Biocontrol News and Information 34(3), 19N–26N www.cabi.org/BNI General News

Bringing a New Biofungicide to the Market in identify biocontrol candidates. This was achieved by Mexico measuring inhibition of mycelial growth of C. gloe- osporioides in vitro, from which seven bacterial A case study published in the Electronic Journal of isolates and one yeast isolate were deemed worthy of Biotechnology1 describes how a biofungicide for con- further investigation. trolling post-harvest anthracnose in mango was developed and launched on the Mexican market. The These results were presented at a meeting supported authors say that they know of no previous publica- by the Mexican National Council for Science and tion on an innovation process leading to the Technology in 2000. Here, the CIAD team met with commercialization of a biocontrol agent for a phy- scientists from UNAM’s Instituto de Biotecnología topathogen, and none for an emerging country such (IBt) for the first time, and agreement was reached as Mexico. They relate how various actors from dif- for collaborative research to confirm the robustness ferent sectors came into the project as new expertise of the initial results and the most promising isolates, became critical as the project moved from science to investigate optimal concentrations and applica- through large-scale testing to regulatory procedures tion intervals and timing, to conduct semi- and finally commercialization. The article also indi- commercial- and commercial-scale experiments, and cates that it was the researchers’ determination that to assess efficacy over different agricultural cycles. this was not going to end up as another ‘might have This led, among other things, to the candidate bio- been’ story that provided the energy to set and keep control agents being narrowed down to two bacterial the ball rolling, a process backed by industry and isolates, one each of Bacillus subtilis and Rhodo- government partners and funding via eight grants, torula minuta. primarily from the National Science and Technology Council (ConsejoNacional de Ciencia y Tecnología – The advantage of not following a strictly scientific CONACYT), the Ministry of Agriculture (Secre- publication route is illustrated by the way the scien- taríade Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, tists made an important contact. An article about the Pesca y Alimentación – SAGARPA), the Government project in Claridades Agropecuarias, a non-scientific of the State of Morelos and the research fund of the publication read widely by agribusiness profes- National University of Mexico (Universidad sionals in Mexico, caught the attention of an Nacional Autónoma de México – UNAM). innovative Mexican fruit exporting company, El Rodeo Fruit, who contacted the team and expressed Mango is an important crop in Mexico and the interest in becoming involved. The company subse- country is a leading world exporter; some 14% of quently conducted semi-commercial and commercial annual production is exported. However, the fruit field trials with a B. subtilis strain 83 solid formula- export sector suffers considerable losses from phy- tion product, which achieved excellent results: topathogens, which are present throughout the treating with the experimental product led to a crop production chain. The authors explain the challenges with 80% export-quality mangoes cf. 27% from a con- facing growers producing fruit for export. Entire con- ventional fungicide-based treatment. As signments may be rejected, which not only inflicts importantly, El Rodeo Fruit’s involvement grew financial losses but can damage relations with cli- trust in the product; they made the product available ents. Furthermore, in the last decade many free to growers, who were impressed with the results importing countries have introduced stringent limits it achieved and talked about it to other growers. The on pesticide residues in food making disease control company also offered a bonus to growers using the more difficult. The researchers in this project were product and documenting its use, and these data and seeking a new biologically based control method for the involvement of the producers gave a more com- Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, the causal agent of mercial aspect to the project. The authors credit this mango anthracnose. collaboration as critical to the project’s continuation and eventual success. The authors describe how, at the start of what became a 12-year multi-institutional, multi-discipli- At the end of 2007, though, the project ground to a nary project, the focus was on the scientific and halt. By then the researchers had demonstrated that technological challenges of isolating and screening B. subtilis strain 83 had commercial potential as a for promising organisms against the pathogen, and biological control agent, a robust pilot-scale produc- then developing effective formulation and applica- tion technology for production and formulation of a tion techniques and conducting first field trials. solid biofungicide based on B. subtilis spores was Isolation of bacteria and yeasts from mango was con- ready to be scaled-up to industrial level, and the ducted by the Centro de Investigación en market demand for high-quality mangoes could be Alimentación y Desarrollo (CIAD), who carried out better met by a biologically based product than con- extensive field sampling in mango orchards in ventional treatments – but companies were slow to Sinaloa State in western Mexico, the country’s main show interest and more than a year after they mango-producing region. Approximately 200 isolates started, discussions were going nowhere. However, of bacteria and yeast were preserved for screening to instead of abandoning the project, the team set out

