de la Défense nationale du Defence. This paper may not be Canada. Il est défendu de diffuser, de released, quoted or copied, except with citer ou de reproduire cette étude sans the express permission of the Canadian la permission expresse du ministère de Department of National Defence.” la Défense nationale.” Word Count: 59, 650 Compte de mots : 59 650 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ii List of Figures iii Abstract iv Chapters 1. Introduction 1 2. Cold War Dynamics 16 3. Political Thaw and Global Warming — Impact of Relations 24 4. Quelling False Alarms about Renewed Militarization 53 5. Present Trends in Defence Cooperation in the Arctic 94 6. Conclusion 115 Bibliography 118 Annexes Annex A - Details of the Murmansk Initiative Six-Point Program 150 Annex B - The Arctic Council Mandate, Membership, and Organization 152 Annex C - The Ilulissat Declaration 155 Annex D - Canada’s Arctic Foreign Policy (2010) Areas of Focus 157 Annex E - Military Operational Doctrine for the Canadian North 158 Annex F - China’s Uncertain, but Growing Arctic Interests 161 Annex G - Danish Defence Agreements in the Arctic 171 Annex H - Survey of Other States’ Arctic Policies 174 iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Northern CHoDs in CFB Goose Bay 2 Figure 1.2: The many definitions of the Arctic showing the location of the Arctic Five states 13 Figure 2.1: North American air defence systems in the mid-1960s 20 Figure 3.1: Mikhail Gorbachev 24 Figure 3.2: Lloyd Axworthy at first Arctic Council meeting in 1996 30 Figure 3.3: Arctic Oil and Gas Potential including production and test wells 37 Figure 3.4: Arctic shipping routes 39 Figure 4.1: Artur Chilingarov shows photo of Russian Flag on the Arctic Seabed 54 Figure 4.2: Prime Minister Harper visits Op Nanook 2010 61 Figure 4.3: NORDEFCO’s official logo 82 Figure 5.1: Logo for SAREX Greenland Sea 2013 96 Figure 5.2: Northern CHoDs receive Canadian Ranger training 98 Figure 5.3 NATO Soldiers on Norwegian Exercise Cold Response 2014 112 iv ABSTRACT With the end of the Cold War and with growing international recognition of the impacts of climate change, Russia and its four Arctic Ocean NATO neighbours — Canada, Denmark-Greenland, Norway and the United States — have re-examined their interests in the polar region and come to the realization that they have a great deal in common, politically, militarily, and socio-economically. Motivated by a desire to protect their respective national interests as climate change opens the region to exploitation of its natural resources and to wider use by the commercial shipping industry, the “Arctic Five” states have worked steadily toward cooperation on a range of defence and foreign policy issues affecting the region. These issues include joint security with the apparent goal of keeping non-Arctic state interlopers, such as China and the European Union, out of their common backyard. When it comes to cooperation between the Arctic Five’s military organizations, the warming relations have centred upon the broader spectrum of “sovereignty, security, and safety,” particularly as they concern supporting civilian government agencies across the polar region. After a consideration of the Cold War period, post-Cold War period, and possibilities for future trends, this study will show that the Arctic Five’s security has been, and will continue to be, threatened by the impacts of climate change in the Arctic that sparked interest in this region from non-Arctic states, and that cooperation among the Five is their only recourse. When it is relevant to the understanding of multilateral issues, this paper will also discuss defence and foreign relations with the remaining Arctic states: Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. 1 1. INTRODUCTION From 1945 to 2012, the very nature of security in the Arctic changed dramatically. In addition to the physical changes that accompanied global warming, key nations experienced a Cold War at the end of the Second World War, followed by a post- Cold War thaw in tensions that began with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. This research paper explores the history of the broader political transition in the region and considers the implications for defence and foreign relations among the Arctic Five states.1 Further, it considers the likelihood for success of future bilateral and multilateral initiatives between them. After a consideration of the Cold War period, post-Cold War period, and possibilities for future trends, this study will prove that the Arctic Five’s security has been, and will continue to be, threatened by the impacts of climate change in the Arctic that sparked interest in this region from non-Arctic states, and that cooperation among the Five is their only recourse. By 2012, there was clear evidence of an understanding for greater cooperation between the Arctic states. On April 13, 2012, the chiefs of defence (CHoDs) from the eight Arctic Council states — Canada, Denmark-Greenland,2 Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States of America — agreed to cooperate more closely on disaster responses and search-and-rescue (SAR) operations in the Arctic. The announcement of this agreement followed two days of meetings held at Canadian Forces 1 The Arctic Five refers to the five countries bordering upon the Arctic Ocean: Canada, Denmark (on behalf of Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the United States. Consideration of the remaining Arctic states Finland, Iceland, and Sweden, has been minimized due to the space limitations of this research paper. 2 Greenland is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, however it has a home-rule government which is responsible for all matters of state, excluding defence and foreign relations. Hence, the combined name Denmark-Greenland shall be utilized throughout this research paper. 2 Base Goose Bay, Labrador, where the “Northern CHoDs” 3 and other defence representatives discussed the sharing of knowledge and expertise on how to best manage the challenges posed by the Arctic’s geography, climate, and distances. Figure 1.1 - Northern CHoDs in CFB Goose Bay: Russian General Nikolai Makarov (left) speaks with Canadian Chief of the Defence Staff, General Walter Natynczyk (right) through a translator. Source: DND/Combat Camera In announcing the agreement, the meeting’s host, Canadian Chief of the Defence Staff General Walter Natynczyk, highlighted the fact that the event marked the first occasion when all the Northern CHoDs had the opportunity to meet as a forum to discuss issues distinctive to the region. “We were able to gain an understanding of the unique challenges each [defence organization] faces with regards to emergency response and for 3 The term “Northern CHoDs” instead of “Arctic CHoDs” was applied by the event’s organizers within Canada’s Department of National Defence in an effort to downplay the possible misperception that the meeting was associated with, or formally sanctioned by, the Arctic Council. Department of National Defence, Draft Media Response Line: CDS to host meeting of the Northern Chiefs of Defence in Iqaluit (Ottawa: DND ADM(PA), 13 February 2012). Note: As per the title of the reference, the Northern CHoDs was originally planned to take place in Iqaluit, Nunavut instead of Goose Bay, Labrador. 3 support to our civilian authorities,” said General Natynczyk. “During our short time together, I believe we in the Canadian Forces enhanced our military-to-military relationships with our northern neighbours.”4 General Nikolai Makarov, Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia, led the Russian delegation to the Northern CHoDs meeting.
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