6 X 10.Three Lines .P65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76648-7 - The Doctrines of US Security Policy: An Evaluation under International Law Heiko Meiertons Index More information

INDEX

Abbott, Kenneth, 15 Berger, Sandy, 178 Acheson, Dean, 107 Berlin, Congress of (1884), 28 Adams, John Quincy and Adams Biden, Joe, 228–9, 230 Doctrine, 31 bipolar international systems, 172, Afghanistan, 152, 156, 157, 161, 188, 257–9 198, 209 Bolivar, Simon,´ 57 Al Quaida, 179, 198 Bolivia, 66, 68 Algeciras, Conference of (1906), 40 Borah, William E., 86, 93 Alvarez, Alejandro, 29, 43, 50, 52, 53, Bosch, Juan, 131 243 Bowett, D., 30, 56 American Institute of International Boxer Rebellion, 88 Law, 45 Brezhnev Doctrine, 137, 140, 141, ‘American international law’, concept 159–60, 166, 220 of, 43–6, 247 Brian, William J., 55 Angola and Reagan Doctrine, 155 Briand–Kellog Pact (1928) Annan, Kofi, 212 Monroe Doctrine and, 33, 35, 62, 69, Antarctic Treaty (1959), 80 80 anticipated self-defence, 182, 185 Stimson Doctrine and, 85, 90–5, 97, Anzilotti, Dionisio, 12 98, 105, 244, 249 Argentina, 54, 64 Britain. See United Kingdom armed attack Brown, Philip Marshall, 66 Bush doctrine abandoning Brownlie, Ian, 110, 190, 213 requirement of, 193–5, 222 Brum, Balthazar and Brum Doctrine, different interpretations of, 192 74 extension of concept of, 195–200 Budapest Articles, International Law harmonisation of interpretation of, Association (1934), 97 186 Buenos Aires, Declaration of (1936), 36 Asia. See also Nixon Doctrine; South Bush Doctrine, 179–224.Seealso East Asia Treaty Organization imminence of threat; National (SEATO) Treaty; Stimson Security Strategy (NSS) 2002; Doctrine; specific countries pre-emptive self-defence Ford Doctrine (New Pacific principle, Bush Doctrine Doctrine), 150–1 11 September 2001 and, 179 Australia, 81, 212 anti-formalistic approach of, 255 Caroline formula and, 185, 189, 191, Baghdad Pact (CENTO Treaty; 1955), 192, 193, 201, 203–5, 208, 222, 119, 128–9 226, 233, 245

301

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76648-7 - The Doctrines of US Security Policy: An Evaluation under International Law Heiko Meiertons Index More information

302 index

Bush Doctrine (cont.) Carter, Jimmy and Carter Doctrine, conclusions regarding, 221–4 152–4 force, use of, 187–9, 202, 215, 220, Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) 221, 233 Treaty (Baghdad Pact; 1955), impact of, 119, 128–9 international law Chaco Dispute between Bolivia and evaluation of doctrine under, Paraguay (1932–1935), 66, 68 185–211 Chamberlain, Neville, 81 hostility of Bush administration Chapultepec, Act of (1945), 72 toward, vii China rejection of doctrine under, 212, Boxer Rebellion, 88 237–9 Briand–Kellogg Pact and, 85 legal aspects of. See under legal Ford Doctrine (New Pacific aspects of US doctrines Doctrine) and, 151 NSS 2006, 226, 230 Manchuria, Japanese occupation of, polarity of international system and, 83, 85, 97 258 on Monroe Doctrine as regional political debate, change in, 225–32 understanding, 65 ‘Regime Change’ and, 194, 234 Open Door Principle regarding, Roosevelt Corollary and, 215, 218, 86–9 220, 223, 224 Stimson Doctrine and, 83, 85, 86–9 scholarly debate, change in, 235–7 Wanghia, Treaty of (1844), 87 self-defence, vii, 187, 189–91, 226, Clark, Joshua Reuben and Clark 234 Memorandum, 34 sovereignty argument of, 218–21, Clay, Henry, 31, 41 223, 252 Cleveland, Grover, 50 UN Charter and Clifford, Clark, 109 Article 2(1), 214, 215, 220 Clinton, Bill and Clinton Doctrine, Article 2(4), 187–9, 202, 215, 220, 176–8, 230, 232 221, 233 Cold War doctrines. See also Article 51, vii, 187, 189–91, 195–6, Eisenhower Doctrine; entries 234, 245 at Johnson Doctrine; Nixon consistency with, 245 Doctrine; Reagan Doctrine; unilateral authority to act under, Truman Doctrine 212–18, 223 Carter Doctrine, 152–4 war on terror, concept of, 230–1, 235 consistency with UN Charter, 245 Bush,GeorgeH.W.andBushSenior endofColdWar,172 Doctrine, 103, 173–4 Ford Doctrine (New Pacific Byers, Michael, 197 Doctrine), 150–1 polarity of international system and, Cambodia, 145, 146, 155 258 Canada, 23, 79, 219 power of defining legality of an Caracas, 10th Inter-American action, 248 Conference in (1954), 37, 71, UN Charter and, 100 135, 136 Colombia, 45, 66, 68 Caroline formula, 42, 95, 185, 189, 191, colonialism, 26–9, 38–42, 160 192, 193, 201, 203–5, 208, 222, communism. See Cold War doctrines; 226, 233, 245 Russia