Are we on your mailing list? Biocontrol News and Information is always pleased to receive news of research, conferences, new products or patents, changes in personnel, collaborative agreements or any other information of interest to other readers. If your organization sends out press releases or newsletters, please let us have a copy. In addition, the editors welcome proposals for review topics. 20N Biocontrol News and Information 34(3) on the long road to do it themselves. The authors de México, which has expertise in marketing and a make it clear that this is not a process that scientists strategy for building its environment- and farmer- can negotiate alone, and they document in detail the friendly business, with a ‘Grow Organic’ line. FMC essential support they had from Mexican institu- facilitated product positioning and increased brand tions. recognition by using a variety of channels to dissem- inate information. Finally, 12 years after the project First they needed to license the technology, which began, Fungifree AB® was launched in November includes an array of complex intellectual property 2012 at the Guanajuato Agro-Exhibition 2012, one of (IP) issues and other legal and financial matters, the most important events for the agro-industry in which really needs the involvement of a specialized Mexico. technology transfer office. Fortunately IBt has a Technology Transfer Office which deals with IP pro- But this is not the end of the story. Further applica- tection of technology generated by its researchers tions are being explored, as there are few effective and its transfer to the private sector. This office facil- treatments for anthracnose. Based on trial results itated the drafting of an invention description and a supplied by the researchers, SAGARPA has patent application was filed in 2006. endorsed its biological effectiveness on avocado, papaya and citrus fruits, and registration for use on While this process was progressing, the forthcoming these crops has been approved very recently (June licensing of the product was promoted within the 2013). In addition, research suggests that Fungifree national agroindustry, but still no potential partner AB® may have applications for controlling powdery was identified. The stalemate prompted the creation mildew and this is being investigated further. of a UNAM spin-off company Agro&Biotecnia in 2008 (created by IBt researchers and the first of the To end the paper, the authors discuss lessons currently five IBt’s spin-off companies to put a learned. They underline the point made throughout product on the Mexican market), with agreement the paper about the importance of scientists recog- being reached with CIAD on co-ownership of the nizing that actors from different sectors – academic, invention and the responsibility of the IBt Tech- industrial and service – with divergent backgrounds, nology Transfer Office for patent management and capabilities and even language play different but technology out-licensing. The researchers also essential roles in the innovation process. They also brought in a partner with long experience in fermen- note that it is important to see the science as just tation, quality control and manufacturing. part of the picture and to step back from insisting on a wholly scientific approach. They conclude by saying The next significant factor was the support available that this case study proves that commercial develop- to the fledgling company under the Sistema Nacional ment of biopesticides can be achieved in emerging de Incubación de Empresas. This system of business countries such as Mexico, crediting the technical and incubator organizations has the resources and exper- scientific excellence to be found in Mexican research tise to guide the development and implementation of groups. a business plan for new entrepreneurs. The develop- ment of Agro&Biotecnia’s business plan was 1Galindo, E., Serrano-Carreón, L., Gutiérrez, C.R., supported by the Centro Morelense de Innovación y Allende, R., Balderas, K., Patiño, M., Trejo, M., Transferencia Tecnológica (CeMITT), and it was Wong, M.A., Rayo, E., Isauro, D. and Jurado, C. their involvement that led to the biofungicide being (2013) The challenges of introducing a new biofungi- named Fungifree AB®, while their relationship with cide to the market: a case study. Electronic Journal regulatory professionals supported Agro&Biotecnia of Biotechnology 16(3), 23 pp. http://dx.doi.org/ in registering the product and the trademark with 10.2225/vol16-issue3-fulltext-6 the Mexican authorities. Contact: Enrique Galindo and Leobardo Serrano- Regulation in Mexico for microbial pesticides is dealt Carreón, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de with jointly by SAGARPA and the National Commis- México, Instituto de Biotecnología, Departamento de sion for the Prevention of Sanitary Risks (Comisión Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Cuernavaca, Federal para la Protección contra Riesgos Sanitarios Morelos, Mexico. – COFEPRIS), a division of the Mexican Ministry of Email: [email protected] or Health. Biological efficacy tests for Fungifree AB® [email protected] were conducted in mango orchards in southern Sinaloa in the first half of 2009, and a report was sub- mitted to SAGARPA in September 2009, who issued Biological Control of Palm Weevils: a positive opinion in June 2010. COFEPRIS, which is Rediscovering Forgotten Opportunities responsible for assessing health risks from inde- pendent evidence (provided by certificated Two overlooked natural enemy species may provide laboratories) of product safety and quality, gave new biocontrol options for palm weevils in coastal approval in April 2011. The entire process took some Colombia, and potentially more widely. three years and cost almost US$40,000 for this one disease on one botanical group. The American palm weevil (APW), Rhynchophorus palmarum, is the most important coconut pest in The remaining aspect the paper deals with is com- Latin America and the Caribbean. Its pest status is mercialization, and here the authors point to the aggravated by its ability to vector the nematode Bur- very beneficial relationship developed at this stage saphelenchus cocophilus, the causal agent of red ring with the agrochemical company FMC Agroquímica disease (RRD), which has killed hundreds of thou- News 21N sands of coconut palms in tropical America and thus exploit biocontrol agents as new mortality factors of affected the livelihoods of thousands of smallholder palm weevil populations, first for the Colombian farmers. In the Old World, a close relative origi- Pacific coast but with a view to subsequent use in the nating in South Asia, the red palm weevil (RPM), American tropics beyond Colombia, and possibly Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, has a history of even further afield. invading new areas. Over the last 30 years it has devastated the date palm industry in the Middle Biocontrol agents recorded in Colombia East1, and more recently it has expanded in the Med- iterranean threatening the typical, landscape- Two APW biocontrol agents are recorded in the pest dominating canary date palm (Phoenix canariensis) management manual of the Colombian oil palm with extinction. This weevil species has now reached research centre: a predatory