Insensible Perspiration and Oily Vegetable Humor: an Eighteenth Century Controversy Over Vegetarianism Ken Albala University of the Pacific, [email protected]
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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Scholarly Commons University of the Pacific Scholarly Commons College of the Pacific aF culty Articles All Faculty Scholarship Summer 9-1-2002 Insensible Perspiration and Oily Vegetable Humor: An Eighteenth Century Controversy Over Vegetarianism Ken Albala University of the Pacific, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/cop-facarticles Part of the Food Security Commons, History Commons, and the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Albala, K. (2002). Insensible Perspiration and Oily Vegetable Humor: An Eighteenth Century Controversy Over Vegetarianism. Gastronomica, 2(3), 29–36. DOI: 10.1525/gfc.2002.2.3.29 https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/cop-facarticles/31 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the All Faculty Scholarship at Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in College of the Pacific aF culty Articles by an authorized administrator of Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. investigations | ken albala Insensible Perspiration and Oily Vegetable Humor An Eighteenth-Century Controversy over Vegetarianism Quack diets are nothing new. Nor have they always been easily dismissed. In eighteenth-century Italy, a virulent controversy arose over a meatless wonder diet. This controversy would eventually play itself out in the field of nutritional theory, as dietary writers scrambled to incorporate the latest scientific findings into their recommendations. In 1743, an Italian physician, Antonio Cocchi, published a book claiming that everyone would benefit from giving up meat. Cocchi tried to argue the advantages of his vege- tarian diet scientifically, and his book, Del Vitto Pitagorico (The Way of Pythagoras), was received with enthusiasm. Two years after its publication, it was translated into English as The Pythagorean diet, of vegetables only, conducive to the preservation of health, and the cure of disease. In 1762, the book was translated into French. Apparently Voltaire read and admired it.1 During this time, rival scientific schools were competing for dominance, and Cocchi was not the only one scrambling to incorporate the new findings into his dietary recommen- dations. Shortly after the original publication of Del Vitto Pitagorico, two other physicians, Guiseppe Antonio Pujati and Giovanni Bianchi, attacked Cocchi for lacking scientific understanding and for recommending for sick and healthy alike a diet appropriate only for those with specific diseases. Nutrition Moves to the Periphery SUMMER 2002 Santorio Santorio in his weighing chair. From Sanctorius Sanctorius, 29 It was during this time that nutrition began to lose center Medicina statica: being the aphorisms of Sanctorius, with introduc- stage among the medical arts, as the focus—even among tion by John Quincy (London: W. Newton, 1718), frontispiece. authors writing about nutrition—shifted to therapeutics. courtesy of wellcome library, london Since ancient times, nutritional theory and diet had been at the core of professional medical training and practice. tion, physicians began systematically to investigate physiol- GASTRONOMICA “Diet” itself had once had a broader meaning, including ogy and even to stumble across effective therapies for their careful attention to exercise, air quality, emotions, and sex- patients’ ills. Wrangling over theories of how best to prevent ual activity. The emphasis on nutrition and diet stemmed disease gave way to experimentation and an empirical ultimately from Hippocrates, who had stressed prevention approach to finding cures. Clinical medicine was the hot over therapy. In the late seventeenth century, however, this new topic. Nutrition fell by the wayside, where it has began to change. With the coming of the scientific revolu- remained ever since. (Most modern medical schools do not gastronomica—the journal of food and culture, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 29–36, issn 1529–3262. © 2002 by the regents of the university of california. all rights reserved. This content downloaded from 138.9.41.247 on Tue, 06 Dec 2016 00:16:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms require a course in nutrition for future practitioners; today’s cold, wet, and dry—that affect the “humoral balance” of the physicians are trained to diagnose, drug, and cut.) person who eats them. A cold cucumber, for example, could The recommendations of nutritional theorists thus cause excessive phlegm and lead to a cold. Although few shifted from ways to maintain the average person in health physicians still discussed sickness as the imbalance of the to ways to prevent or treat disease.2 In the seventeenth century, four principal humors—blood, phlegm, choler, black bile— the most exciting new research in nutrition was conducted they still conceived of food as heating or cooling the body, on diseases such as scurvy, gout, and various ailments that or as drying or moistening