index 303

Congo case (Democratic Republic of Drago Doctrine, 54 Congo v. Uganda; 2005), 234 Dulles, John Foster, 37, 70–3, 125–6, Connally, Tom, 71 127, 136, 158 consistency of US doctrines with international law in force, Egypt, 121 240–6 Eisenhower Doctrine, 121–31 content of doctrines, differing conclusions regarding, 130–1 understandings as to, 241–3 consistency with UN Charter, 245 legality of use of force, differing core principles in speech of 5 understandings as to, 243–6 January 1957, 122–3, 127 prior to UN Charter, 243–4 force, use of, 123–8 subjectivity of evaluations regarding, conclusions regarding, 130 240 criteria for, 123–5 with UN Charter, 244–6, 254 indirect aggression, 127 constitutional law, 14 legality of, 125–6 containment, Reagan Doctrine as legal aspects of. See under legal break from policy of, 158 aspects of US doctrines content of doctrines, differing Monroe Doctrine and, 130 understanding as to, 241–3 Nixon Doctrine and, 149, 151 Costa Rica, 63 self-defence, 127, 128 counter-intervention, 165 Suez Crisis (1956) precipitating, Crabb, Cecil V., viii, x, 5 121 Critical Defense Zones, 153 terms for, 122 Critical Legal Studies School, 13–14 Truman Doctrine and, 123, 130, Cuba, 31, 134 251 Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), 37, 77, UN Charter and, 124–5, 126, 130, 204, 208 245 Czechoslovakia, 111, 137, 139, 140 Erfolgunswert (‘act’s wrong’), 198 Ethiopia, 155 Davis, Norman, 57 Europe/European Union, 26, 144, 212. Declaration on Solidarity for the See also speciﬁc countries Preservation of Political Evans–Sahnoun Commission Integrity of American States (Canada), 219 against Communist ex iniuria ius non oritur, 5 Intervention (1952), 71 exceptionalism, US, 253 defensive–isolationist phase of Monroe Doctrine, 30–1 failed states, concept of, 221 Denmark on Monroe Doctrine’s force, use of, vii, 7.SeealsoEisenhower applicability to Greenland, 79 Doctrine; National Security desinteressement principle, Monroe Strategy (NSS) 2002; Nixon Doctrine, 27 Doctrine; Reagan Doctrine; Dinstein, Y., 208 Truman Doctrine ‘doability’ (Tunlichkeit) of doctrines, Bush Doctrine, 187–9, 202, 215, 220, 22, 152, 177 221, 233 doctrines, deﬁned and described, 3–7, Bush Senior Doctrine on, 173–4 17–23, 240 Clinton Doctrine on, 176–8 Dominican Republic, US intervention differing understandings as to in (1965), 78, 131, 139, 141 legality of, 243–6

304 index

force, use of (cont.) Großbraumordnung, concept of, 47–50, doctrines in 1990s focused on 52, 139, 247 situations in which force shall Guam Doctrine, 142 not be used, 178 Guyana, 32 international law prior to UN Charter, 243–4 Haas, Richard, 219 limits of work regarding study of, Hackworth, G., 36 20–1 Hague Conventions, 33, 40–1, 61 Monroe Doctrine, 31, 34, 38–42, 82, Hallstein Doctrine (Germany), 241 83 Hammer, C., 5 national liberation movements’ right Handlungsunrecht (‘action’s wrong’), to, 160 198 Open Door Principle and, 87, 88 Hay, John and Hay Doctrine, 55, 87, Powell Doctrine on, 174–6 88 in self-defence. See self-defence Haya de la Torre Asylum case (1950), 45 Stimson doctrine, 91–3, 97 hegemonic international law, vii Weinberger/Weinberger–Powell Bush Doctrine, unilateral authority Doctrine on, 174–6 to act under, 212–18, 223 Ford Doctrine (New Paciﬁc Doctrine), Cold War, end of, 172 150–1 doctrines generally as claims of, France, 59, 63, 87, 121, 128 251–6 Franck, Thomas, 136, 137, 139, 140, historical instances of, 2 187, 188 Monroe Doctrine, hegemonic Friendly Relations Declaration (UN interpretation of, 32–4 General Assembly, 1970), multilateralism and paradox of, 214 168–9, 209 multipolar system preceding, 25 post-American epoch, 235, 236–7 geographical extent of Monroe sovereignty arguments, 1, 252–3 Doctrine, 78–80 stability of, 258 Germany, 32, 54, 81, 87, 88, 241 US exceptionalism, 253 Gerson, A., 110, 158, 166 Henkin, Louis, 110 Ghana, 208 Holy Alliance and Monroe Doctrine, 26 Glennon, Michael, 187–8 Hoover, Herbert, 35, 85, 92 ‘Good Neighbour’ Policy and Howard, John, 212 multilateralisation of Monroe Huber, Max, 1, 247 Doctrine, 35 Hughes, Charles Evans, 62 Grant, Ulysses S., 31 Hughes, William Morris, 81 Gray, Christine, 230 Hull, Cordell, 49, 79 Gray, Colin S., 7 humanitarian intervention, Clinton Great Britain. See United Kingdom Doctrine on, 176–8 Greek Civil War (1943–7) and Truman Doctrine, 100–1, 102, 106, 115, imminence of threat, 233, 238 129 Caroline formula for, 193, 216, 222 Greenland, application of Monroe conclusions regarding, 222–3 Doctrine to, 79 in NSS 2002, 183, 184, 189, 193, Grenada, 1983 intervention in, 161, 194–5, 205 208 Waldock’s incipient self-defence, Grewe, Wilhelm, 2, 235 193