histerid beetle, Hololepta sp., and an unidentified tachinid fly, both the Americas: it was accidentally introduced in 8 Curação in 2008 from where it spread to Aruba2, and of which occur at low levels . We consider the his- in 2010 it was detected in California (http:// terid of little relevance on the basis of its small size, cisr.ucr.edu/red_palm_weevil.html). Rhyncho- which indicates it would have little effect on APW phorus ferrugineus is polyphagous, like its American larvae. In contrast, the record of the tachinid looked congener, but its direct damage is worse as it usually promising, especially as a tachinid, Billaea rhyncho- kills the palms it feeds on. phorae, is listed as an effective larval and pupal parasitoid of R. palmarum in Brazil (see below)9,10. Interest at CIAT in Colombia (Centro Internacional In the hope of confirming the presence, abundance de Agricultura Tropical) was sparked because the and identity of the tachinid, we conducted surveys in APW/RRD situation is particularly severe at the both areas where it had been collected previously in Colombian Pacific coast where the death of thou- Colombia: at the Pacific coast on coconut and in the sands of oil palms due to bud rot has facilitated Llanos Orientales (Eastern Plains), where oil palm massive multiplication of APW in the decaying plantations were surveyed. We collected the trunks. The resulting increase in APW populations Hololepta sp. in our surveys, on both coconut and oil and RRD has led to the area-wide destruction of palms, mainly from smaller galleries of another coconut plantations in entire river systems flowing palm-boring weevil, Metamasius sp. However, tachi- into the Bay of Tumaco, and along the Guapi and nids were not found during either survey. Timbiquí rivers further north. For over 60 years, this phenomenon has repeated itself every 12–15 years During the surveys in the Eastern Plains, we col- and can justifiably be called a recurrent epidemic. lected larvae, pupae and adults of another coleopteran predator – one that we did not find else- Control methods for palm weevils have changed little where – in an abandoned six-year-old oil palm over the years: mass trapping of weevils in aggrega- 3 plantation. Many APW puparia were empty and tion pheromone baited traps , removal of RRD- showed clear signs of predation, and inside some diseased palms and replanting are the standard pro- APW puparia we found a second beetle pupa with cedures for R. palmarum and these methods have very large, asymmetric mandibles. Specimens of this been tried at Colombia’s Pacific coast. Trapping has beetle had previously been collected by Fanny been shown to give excellent control of the APW/RRD Alvañil of the Colombian Palm Growers’ Association, complex in large-scale plantations. However, the Fedepalma, in Cumaral (Meta) in 1990 and identi- implementation of trapping requires continued effort 4 fied as the histerid Oxysternus maximus by J.M. and regular servicing of the traps which is difficult Kingsolver of the US Department of Agriculture11. for smallholders, particularly when they do not live The rate of predation in our limited set of data was on their land as is the case at the Pacific coast. 46.6% of the puparia or 22.5% on the basis of large larvae and pupae combined. As a follow-up, we con- Pheromone-based trapping is also the control 5 ducted surveys in oil palm at the Pacific coast but no method of choice for R. ferrugineus in plantations O. maximus were found and the species was but is not suitable in the Mediterranean, where the unknown to the palm entomologist, Eduaro Peña. affected palms are ornamentals and scattered irreg- ularly over the landscape, and in alleys, city squares Overlooked opportunities for biological control of palm or private gardens. The situation in the Mediterra- weevils nean is desperate: all current control methods provide only temporary relief and thus measures Billaea rhynchophorae is a parasitic fly recorded so have to be implemented indefinitely with huge costs far only from a limited area of Bahia State in Brazil. for communities. Even though its occurrence was first recorded in the 1990s in two publications9,10 and its parasitism of Biological control has been looked to repeatedly for a APW was reported to be substantial, it has never solution and reviews6,7 have identified a great been studied in detail or been given due considera- number of biocontrol agents, notably entomopatho- tion in the reviews of biological control options for genic nematodes and microorganisms. Some of these palm weevils6,7. This may be because these reviews have been tried extensively but, like synthetic pesti- have dealt only with RPW and the authors may have cides, require repeated application and once their assumed B. rhynchophorae is irrelevant for this spe- effect has expired, the problem returns. cies. However, we believe that the tachinid may become the most important parasitoid species for In order to achieve lasting alleviation, new APW in tropical America, and also for RPW should it approaches for the control of palm weevils are arrive on the American continent, and it could have required. Here we present ongoing efforts to find and great potential for use elsewhere in the humid 22N Biocontrol News and Information 34(3) tropics. A climate match using HomologueTM 12 gineus in coconut gardens. Journal of Plantation shows that many of the palm-growing areas in trop- Crops 16, 159–162. ical America have similar climatic conditions to the area of endemicity of B. rhynchophorae, so the spe- 2Kairo, M.T.K., Roda, A., Mankin, R., Chi, W. de, cies could become permanently established. Damian, T., Franken, F., Heidweiller, K., Johanns, C.Y. and Leon, J. (2010) The red palm weevil, Rhyn- The way forward chophorus ferrugineus, a new pest threat in the Caribbean: biology and options for management. The absence of B. rhynchophorae and O. maximus at Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society 46, the Colombian Pacific coast offers an opportunity to 87–96. introduce these species and thus increase the nat- ural mortality of the weevil and hopefully reduce the 3Oehlschlager, A.C., Chinchilla, C., Castillo, G. and severity of the APW/RRD problem. No other natural Gonzalez, L. (2002) Control of red ring disease by enemies of significance were found at the coast and, mass trapping Rhynchophorus palmarum (Coleop- therefore, the introduction of both species in order to tera: Curculionidae). Florida Entomologist 85, 507– increase natural mortality of APW is suggested. 513.