it, distinctions that constituted were lucrative to treat, including obesity. As the study of the cornerstone of the old system. Furthermore, humoral nutrition, apart from its role in disease, was displaced from physiology still informed much of the popular conception of the clinical mainstream, it became difficult for those writing what went on in the body, even as scientists were groping about the subject to keep up with the most recent scientific for other levels of understanding. findings. To gain respect, these writers were obliged to Cocchi, in promoting his vegetarian diet, tried to over- couch their recommendations in the latest scientific termi- turn the humoral notions of nutrition by referring to the nology, whether they fully grasped it or not. Frequently, latest scientific findings. Like those who criticized him, they simply pasted this terminology over their basic ideas, Cocchi drew extensively upon the work of the new schools, which remained unchanged. This practice, much like the especially that of Santorio. Those who criticized Cocchi also shift from prevention to therapy, has left its legacy. used Santorio to support what were essentially Hippocratic ideas. In other words, very old nutritional theories came to be clothed in new garb. The Way of Pythagoras Cocchi’s work, oddly enough, not only purported to be At the time when Cocchi was writing, vegetarian diets were a scientific defense of the Pythagorean diet, but a defense of typically prescribed for sick patients, but he recommended the ancient Greek Pythagoras himself as a wise man whose that everyone abstain from meat. To bolster his argument, he empirical research led him to make discoveries millennia drew upon the findings of three new schools of physiology. ahead of their time. Among these discoveries was counted First, there were the Paracelsians or iatro-chemists, who had his abstemious vegetarian lifestyle, which “[w]e see at once begun to analyze the chemical constituents of food and to accords with the best rules of medicine deduced from the describe certain physiological processes in chemical terms, most exact modern knowledge of the nature of the human e.g., as the interaction of salts, sulphur, and mercury. For body and the constituents of foods…”4 This idea—that the example, Jan Baptist van Helmont, who belonged to this most ancient authors, such as Moses, Hermes, and Pythagoras, school, explained digestion as the decomposition of food in were bearers of the prisca scientia (original wisdom or an acidic environment.3 Second, there were the mechanical knowledge) and knew much more than those who followed— investigations of the late seventeenth and the eighteenth prevailed throughout the early modern period. Claiming century: Giovanni Borelli and the iatro-mechanical school Pythagoras to be an ancient forerunner of the scientific rev- sought to explain physiology in terms of the latest findings olution, however, was one of the points Cocchi’s enemies in physics. For example, they viewed the body’s conduits as found easiest to tear apart. little pneumatic pumps controlling the passage of fluids Essentially, Cocchi’s arguments rested on one simple SUMMER 2002 and air through pressure gradients. Last, and most important physiological principle: the food that most people eat is far 30 for the case at hand, was the measurement of “insensible too dry and difficult to digest. The dryness impedes the nat- perspiration” proposed in the early seventeenth century by ural “insensible perspiration.” Insensible perspiration is a the Italian Santorio Santorio, who considered the quantity sure sign that nutrients have been transported throughout of perspiration to be an indication of the rate and force the body and that nutritive matter has been assimilated and of metabolic activity. In fact, it is upon the validity of waste products eliminated. Santorio, writing one hundred Santorio’s approach to studying physiology that the entire years before Cocchi, was not the first to suggest that the GASTRONOMICA vegetarian controversy hinged. body eliminates waste products through perspiration, but These ideas were rather haphazardly combined by he was the first to quantify this process, which he did with Cocchi not only with each other but with the older system his famous weighing machine, on which he systematically of humoral physiology, which had been inherited from the weighed himself for years. Comparing the weight of food Greeks, particularly Hippocrates and Galen. The Greeks and drink ingested to that of the residual waste products, had posited that all foods have inherent qualities—hot, which were usually a little lighter than the food, Santorio This content downloaded from 138.9.41.247 on Tue, 06 Dec 2016 00:16:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms concluded that the remainder exits through the skin’s pores from the secure light of our times given by anatomic and via exhalation. He also calculated which foods produce medicine and mechanics, natural history, and experimental the most perspiration; these foods he considered to be the physics, of which a part is sound chemistry.”6 By “barbaric most thoroughly incorporated, hence the most nutritious.