index 305

indirect aggression, 110, 111–14, 119, Johnson Doctrine (first), 133 127 Johnson Doctrine (second), 131–42 inter-American system and Monroe Brezhnev Doctrine and, 141 Doctrine, 74–5, 78 Carter Doctrine and, 154 internal conflicts, interference in, 21 conclusions regarding, 141–2 International Court of Justice (ICJ). See core principles in speech of 2 May also Nicaragua v. United States 1965, 131–2 of America Monroe Doctrine, as corollary to, Advisory Opinion on the Legal 72, 134–7, 139, 141 Consequences of the Nixon Doctrine and, 151 Construction of a Wall in the Rio (Punto del Este) Pact (1962) Occupied Palestinian Territory and, 132, 135–6 (2004), 199 Roosevelt Corollary and, 136, 139, Advisory Opinion on the Legality of 141, 245 the Threat or Use of Nuclear Truman Doctrine and, 135 Weapons (1996), 148–9 UN Charter and, 136, 141 armed attack, extension of concept use of term, 132–4, 141 of, 198, 199 Johnson–Mann Doctrine, 134 Democratic Republic of Congo v. just war theory, Bush Doctrine and Uganda, 234 revival of, 232 general principles of law, what constitutes, 256 Kellogg, Frank, 34 international law. See US security Kennan, George F. and Kennan policy and international law Corollary, 18, 91, 102, 107 International Law Association, Kennedy Doctrine/Kennedy Corollary, Budapest Articles (1934), 97 37, 134, 141, 208, 232 International Law Commission, 96 Khrushchev Doctrine, 159 invitation, intervention upon, 110, 119, Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 110, 155, 158, 166 130, 139, 140, 209 Kohen, Marcelo, 5, 6, 104, 178 Iran, 152, 228, 234 Kosovo, 1999 intervention in, 177, 188 Iraq Kowaljow, S., 138 air strikes against (1993), 199, 209 Krakau, K., 74 Baghdad Pact (CENTO Treaty; Kraus, Herbert, viii–x, 16, 22, 26, 27, 1955), 119, 128–9 29, 39, 52–4, 56, 57, 152, 177 bilateral treaty (1959) with, 129 Krauthammer, Charles, 155 Bush Doctrine and 2003 Kutzner, G., 29 intervention in, 188, 211, 212 Osirak nuclear reactor, Israeli Lansing–Ishii Agreement (1917), 88 bombing of (1981), 185, 204, Laos, 155 209 Latin America, 155, 241.Seealso Israel, 121, 185, 199, 204, 209 Monroe Doctrine; specific Italy, 32, 54 countries ius ad bellum rather than ius in bello League of Nations addressed, 20 Lodge Reservations to, 60 Monroe Doctrine and, 33, 47, 58–68, Japan, 81, 83, 85, 87, 90, 93, 95, 97, 72, 83, 244, 248 151 Stimson Doctrine and, 94, 96, 97 Jefferson, Thomas, 241 Lebanon, 124, 126, 130, 161