A preliminary assessment of the risk associated with 4Oehlschlager, A.C., Zaid, A. and Alhadrami, G.A. introducing these two species can be made, even (2010) Efficiency and longevity of food baits in palm though the knowledge available on them is limited. weevil traps. Acta Horticulturae 882, 399–406. In the small area from where it is known, B. rhyncho- phorae has been collected from APW on oil palm 5Faleiro, J.R., El-Saad, M.A. and Al-Abbad, A.H. (Elaeis guineensis) and the fan palm Attalea (2011) Pheromone trap density to mass trap Rhyn- 9,10 funifera . In addition, José Inacio Moura has col- chophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae/ lected the tachinid from other weevil species Rhynchophoridae/Dryophthoridae) in date planta- associated with palms: Dynamis borassi, Amerhinus tions of Saudi Arabia. International Journal of ynca and Rhinostomus barbirostris, all weevil pests Tropical Insect Science 31, 75–77. of cultivated and wild palm species. This suggests that the parasitoid is habitat specific to the crown of 6Murphy, S.T. and Briscoe, B.R. (1999) The red palm palms and stenophagous in its feeding habit. weevil as an alien invasive: biology and the prospects for biological control as a component of IPM. Biocon- Oxysternus maximus also has a very close associa- trol News and Information 20, 35N–46N. tion with palm weevils. It is widely distributed, having been collected in Trinidad, the Guianas, 7Faleiro, J.R. (2006) A review of the issues and man- Brazil and as far south as Argentina. In all cases it agement of the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus was collected on palms and recorded as a predator of ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Rhynchophoridae) in palm-boring weevils. So we can anticipate that it is coconut and date palm during the last one hundred also habitat-specific to the crown of palms but prob- years. International Journal of Tropical Insect Sci- ably not very selective within this habitat as far as ence 26, 135–154. prey is concerned. 8Aldana, R.C., Aldana, J.A. and Moya, O.M. (2011) Habitat specificity combined with stenophagy or oli- Manejo del picudo Rhynchophorus palmarum L. gophagy would also suggest that both species should (Col.: Curculionidae). Cenipalma, Bogotá, Colombia, attack weevils so far not recorded as prey: all species 51 pp. of the genus Rhynchophorus will probably be attacked by both natural enemies . 9Moura, J.I.L., Mariau, D. and Delabie, J.H.C. (1993) Efficacy of Paratheresia menezesi Townsend (Dip- While B. rhynchophorae can be expected to be an tera: Tachinidae) for natural biological control of active flyer with a short life cycle and a high repro- Rhynchophorus palmarum (L.) (Coleoptera: Curcu- ductive potential, yet limited to areas with relatively lionidae). Oléagineux 48, 219–223. high rainfall/humidity and temperatures, O. max- imus should be more robust, more widely adaptable 10Moura, J.I., Toma, R., Sgrillo, R.B. and Delabie, and probably more polyphagous in its feeding habit. J.H.C. (2006) Eficiência do parasitismo natural por Billaea rhynchophorae (Blanchard) (Diptera: Tachi- Potentially, these natural enemies could be useful in nidae) para o controle de Rhynchophorus palmarum other suitable areas with APW/RRD problems in (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Neotropical Ento- Colombia and other interested countries. Further- mology 35, 273–274. more, their biological traits suggest they could have the potential to contain RPM should it reach conti- 11Posada Ochoa, L. Zenner de Polanía, I. and Borrero nental America, and could also be considered for Fonseca, F. (1990) Notas y noticias entomológicas introduction against it in the Old World. If introduc- Septiembre–Octubre 1990. Instituto Colombiano tions are made in coastal Colombia, they should be Agropecuário, Tibaitatá, Bogotá, Colombia. carefully monitored for impact on the target pest and non-target species identified as at risk, and this 12Jones, P.G., Díaz, W. and Cock, J.H. (2005) Homo- could form the basis of a risk assessment for intro- logue™. A computer system for identifying similar ductions elsewhere. environments throughout the tropical world. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CD-ROM 1Abraham, V.A., Koya, K.M.A. and Kurian, C. (1989) series. CIAT Publication No. 342. CIAT, Cali, Integrated management of Rhynchophorus ferru- Colombia, 100 pp. + CD-ROM. News 23N

By: Bernhard Löhr, Centro Internacional de Agricul- essary testing of potential host species, including tura Tropical, A.A. 6713, Cali, Colombia. crickets which are the closest relatives of earwigs Email: [email protected] recorded on the islands, in the first phase of a project towards the control of F. auricularia in the Falk- lands. Earwigs in the Falkland Islands: Host-specificity Testing Biocontrol Agents Chile also has a serious European earwig problem in the southern part of the country, particularly in Over the last five years the European earwig, For- Punta Arenas, and here the future control of earwigs ficula auricularia, has become an unwelcome but is also being considered. Whereas the risk that para- common sight in the Port Stanley and Mount sitoids released in the Falklands would reach the Pleasant Airport areas of the Falkland Islands, with South American mainland is considered low, any a few individuals also discovered on isolated farm- host-range testing in Chile will need to include the steads. The exact date of introduction is unknown testing of both native Dermaptera from Chile itself but earwigs are now causing substantial damage to and also of species from neighbouring Argentina. . garden and commercial crops (commercial lettuce growing has been abandoned), pose health hazards In constructing its host-specificity testing