Youth and Pupil Groups : an Ethnographic Study of Their Pedagogic Relations and Resistant Practices
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YOUTH AND PUPIL GROUPS: An Ethnographic Study of their Pedagogic Relations and Resistant Practices Shane J. Blackman Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of London Institute of Education 2 ABSTRACT YOUTH AND PUPIL GROUPS: an ethnographic study of their pedagogic relations and resistant practice. The focus is on: a) differences and similarities between fifteen-year-old male and female groups which occupy differently specialised positions within the field of popular youth culture; b) the relationship between such positions and forms of involvement in schooling and education. The research is further concerned to explore the relationships between social class, sexuality and patriarchy in the practices within and between the various groups. To place the study in context, I discuss the role of qualitative research on youth, and examine five major traditions, ranging from the Chicago School, the Functionalists, British research on deviance in the 1950s and 1960s, Sociology of Education, through to the work of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. Criticism of these approaches forms the starting point of the theory and method of the research. The sample consists of over 120 girls and boys in a secondary school in the South of England. Five major groups are identified: Mod Boys, New Wave Girls, Boffin Boys, Boffin Girls and Criminal Boys. All the young people were studying for a number of GCE examinations (except the Criminal group). From this point of view the sample is unusual in British research, as it offers the possibility of studying forms of resistance and conformity among those whom the school considers as the pedagogic elite. The method used was ethnographic and entailed sharing the experiences of the various groups both inside the school (classroom and leisure spaces) and outside the school (leisure and family spaces), for a period of two years. In addition, I have interviewed the headteachers, all heads of subject departments, and younger members of staff. Tape recorded discussions took place in and out of school (street and other locations), with groups and individuals. The research provides the basis for a theory of youth cultural forms, which integrates structural, communicative and semiotic practices. The theory has arisen out of, and in part controlled the collection of the ethnographic data. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many individuals to acknowledge who helped me complete this Ph.D. Thesis. Before getting to the "starting blocks" I received much encouragement and support from Michael O'Dell, Keith Arthurs and Kenneth Mackinnon. In the early stages of the fieldwork I was very grateful to the friendly staff at Rough Trade Records who allowed me access to them. Throughout my research experience at the Institute of Education, I should like to thank all staff and students from the department of the sociology of education, who gave me their valuable time. I am particularly grateful for the tutorial support from Philip Cohen, Roger Hewitt, John Hayes, Janet Holland, Philip Corrigan, Lesley Caldwell, Tony Green, Keith Swanwick and Stephen Ball. I would also like to express my thanks to Philip Brown, Clyde Chitty, Bernadette Cifuentes, Ann Lahiff, Norah Marks, Sally Poplar and my father who offered guidance, criticism and gave their time to me. I owe much, and was also very fortunate to have Professor Basil Bernstein as my Ph.D. supervisor. His guidance, enthusiasm and practical support throughout the whole period of research has been an inspiration. Finally, I owe a sincere debt to the Head Teacher of the school and his fine colleagues for support and encouragement. My greatest debt is to the boffin girls and boys, the criminal boys, the new wave girls and the mod boys who always made me welcome and research a pleasure. 4 YOUTH AND PUPIL GROUPS : AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THEIR PEDAGOGIC RELATIONS AND RESISTANT PRACTICES TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Table of Contents 4 PART 1 THEORY AND METHOD General Organisation of the Chapters 13 CHAPTER ONE Youth: An Evaluation of Subcultural Theory and Qualitative Research Methods 15 1. Introduction 15 1.1 The Chicago School and Functionalist Subcultural Theory 15 1.2 The British concept of Subculture 18 2. Educational Approaches to Youth 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Six case studies of secondary schooling 22 2.3 The Manchester Studies: Lacey and Hargreaves 22 2.4 Learning to Labour Paul Willis: Rejection of the concept of subculture 28 2.5 