306 index

legal aspects of US doctrines Obama doctrine and changes in Bush Doctrine legal debate, 232–5 changes in legal debate since, polarity of international system, 232–5 257–9 conclusions regarding, 221–4 power of deﬁning legality of an customary pre-Charter right action, 248, 250 continuing in existence, 200–7 Reagan Doctrine customary pre-Charter right no international law, compatibility longer in existence, 190 with, 162–9 evaluation of doctrine under use of force under, legality of, international law, 185–211 157–8 as hegemonic international law, Stimson Doctrine, 89–98 212–18 treaty obligations, 250–1 hostility of Bush administration Truman Doctrine toward international law, vii legalisation of, 114–19 law-changing aspects of, 211–21 NATO Treaty and, 116–18, 119, NSS 2002 on legality of use of 120 force, 184–5 SEATO Treaty and, 118–19, 120 preventive self-defence, legality use of force, legality of, 102–6 under international law, 4 Leticia Dispute (1933), 68 preventive self-defence, US legal Libya, 1986 bombings of, 161, 199, opinion previous to Bush, 208, 209 207–11 Lima, Declaration of (1938), 56 rejection under international law, LNC (League of Nations Covenant). 212, 237–9 See League of Nations sovereignty argument, 218–21, Lodge Corollary and Lodge 223, 252 Reservations to LNC, 33, 60 consistency with international law. Lytton Commission, 97, 98 See consistency of US doctrines with international law in force Magdalena Bay case (1912), 28, 33 doctrine, concept of, 5 Manila Treaty. See South East Asia Eisenhower Doctrine Treaty Organization (SEATO) international law, reconcilability Treaty with, 126–8 Mann, Thomas C., 134 legalisation of, 128–30 Marshall Plan, 108, 144 use of force under, legality of, McDougal, Myres, 107 125–6 Mexico, 64 force, differing understandings as to Middle East. See Eisenhower Doctrine; legality of use of, 243–6 speciﬁc countries hegemonic claims. See hegemonic Middle East Defence Organisation international law (MEDO), 128 law-creating effects, vii, 7–8, 246–56 Millkins, Senator, 70, 71 legal nature of doctrines, vii, 256–7 Monroe Doctrine, 25–83.Seealso limits on legalisation of doctrines, multilateralisation of Monroe 247–8 Doctrine; Roosevelt Corollary Monroe Doctrine, 42–54, 115 Briand–Kellog Pact and, 33, 35, 62, NSS 2002 on legality of use of force, 69, 80 184–5 Canada, application to, 23

index 307

Carter Doctrine and, Rio Pact and, 37, 74, 75–7, 80, 83, central tenets of, 26–9 245, 250 Clark Memorandum, 34 SEATO Treaty and, 118 consistency with international law self-defence under, 41, 42, 69–74, 76, prior to UN Charter, 243 82, 83, 215–18 content of, differing understandings as separate rule of international law, as to, 241, 242, 243 43–6, 59–61, 82 defensive–isolationist phase, 30–1 as sui generis action, 51–2 desinteressement principle, 27 treaty obligations and, 250 different possible evaluations of, 21 Truman Doctrine and, 103, 114, Eisenhower Doctrine and, 130 115 flexibility of concept, 82 UN Charter and, 37, 44, 68–74, 75, force, use of, 31, 34, 38–42, 82, 83 78, 83, 136, 244 geographical extent of, 78–80 ‘Monroe Doctrines’ of other states, Großbraumordnung, as expression 80–2 of, 47–50, 52 Morgenthau, Hans, 22, 107 Hague Conventions and, 33, 40–1, Moscow Doctrine, 137, 138 61 Mozambique and Reagan Doctrine, hegemonic claims based on, 32–4 155 historical development of, 29–38 Mukden Incident, 83 inter-American system and, 74–5, multilateral characteristics of Open 78 Door Principle, 87 Johnson Doctrine as corollary to, 72, multilateral paradox of hegemonic 134–7, 139, 141 international law, 214 Kennan Corollary to, 18 multilateralisation of Monroe Kennedy Corollary to, 134, 141 Doctrine, 54–5 legal aspects of, 42–54, 115 conclusions regarding, 82, 83 LNC and, 33, 47, 58–68, 72, 83, 244, consistency with UN Charter and, 248 245 Lodge Corollary, 33, 60 defining multilateralisation, non-colonisation principle, 26–9, 55–8 38–42 as historical development, 34–8 non-intervention principle, 26–9, inter-American system and UN 38–42, 74 Charter, conflict between, 54–5, OAS Charter and, 37, 44, 75–7, 83, 75, 78 245, 250 League of Nations Covenant and, obligations not created by, 115 58–68 Olney Corollary, 32, 50 treaty obligations and, 250 Open Door Principle as Asian multipolar international systems, 25, counterpart of, 98 257–9 as political principle, 50–1, 66–8 Munich Security Conference (2009), Polk Corollary (non-transfer 228, 238 principle), 31, 39, 74 Mutual Defence Assistance Act (1951), preventive self-defence under, 111 215–18 Reagan Doctrine and, 169 Nagan, W., 5 as regional understanding, 63, 64–5, national liberation movements’ right 73, 74–5, 78 to use force, 160