strategy, by hiding in hospital equipment and asthma CABI is following guidelines and procedures for inhalers, and are a nuisance species in autumn when testing of invertebrate biocontrol agents developed in they retreat into houses and hide in anything from recent years by the Organisation for Economic Co- food to toothbrushes. Chemical control is proving operation and Development (OECD)1, the Commis- problematic because the earwigs are widespread and sion on the Harmonisation of Invertebrate Biological very mobile. Expenditure on pesticides against them Control Agents (CHIBCA) for the International in horticulture is high and environmentally undesir- Organization for Biological Control/West Palaearctic able; household spending is also high and the efficacy Regional Section (IOBC/WPRS)2 and subsequent of pesticide use and other methods is variable. authors (e.g. 3) who have provided more detailed frameworks and protocols. In addition, CABI will At a workshop on the feasibility of biological control consider whether ecological traits of the proposed of invasive non-native species in Port Stanley in biocontrol agents could have adverse impact, specifi- March 2012, local invasive species experts and mem- cally whether: (i) a decline in earwig populations bers of the public agreed that F. auricularia was the would have a deleterious effect on native or other prime target for classical biological control. Such an predatory species, (ii) predation on the tachinids initiative would also be supported by the Govern- would release predatory pressure on other species, ment of South Georgia as it would lessen the risk of and (iii) adult tachinids would impact seed setting of earwigs being introduced to South Georgia. native and invasive plants. Forficula auricularia has been the target of classical If the introductions were to go ahead, CABI does not biological control programmes in the past: two tachi- anticipate an instant impact. Parasitism rates of the nids have been introduced to Canada. Triarthria tachinids in Europe are relatively low, so it would setipennis established in Newfoundland and British take 2–3 years for them to establish and begin to Columbia, and studies in Newfoundland indicated a have any effect on populations. At the present time, considerable reduction in earwig numbers, which summer releases in two consecutive years are antici- was most probably due to high levels of parasitism in pated. If the earwigs remain restricted to the current the mid-1970s, although no further evaluation of the two settlements, reduction in populations could be parasitoid’s impact has been undertaken since then. Limited numbers of a second species, Ocytata pal- fairly rapid once the biocontrol agents are estab- lipes, were released as parasitized earwigs and adult lished and provide long-term alleviation of the flies at one site in Ottawa during the 1990s, but the problem. However, if local outbreaks were to occur at low numbers released in this pilot study makes outlying farms through movement of parasitoid-free establishment unlikely and no monitoring has been earwigs, repeated releases of tachinids, or parasit- done. Both species were also introduced USA (as ized earwigs, might be necessary in the future. early as the 1920s) and New Zealand but little is 1 known about the success of these releases. OECD (2003) Guidance for Information Require- ments for Regulation of Invertebrates as Biological Little is known about the host specificity of either Control Agents (IBCAs). OECD, Paris. parasitoid, apart from the fact that the ecological 2 host range of T. setipennis includes two other Euro- Bigler, F., Bale, J.S., Cock, M.J.W., Dreyer, H., Gre- pean Forficulidae. The host specificity of both atrex, R., Kuhlmann, U., Loomans, A.J.M. and van potential control agents needs to be better under- Lenteren, J.C. (2005) Guidelines for information stood before introductions outside their native range, requirements for import and release of invertebrate to the Falklands, can be considered. However, there biological control agents in European countries. Bio- are no native Dermaptera in the Falklands or South control News and Information 26, 115N–123N. Georgia, so non-target risks of introducing earwig parasitoids to the Falklands are low and from that 3van Lenteren, J.C., Bale, J., Bigler, F., Hokkanen, perspective alone little host-specificity testing will be H.M.T. and Loomans, A.J.M. (2006) Assessing risks necessary. Under an agreement with the Environ- of releasing exotic biological control agents of mental Planning Department of the Falkland Island arthropod pests. Annual Review of Entomology 51, Government, CABI is currently carrying out the nec- 609–634. 24N Biocontrol News and Information 34(3)

Contact: Norbert Maczey, CABI, Bakeham Lane, oughly when non-targets are attacked, learn from Egham, TW20 9TY, UK. these instances and develop ways of preventing Email: [email protected] recurrences. They also argue that more and better engagement with stakeholders, especially those involved in management and conservation, “would Communicating Risks and Benefits of Weed have lessened the degree of apprehension that now Biological Control in Natural Ecosystems detracts from the science [of weed biological control].” A paper by Brian van Wilgen, Cliff Moran and John Hoffmann in Environmental Management1 which is The authors then turn to assessing risks and refer to primarily aimed at those involved in the preserva- three key papers papers2,3,4 that lay out the risks tion or improvement of natural ecosystems, also and benefits involved in practising weed biological provides a useful aide memoire for biocontrol practi- control. They explain the precautionary principle, tioners dealing with actual or potential collaborators and go