Paul Corrigan: Schooling the Smash Street Kids 34 2.6 Peter Woods: The Divided School 36 2.7 Stephen J. Ball: Beachside Comprehensive 39 2.8 Summary 43 3. Cultural Studies of Youth: the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies 44 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 The making of the Centre 45 3.3 Philip Cohen: Subcultural conflict and working class community 48 3.4 Resistance: Through ritual and subculture 53 3.5 Dick Hebdige: The meaning of style or subculture 59 3.6 Summary 61 5 Page 4. Conclusion : Subculture and Ethnography 63 4.1 Theories of youth subculture 64 4.2 Qualitative fieldwork methods 68 Notes 72 CHAPTER TWO Methodology and an Introduction to the Protagonists of the Narrative 80 1. A Case Study of Youth Concepts in Secondary Schooling 80 1.1 Initial research intention and site 80 1.2 Approach 81 1.3 Two 'headstarts' in the fieldwork 84 1.4 Marshlands School: the research context .86 1.5 Description of a typical fieldwork day 90 2. The Youth Groups 91 2.1 Introduction 91 2.2 The groups 91 2.3 Mod boys 92 a. Membership 92 b. Description 92 c. Relations 95 2.4 New wave girls 96 a. Membership 96 b. Description 96 c. Relations 99 2.5 Boffin Boys and Boffin Girls 100 a. Membership 100 b. Description 100 c. Relations 101 2.6 Criminal Boys 104 a. Membership 104 b. Description 104 c. Relations 105 2.7 Marginal Group Members 106 3. Ethnography 108 3.1 Introduction 108 3.2 Biography 109 3.3 Apprenticeship and relation 110 3.4 Discussion 113 3.5 Communication 115 6 Page 4. Contact and Access: a Description of Fieldwork During the Initial Two Weeks 118 Introduction 118 4.1 Episode One 118 4.2 Episode Two 120 4.3 Episode Three 120 4.4 Episode Four 123 4.5 Episode Five 124 4.6 Episode Six 126 4.7 Episode Seven 129 4.8 Some Issues raised 132 5. Conclusion 136 Notes 138 CHAPTER THREE A Theory of Youth Cultural Forms 141 1 Introduction 141 2. Group Structure: Specialised Positions 143 2.1 Introduction 143 2.2 Style Leader 144 2.3 Cultural Ransacker 145 2.4 Peer Group Spokesperson 146 2.5 Peer Group Consolidator 147 2.6 Symbolic and social forms 148 2.7 Hierarchy within youth cultural forms 150 3. Social Relations of the Face 153 3.1 Introduction 153 3.2 Private face 154 3.3 Between(s) faces 155 3.4 Public face 157 4. Specialised Semiotic of the Youth Cultural Group 158 4.1 Introduction 158 4.2 Choreography 159 4.3 Dress and appearance 159 4.4 Techniques of the body 160 4.5 Posture and gesture 160 4.6 Three facets of mobility: walking, dancing and fighting 162 4.7 Narrative 164 4.8 Introduction: music and youth 164 4.9 The Band is the bond: six relations between youth group and musical artist 166 7 Page a. Identification 167 b. Projection 167 c. Condensation 168 d. Celebration 169 e. Production 169 f. Authenticity 170 4.10 Literature 170 4.11 Linguistics 172 4.12 Circulation 173 4.13 Social sites 173 4.14 Territorial movement 175 5. Signature 177 5.1 Introduction 177 5.2 The concept of signature 177 5.3 Three temporal aspects of signature 179 5.4 Historical signature 179 5.5 Variant signature 180 5.6 Emergent signature 181 6. Order and Interpretation of Data 183 6.1 Introduction 183 6.2 Transcription 183 6.3 Method of analysis 184 6.4 Interpretation 186 PART 2 STYLE, GENDER AND CONFLICT 189 CHAPTER FOUR Patriarchal Games and Ritual Jousting: New Wave Girls and Mod Boys 190 1. Introduction to Discussion A 190 1.1 Ritual and refusal 191 1.2 Potency and parents 194 1.3 Marriage and employment 197 1.4 Private face 202 1.5 Male dependence / Female subordination to the domestic 203 2. Introduction to Discussion B 208 2.1 The gift ritual 210 2.2 Sexual fantasies 212 2.3 Masturbation 217 2.4 Heterosexual relations and opposition 222 8 Page 3. Positions and Communication 226 3.1 Style Leader 227 3.2 Peer Group Spokesperson 228 3.3 Cultural Ransacker 230 3.4 Peer Group Consolidator 231 3.5 Forms and specialised positions 232 4. Conclusion 235 Notes 239 CHAPTER FIVE Rituals of Violence : Mod Boys 240 1 Introduction 240 2. Ethnographic Description of the Mod Outing 240 3. Celebration and Mythologising 247 4. Positions and Communication 254 4.1 Phase One 255 4.2 Phase Two 257 4.3 Phase Three 258 4.4 Phase Four 259 5. Oppositions : Style and Generation 259 6. Conclusion 262 Notes 265 CHAPTER SIX Rituals of Integrity : New Wave Girls 267 1. Introduction 267 2. The Choreography of Conversation 269 269 2.1 Onomatopoeia 270 2.2 Banter 273 2.3 Jokes 2.4 Epic narrative 276 2.5 Chorusing 278 3. Integrity 281 4. Pollution 287 9 Page 5. Conclusion 293 Notes 295 PART 3 ISSUES OF CLASS, CAREERS AND CONFORMITY 296 CHAPTER SEVEN Boffin Boys Culture : Pedagogic Practice and Sexual Vulnerabilities 297 1. Introduction 291 2. Boffin Boy Pupil Friendship Group 298 a.