308 index

National Security Strategy (NSS) 2002, consistency with UN Charter, 245 180–5 core principles in speech of armed attack, abandonment of 3 November 1969, 143 requirement of, 194–5 Eisenhower Doctrine and, 149, 151 central statement on use of force, force, use of, 143–50, 153 180 criteria for, 144–6 criteria for use of force under, international law, compatibility 182–4 with, 146–50 on imminence of threat, 183, 184, self-defence, 146–7, 151 189, 193, 194–5, 205 treaty obligations, 147 Iraq, orientation towards UN Charter, Article 2(4) and, intervention in, 211 148–50, 152 on legality of use of force, 184–5 Johnson Doctrine and, 151 Obama echoing, 227 nuclear shield principle, 143, 145, on pretextual claims of self-defence, 147, 148–9 202 treaty obligations and, 143, 147 on preventive self-defence, 181, 205, Truman Doctrine and, 144, 146, 147, 206, 207 149, 151 publication of, 179 UN Charter sovereignty reinforced by sanctions, Article 2(4), on use of force, as demand for, 218–21 148–50, 152, 245 on unilateral authority to act, Article 51, right of self-defence 212–18 under, 146–7, 151 on WMD, 181 use of term, 142 National Security Strategy (NSS) 2006, non-colonisation principle, Monroe 226, 230 Doctrine, 26–9, 38–42 natural law, 11 non-intervention principle, Monroe Negroponte, John, 181 Doctrine, 26–9, 38–42, 74 New Haven School, 12, 107, 108, 120, non-recognition principle. See Stimson 254 Doctrine New Paciﬁc Doctrine (Ford Doctrine), non-transfer principle (Polk 150–1 Corollary), Monroe Doctrine, Nicaragua and Reagan Doctrine, 155, 31, 39, 74 156, 157, 161, 163 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Nicaragua v. United States of America (NATO) Treaty (1986) armed attack, extension of concept Bush Doctrine and, 191, 192 of, 199 dissenting opinion of Judge Baghdad Pact and, 129 Schwebel in, 21 Eisenhower Doctrine and, 126, 130 Monroe Doctrine and, 72 Nixon Doctrine and, 147 Reagan Doctrine and, 165, 167–9, terrorism, extension of right of 170 self-defence in reaction to, so-called doctrines of 1990s, 187 172–9 Truman Doctrine, as legalisation of, Truman Doctrine and, 112 116–18, 119, 120, 250 Nixon Doctrine, 142–52 NorthKoreaandBushDoctrineof conclusions regarding, 151–2 preventive self-defence, 234

index 309

NSS. See entries at National Security on preventive self-defence prior to Strategy Bush Doctrine, 209 nuclear weapons on Reagan Doctrine, 167, 168 ICJ Advisory Opinion on the terrorism, extension of right of Legality of the Threat or Use of self-defence in reaction to, 187 Nuclear Weapons (1996), 148–9 Truman Doctrine and UN Charter, Nixon Doctrine, nuclear shield 104 principle of, 143, 145, 147, Organization of American States (OAS) 148–9 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 208 Obama on, 228 foundation of, 37 Osirak nuclear reactor in Iraq, Israeli Johnson Doctrine and, 133 bombing of (1981), 185, 204, Monroe Doctrine and, 37, 44, 75–7, 209 83, 245, 250 Nuremberg Tribunal, on Reagan Doctrine and, 157 Briand–Kellog Pact, 98 Osirak nuclear reactor in Iraq, Israeli Nye, Joseph S., 19 bombing of (1981), 185, 204, 209 Obama, Barack, 227, 228, 229, 230, 239 Pakistan, bilateral treaty with (1959), Obama Doctrine, 224–39 129 as abandonment of Bush Doctrine, Pan-American Conferences 227, 229 Buenos Aires (1936), 36 Clinton and Powell Doctrines Chapultepec, Mexico (1945), 36, 72, compared, 178 74 concise doctrine, unlikelihood of Havana (1928), 34 declaration of, 232, 239 Havana (1940), 36 legal debate, change in, 232–5 Lima (1938), 36, 56, 83 as new doctrine, 227–32 Montevideo (1933), 35 political debate, change in, 225–32 Panama (1939), 36 reversal of Bush Doctrine under, Rio di Janeiro (1942), 36 238 Paraguay, 66, 68 scholarly debate, change in, 235–7 Paris, Pact of. See Briand–Kellog Pact terrorism remaining as top priority Perkins, Dexter, 29 of, 230 PersianGulfregion,142, 153, 154 Olney, Richard and Olney Corollary, Peru, 45, 66, 68 32, 50 polarity of international system, ‘one world vision’ of Roosevelt, 106 257–9 Open Door Principle, 86–9, 98, 103, policy-oriented approach, 12 114, 255 political principle opinio iuris legalisation of, 7–8 Bush Doctrine and, 180, 217, 232 Monroe Doctrine as, 50–1, 66–8 distinguishing, 18 Polk, James and Polk Corollary, 31, 39, Johnson Doctrine and Brezhnev 74 Doctrine compared, 140 positivism, 11, 16 Obama Doctrine and, 230 Powell, Colin and Powell Doctrine, power of deﬁning legality of an 174–6, 180, 230 action, 249 pretextual claims of self-defence,