on to discuss why the current emphasis on who are unfamiliar with biological control. It lays out risk has become counter-productive: it has led to arguments for routinely considering weed biological potential problems being exaggerated; the effect of control as a management strategy, and discusses doing nothing being underplayed; no alternative common doubts related to its risks in the context of strategies are proposed if biological control is judged other management options including doing nothing. too risky; and it has also “led to arguably unrealisti- While weed biological control may not always be cally stringent safety and approval requirements” appropriate, it may be the optimal or even the only with consequent delays or complete log-jams. The viable option. authors agree that worries arise because while host specificity and efficacy can be determined with confi- After first outlining the history of classical weed bio- dence, other concerns cannot (e.g. disruption of food logical control, the authors explore changes in webs, hybridization, evolutionary/physiological perceptions since the 1980s, identifying two main change, unanticipated spread). The existence of one events that have undermined confidence: (i) the or more of these risks should not mean that the bio- spread of the South American cactus moth, Cactob- control agent should be rejected, rather “a decision lastis cactorum, from the Caribbean (where it had needs to be made in every case about whether the been introduced in the 1950s to control native cacti) chances of success are worth the risks”. to the southern USA and Mexico, a pathway that was overlooked when the Caribbean introduction was Risk aversion is explored in some detail because, as made; and (ii) the non-target impacts of the weevil the authors say, default risk aversion arises from a Rhinocyllus conicus, which was introduced into the failure to realise that doing nothing is a conscious USA in the late 1960s against European Carduus decision and also carries risks, which is very perti- thistles but has also attacked native species, an out- nent when dealing with an invasive weed. They come that had been predicted but considered then to catalogue three types of behaviour that could arise in be of lesser importance. From today’s standpoint dealing with invasive alien plants and biological con- both were ill-advised introductions, but contempo- trol: (i) certainty bias, where one option is described rary societal norms were different and the in a way that makes it seem the safest option (e.g. not introductions were made following the due processes releasing cf. releasing an agent); (ii) status quo bias, of the time. which favours the status quo (e.g. not to release) because all outcomes are uncertain; and (iii) dis- These two cases aside, there have been few and counting, where immediate risks (non-target effects) mostly transient instances of non-target attack, and are given greater weighting than something that these have been very rare when judged against the happens later (the weed spreading). The authors also numbers of weed biocontrol agent species and intro- outline how biological control still has a place when ductions. The authors argue that biocontrol an invasive species delivers economic or other bene- scientists are themselves partly to blame for some of fits, and stress the importance of assessing the the negative perceptions of their science because of perceived benefits in relation to the costs of the plant. how success has been measured: the focus should be on measuring reductions in distribution, density and Biological control is not alone in carrying risks, and rate of spread of the weed, and also on the economic the authors argue that other control options impact of control which is what decision makers (including doing nothing) should be subjected to understand. Post-release monitoring has generally assessments of both risk and sustainability. They focused on indirect evidence of success such as agent conclude the paper by maintaining that, while resto- establishment, fluctuations in agent populations and ration of pristine ecosystems is not a realistic aim, measures of damage to the target weed, and thus when other measures have failed biological control there are relatively few convincing long-term data may offer the most cost-effective means, and the only sets supporting accounts of successful programmes. sustainable option, for protecting or partially restoring invaded ecosystems. They argue that While the authors suggest that the evaluation of the where ecosystems are severely and irreversibly outcomes of weed biological control should be degraded, giving undue weight to risks of using bio- holistic, aiming for “an environmental balance logical control is misleading, and even unethical. sheet”, they agree that limited funding and govern- ment/agency priorities mean that it cannot be this 1van Wilgen, B.W., Moran, V.C. and Hoffmann, J.H. comprehensive. They suggest that “a pragmatic and (2013) Some perspectives on the risks and benefits of constructive approach” would be to investigate thor- biological control of invasive alien plants in the man- News 25N agement of natural ecosystems. Environmental 2008, permission to release had been granted at Management (online 14 June 2013). DOI: 10.1007/ national (APHIS; Animal and Plant Health Inspec- s00267-013-0099-4 tion Service) and state (Hawaii Department of Agriculture) levels, but then the programme stalled. 