310 index

preventive self-defence principle, Bush conclusions regarding, 169–71 Doctrine, 189–207.Seealso containment, as break from policy imminence of threat of, 158 anticipated self-defence versus, 182, content of, differing understandings 185 as to, 242, 243 armed attack core principles in speech of abandonment of requirement of, 6 February 1985, 156–7 193–5, 222 force, use of, 157–69 extension of term following 11 broad interpretation, 164–7, 170, September 2001, 195–200 171 Article 51 of UN Charter and, vii, criteria for, 158–62 189–91 ICJ Nicaragua judgment, 165, Caroline formula and, 189, 191, 192, 167–9, 170 193, 201, 203–5, 208 international law, compatibility change in legal debate following, with, 162–9 232–5 legality of, 157–8 conclusions regarding, 223 restrictive interpretations, 162–4, criteria for use of, 182–4 170 customary pre-Charter right of self in self-defence, 157–8, 162–4 defence indirect aggression, concept of, 111 continued existence of, 200–7 internal conﬂicts, interference in, no longer in existence, 190 21 formulations prior to NSS 2002, Khrushchev Doctrine and, 159 181 Monroe Doctrine and, 169 legal opinion on preventive OAS and, 157 self-defence previous to Bush, in principle and in practice, 210 207–11 pro-democratic intervention under, legality under international law, 4 160, 165–7, 168, 170, 242 Monroe Doctrine and, 215–18 ‘Roll-Back’, as policy of, 158 NSS 2002 on, 181, 205, 206 Roosevelt Corollary and, 159, 245 ‘regime change’ and, 194 selective intervention, as doctrine of, sovereignty reinforced by sanctions, 159 221 Stimson Doctrine and, 162 WMD and, 181 Truman Doctrine and, 157, 158, 159, pro-democratic intervention, 160, 162, 169, 170, 245 165–7, 168, 170, 242, 247 UN Charter Pu-Yi (last Chinese emperor), 84 Article 1 and pro-democratic Punto del Este (Rio) Pact (1962), 132, intervention, 170 135–6, 187 Article 2(4) on use of force, 157, Putin, Vladimir, 239 158, 162, 166, 245 Article 51 on self-defence, 162, Reagan Codicil or Corollary to Carter 163 Doctrine, 154 legality under, 157 Reagan Doctrine, 155–71.Seealso Reagan, Ronald, 38, 155, 156–7, 161 under legal aspects of US ‘regime change’, 194, 234 doctrines regional understanding, Monroe Brezhnev Doctrine and, 159–60, Doctrine as, 63, 64–5, 73, 74–5, 166 78

index 311

Reibstein, Ernst, 6 on Mutual Defence Assistance Act Reid y Cabral, Donald, 131 (1951), 111 Reisman, W. Michael, 18, 153, 159, Obama’s outreach to, 228 166, 216, 251, 260 Reagan Doctrine and, 155, 156, 157, Richards, James P., 124 161 Rio Pact (1947), 37, 74, 75–7, 80, 83, Stimson Doctrine and, 87 115, 245, 250 Truman Doctrine and, 102, 106, 108, Rio (Punto del Este) Pact (1962), 132, 111 135–6, 187 Rogue States, concept of, 184, 205 Saavedra–Lamas Pact (1933), 35, 62, 96 ‘Roll-Back’, Reagan Doctrine as policy Sack, A., 112 of, 158 Schmitt, Carl, 47–50, 52, 67 Roosevelt Corollary, 32–4 Schroder,¨ Dieter, 252 Bush Doctrine and, 215, 218, 220, Schwebel, Stephen M., 21 223, 224 Schweisfurth, Theodor, 252, 253 Caroline formula and, 42 science of law, 14–15 conclusions regarding, 82 security policy, deﬁned and described, consistency with international law 19, 20 prior to UN Charter, 244 selective intervention, doctrines of, 159 content of, differing understandings self-defence. See also imminence of as to, 243 threat; preventive self-defence Eisenhower Doctrine and, 127 principle evaluation under international law, anticipated, 182, 185 39, 40, 42, 52, 53, 64, 67, 75 Bush Doctrine, vii, 187, 189–91, 226, Johnson Doctrine and, 136, 139, 234 141, 245 Caroline formula, 42, 95, 185, 189, polarity of international system and, 191, 192, 193, 201, 203–5, 208, 258 222, 226, 233, 245 Reagan Doctrine and, 159, 245 Eisenhower Doctrine and, 127, 128 sovereignty argument, 252 Monroe Doctrine and, 41, 42, 69–74, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 35, 36, 79, 76, 82, 83, 215–18 106 Nixon Doctrine and, 146–7, 151 Roosevelt, Theodore, 21, 32–4, 36 pretextual claims of, Root, Elihu, 30, 88, 215–18 Reagan Doctrine and, 157–8, 162–4 Root–Takira Agreement (1908), 88 Stimson Doctrine and, 93–5, 97 Rostow, Eugene V., 109 terrorism, extension of right of Rubin, A., 118 self-defence in reaction to, 186, Russia. See also Cold War Doctrines 195–200 Afghanistan, Soviet intervention in, Truman Doctrine and, 111 152, 156, 157, 161 UN Charter Article 51. See under Brezhnev Doctrine, 137, 140, 141, UN Charter 159–60, 166, 220 self-determination, right of, 160 dissolution of Soviet Union, 172 11 September 2001, 179, 186, 187–9, Eisenhower Doctrine and, 126 196–200 Khruschev Doctrine, 37, 159 Shultz, George, 157, 160 Marshall Plan and, 108 Simma, Bruno, 15, 16, 17, 234 Monroe Doctrine and, 26, 37 Slaughter, Anne-Marie, 15 Moscow Doctrine, 137, 138 Smith, Gaddis, 21, 159

312 index

socialist intervention, Moscow Truman Doctrine and, 115 Doctrine and theory of, 138 UN Charter Article 2(4) and, 97 Sofaer, Abraham, 209 Sudan, air strikes against (1998), 209 soft-power question, 19 Suez Crisis (1956), 121 The Sources of Soviet Conduct sui generis actions. See also hegemonic (Kennan), 102 international law South America. See Latin America doctrines generally as claims for, South East Asia Treaty Organization 251–6 (SEATO) Treaty Monroe Doctrine as, 51–2 Baghdad Pact and, 129 in US state practice prior to Bush Eisenhower Doctrine and, 130 Doctrine, 213 Monroe Doctrine and, 118 Nixon Doctrine and, 147 Taft, William H., IV, 185, 201 Truman Doctrine, as legalisation of, Taliban, 188, 198 118–19, 120, 250 terrorism sovereignty arguments, use of, 1, 11 September 2001, 179, 186, 187–9, 218–21, 223, 252 196–200 Soviet Union. See Russia extension of right of self-defence in Spain, 26, 31 reaction to, 186, 195–200 Spencer, John, 247 Obama Doctrine, as top priority of, spheres of inﬂuence, 153 230 Stahn, C., 204 sovereignty reinforced by sanctions, Stassen, Harold E., 68 Bush Doctrine as demand for, Stimson Doctrine, 83–99 218–21 Briand–Kellog Pact and, 85, 90–5, waronterror,conceptof,230–1, 235 97, 98, 105, 244, 249 Thompson, Sir Robert, 146 central principle of, 84 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 3 consistency with international law Tokyo Tribunal, on Briand–Kellog prior to UN Charter, 244 Pact, 98 content of, differing understandings Tonking Gulf Resolution, 133 as to, 241 treaty obligations and US doctrines, diplomatic notes formulating, 83, 143, 147, 250–1 84, 89, 91, 93 Triepel, Heinrich, 23 enforcement requirements beyond Tripartite Declaration (1950), 128 options for action, 255 Truman Doctrine. 100–21.Seealso force, use of, 91–3, 97 under legal aspects of US Foreign Relations Council speech doctrines elaborating on, 91, 93, 94 conclusions regarding, 119–21 League of Nations and, 94, 96, 97 consistency with UN Charter, 245 legal aspects of, 89–98 core principles of, 101–2 moral–missionary character of, 91 Eisenhower Doctrine and, 123, 130, obligations not created by, 115 251 Open Door Principle and, 86–9, 98 force, use of, 119 precipitating incident, 83, 93 criteria for, 108–11 Reagan Doctrine and, 162 indirect aggression, in response self-defence, 93–5, 97 to, 110, 111–14, 119 status as US security policy, 85–6 legality of, 102–6 transformation of non-recognition as unilateral enforcement of principle into rule of law, 95–8 collective will, 106–8