2McEvoy, P.B. and Coombs, E.M. (2000) Why things For releases on state land, Hawaiian legislation bite back: unintentional consequences of biological requires permission to be granted at county as well control. In: Follett, P.A. and Duan, J.J. (eds) Non- as national and state level, and on Hawaii Island target Effects of Biological Control. Kluwer, Boston, (Big Island) there was a late surge of opposition. Massachusetts, pp. 167–194. There had seemed to be little public interest in the 3Sheppard, A.W., Hill, R., DeClerck-Floate, R.A., project for most of its duration despite daily newspa- McClay, A., Olckers, T., Quimby, P.C. and Zimmer- pers covering its progress regularly, including mann, H.G. (2003) A global review of risk–benefit– reporting on the national and state permits. It was cost analysis for the introduction of classical biolog- only days before the public comment period for the ical control agents against weeds: a crisis in the EA ended that a paid display newspaper advertise- making? Biocontrol News and Information 24, 91N– ment called for opposition to the release. Comments 108N. then began to flood in and a public information meeting was convened by the Hawaiian state govern- 4Sheppard, A.W., van Klinken, R. and Heard, T. ment at which scientists were allowed to state their (2005) Scientific advances in the analysis of direct case and respond to written questions2. Despite this risks of weed biological control agents to non-target effort, the sudden public opposition did not waver plants. Biological Control 35, 215–222. and Hawaii County Council passed a resolution asking for a ban on biocontrol agents “for any tree Contact: Brian van Wilgen, CSIR, P.O. Box 320, species related to the ohia Metrosideros polymorpha Stellenbosch, 7599, South Africa. including all species of the family Myrtaceae such as Email: [email protected] the strawberry guava”. Although testing had indi- cated that none of 18 species of Myrtaceae in Hawaii, Cliff Moran and John Hoffmann, Department of including M. polymorpha, were attacked, and Maui Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, County Council subsequently endorsed the use of Rondebosch, 7700, South Africa. biological control in a resolution naming strawberry Email:[email protected] guava among other invasive weeds, the introduction [email protected] of T. ovatus was halted while a new EA was prepared.

How Strawberry Guava Biocontrol was Derailed According to Warner and Kinslow, the hiatus was in Hawaii largely the result of one activist’s counter-campaign (www.savetheguava.com/) and they explore how the Well-intentioned, carefully researched plans to con- opinions of this individual came to have so much trol invasive plant species using classical biological influence. They identify several broad elements that control may sometimes be threatened by conflicts of he was able to exploit: (i) the extent to which local social values. What happened when the US Forest opinions and values were at odds with those of con- Service proposed introducing a host-specific biocon- servation scientists and government, (ii) a legacy of trol agent against the invasive plant Psidium public distrust of government and scientists, and (iii) cattleianum, strawberry guava, in Hawaii is exam- the public’s lack of understanding of the impact of ined as a case study by Keith Warner and Frances alien species, the science of biological control and Kinslow in the journal Public Understanding of how to evaluate risk. Science1. Warner and Kinslow describe the gap between per- From the biocontrol scientist’s perspective, most of ceptions of strawberry guava: conservation scientists the strawberry guava story will seem familiar. Hor- were united in seeing it as a major exotic invasive ticulturalists introduced the plant to Hawaii in 1825. weed and any threat to biodiversity and risk from the It escaped cultivation to become a vigorous invader of biocontrol agent were evaluated within this frame- forests, forming monotypic stands with impacts on work, a view that government agencies subscribed native understorey plants and associated fauna. It to. Some local opinion held strawberry guava to be was identified as a serious weed in 1954. It also acts part of the forest landscape and a resource for food as an alternate host of fruit flies which are quaran- and wood. The rights of indigenous people are tine pests in Hawaii with impacts on export trade. enshrined in Hawaii in laws pertaining to lands and Scientists identified biological control as the only cultural preservation, but in this case their interests viable strategy and a classical biological control pro- were not understood and, for whatever reason, they gramme was initiated in 1988 with surveys in Brazil, were insufficiently engaged. the plant’s area of origin. A scale insect, Tectococcus ovatus, was discovered in 1993 which causes galls on New Zealand has developed a much admired system3 leaves, premature ageing of leaves, and decreased which bears examination in this context. Biocontrol vigour and flowering. It is easy to culture and handle agent introductions come under the Hazardous Sub- and can produce multiple generations per year. stances and New Organisms (HSNO) Act of 1996, When host-specificity testing indicated it to be host administered by the Environmental Protection specific there were grounds for optimism and a draft Agency (EPA). This comprises an Authority, which is environmental assessment (EA) was prepared. By the decision-making body; and an Agency to facili- 26N Biocontrol News and Information 34(3) tate applications, manage the regulatory process and process.3 For example, the EPA has recognized that make recommendations to the Authority. Alongside interacting with government agencies can be this sits a Maori advisory board which helps to daunting, and, as well as striving to make documen- ensure that decisions adhere to the principles of the tation as readable as possible, is currently placing 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, the country’s guiding docu- more emphasis on working with