index 313

internal conflicts, interference in, 21 Truman Doctrine and, 105, 110, Johnson Doctrine and, 135 113, 245 Monroe Doctrine and, 103, 114, 115 Article 27(3), 73, 251 NATO Treaty as legalisation of, Article 51. See also armed attack 116–18, 119, 120, 250 Baghdad Pact and, 129 Nixon Doctrine and, 144, 146, 147, Bush Doctrine and, vii, 187, 149, 151 189–91, 195–6, 234, 245 Open Door Principle and, 103 Caroline formula and, 189–91, Reagan Doctrine and, 157, 158, 159, 208, 245 162, 169, 170, 243, 245 consistency of US doctrines with, SEATO Treaty as legalisation of, 245 118–19, 120, 250 customary pre-Charter right, self-defence, 111 continued existence of, 200–7 speech of 12 March 1947, 101–8 customary pre-Charter right no Stimson Doctrine and, 115 longer existing, 190 treaty obligations and, 250 interpretation of, 20 UN Charter and, 104–6, 107–8, 120, Monroe Doctrine and, 69–74, 76, 245 82, 83 Tunlichkeit (‘doability’) of doctrines, Nixon Doctrine and, 146–7, 151 22, 152, 177 power of defining legality of an Turkey, 101, 102, 106, 115, 119, action, 249 128–9 preventive self-defence previous to Bush Doctrine, 207–11 UN Charter. See also under Bush Reagan Doctrine and, 162, 163 Doctrine; Nixon Doctrine; Truman Doctrine and, 104, 105, Reagan Doctrine 113–14, 115, 120 Article 1, 170 Turkey, Iraq and Pakistan 1959 Article 2(1), 21, 77, 214, 215, 220 bilateral treaties with, 129 Article 2(4) use of force without authorisation Bush Doctrine and, 187–9, 202, and, 187, 189 215, 220, 221, 233 Article 53, 76, 77–8, 82, 83, 208, consistency of US doctrines with, 245 245–6 Articles 55 and 56, 107 continued validity after Article 103, 76 11 September 2001, 187–9 consistency of US doctrines with, customary right of self-defence, 244–6, 254 continued existence of, 202 Eisenhower Doctrine and, 124–5, interpretation of, 20 126, 130, 245 Monroe Doctrine and, 69, 72, 83, inter-American agreements and, 74 244 Johnson Doctrine and, 136, 141 Nixon Doctrine and, 148–50, 152, Monroe Doctrine and, 37, 44, 68–74, 245 75, 78, 83, 136, 244 power of defining legality of an Obama and Biden statements, 229 action, 249 power of defining legality of an Reagan Doctrine and, 157, 158, action, 249 162, 166, 245 Truman doctrine and, 104–6, 107–8, Rio (Punto del Este) Pact (1962) 120, 245 and, 135 US doctrines generally, effect on, Stimson Doctrine and, 97 100

314 index

UN General Assembly interdisciplinary element of, 14 Bush Doctrine, rejection of, 212 limits of work, 17–23 Friendly Relations Declaration methodology of study, 8–10, 11–17 (1970), 168–9, 209 Open Door Principle, 86–9, 98, 103, unequal treaties, 87 114, 255 unilateralism. See hegemonic opinion of international law held by international law US administrations, 9 United Kingdom polarity of international system, border dispute between Venezuela 257–9 and Guyana, 32 Powell Doctrine, 174–6, 230 Greek Civil War (1943–47), role in, security policy, defined and 101 described, 19, 20 ‘Monroe Doctrine’, British, 80, 81 so-called doctrines of 1990s, 172–9 operational versus doctrinal UN Charter and, 100.SeealsoUN concepts in, 6 Charter sea blockade of Venezuela, 32, 54 Weinberger/Weinberger–Powell Stimson Doctrine and, 87 Doctrine, 174–6 Suez Crisis (1956) precipitating use of force. See force, use of Eisenhower Doctrine, 121 USSR. See Russia Tripartite Declaration (1950), 128 Uruguay, 74, 133, 134 Vandenberg, Senator, 74, 103 US exceptionalism, 253 Venezuela, 32, 54 US security policy and international Vietnam and Vietnam War, 109, 133, law, vii–viii, 1–24.SeealsoBush 142, 143, 145, 146, 155, 157 Doctrine; Cold War doctrines; von Clausewitz, Carl, 231 consistency of US doctrines von Ribbentrop, Joachim, 49 with international law in force; Eisenhower Doctrine; force, Waldock, Sir Humphrey, use of; hegemonic Wanghia, Treaty of (1844), 87 international law; entries at waronterror,conceptof,230–1, 235 Johnson Doctrine; legal aspects Warsaw Pact and Brezhnev Doctrine, of US doctrines; Monroe 141 Doctrine; Nixon Doctrine; Washington, George, 30, 103, 241 Obama Doctrine; Reagan Washington Treaty (1899), 28 Doctrine; Stimson Doctrine; weapons of mass destruction (WMD), Truman Doctrine NSS 2002 on, 181.Seealso Bush Senior Doctrine, 173–4 nuclear weapons Carter Doctrine, 152–4 Webster, Daniel, Clinton Doctrine, 176–8, 230 Weinberger/Weinberger–Powell conclusions regarding, 259–63 Doctrine, 174–6 ‘doability’ (Tunlichkeit) of doctrines, Weisband, Edward, 136, 137, 139, 22, 152, 177 140 doctrines, defined and described, Wilson, Woodrow, 51, 58, 60, 66 3–7, 17–23, 240 Wright, Quincy, 89, 260 Ford Doctrine (New Pacific Doctrine), 150–1 Yepes, J. M., 43, 50, 52 historical issues in delimiting and defining doctrines, 10–11 Zakaria, Fareed, 236