stakeholders out- ment. Over a period of 14 years, 22 biocontrol agent side formal channels in the hope this “allows more species, 18 for weeds and four for insect pests, were freedom for discussion and the ability to generate approved for release under the HSNO Act and none genuine dialogue.” refused. There are many reasons why the New Zea- land system is considered by many to be the best in In Hawaii, funding for outreach on strawberry guava the world but public participation, including a mean- had been limited but, recognizing a conflict of social ingful role for the indigenous people, is an important values, the US Forest Service had sought to make its feature of what is a transparent and public decision- research public, posting the EA on its website and making process. interacting with stakeholder groups, while Hawaii’s conservation network also expended resources in This contrasts with Hawaii where a previous debacle communication. Arguably neither reached the people over fencing to protect vulnerable forest from feral subsequently swept up in the ‘Save the guava’ cam- pigs without the recommended consultation led to paign. Warner and Kinslow say that it is impossible access to migration corridors and hunting grounds to judge whether a different approach might have being blocked. Although fencing was subsequently had different results, but they suggest that a two- put under tighter control, conservation science had way process of public engagement would be more by then come to be viewed by the (dis)affected com- responsive to community concerns. This would entail munity as a means by which ‘outsider’ government recognizing that the public holds views and seeing agencies justified decisions that conflicted with tra- engagement as a process of mutual learning about ditional forest use. This distrust of government and societal values and science, followed by consensual by extension its agencies and scientists was exploited decision making. Unless scientists can convince the by the ‘Save the guava’ campaign to slant the argu- public that a weed is causing harm, control will not ment from assessing the risk from the biocontrol be supported. Warner and Kinslow also suggest that agent to a referendum on the credibility of the gov- public engagement may be able to anticipate public ernment, with the message that it was putting free concerns because learning about local value predis- wild food under attack. The common perception of positions that shape perceptions of management plants, and trees in particular, as ‘good’ and insects actions would enable an understanding of the cir- cumstances in which the public might support an as ‘bad’, especially if they are exotic (an idea the gov- action that could otherwise be opposed. They suggest ernment itself was responsible for fostering as part of that spending on invasive species management its efforts to educate the public about exotic pest needs to be realigned to create the budgets necessary insect species) added to the campaign argument. for such public engagement. Much of the text for the ‘Save the guava’ campaign Although the strawberry guava story has moved on was drawn from the EA itself. Such documents lay since the period that Warner and Kinslow’s case out all concerns about a proposed introduction and study covers (a new EA has been prepared and final- provide evidence from which conclusions are drawn ized), Keith Warner feels that there is an important and readers can make judgments. It is tacitly lesson for biocontrol scientists to learn. The impor- assumed that the reader will not come to the docu- tance of ‘engagement’, as described above, is part of ment with an agenda, but they are written as a it. We need to recognize our place in the process: as scientific report which may be difficult for a lay expert witnesses, but not the only witnesses, and def- public to interpret. Warner and Kinslow present evi- initely not judge and jury too. dence that the activist quoted selectively from the EA to form a narrative that tapped into local con- 1Warner, K.D. and Kinslow, F. (2013) Manipulating cerns but was directly contrary to scientific findings. risk communication: value predispositions shape They point out that scientists tend to misperceive the public understandings of invasive species science in lay public’s understanding of science and risk, and Hawaii. Public Understanding of Science 22(2), 203– that their case study raises critical questions about 218. public understanding of invasive species science. 2Tummons, P. (2008) Waiawi biocontrol controversy. Environment Hawai’i 19(1). www.environment- Again drawing on the New Zealand experience, its hawaii.org HSNO decision-making body is independent 3 (although members are appointed by government) Hill, R., Campbell, D., Hayes, L., Corin, S. and with its autonomy designed to ensure it remains free Fowler, S. (2011) Why the New Zealand regulatory system for introducing new biological agents works. from political, economic or activist influences. Keith Proceedings of the XIII International Symposium on Warner comments that “HNSO’s approach assigns Biological Control of Weeds, pp. 75–83. the scientist the role of expert, while a public land management agency is the advocate for an introduc- Contact: Keith D. Warner, Center for Science, tion. This approach is more ethical and practical.” Technology, and Society, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, Santa Clara, CA 95053, USA. There is also a focus in the New Zealand legislation Email: [email protected] on transparency at all stages, with the Agency acting to build trust between the public, the applicants and For more articles on ethics and values in biological the authorities, and this is seen as an ongoing control, see www.scu.edu/kwarner