El Islam Y Su Protagonismo Político Desde Las Islas Filipinas Hasta El

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El Islam Y Su Protagonismo Político Desde Las Islas Filipinas Hasta El EL ISLAM: UNA POLÍTICA Por CARLOS ECHEVARR JESÚSA Investigación del Departamento de Estudios Internacionales. Universidad Complutense de Madrid Si el Islam no es política no es nada. (Palabras del imam Jomeini a la ciudad santa de 0cm). El Islam y su protagonismo político Desde las islas Filipinas hasta el océano Atlántico hay un fenómeno que viene despertando interés en los últimos años: se trata de una religión, el Islam, y, sobre todo, de una intensa actividad política ligada a ella que recibe diversas denominaciones —integrismo, fundamentalismo o islamismo—. Más de la quinta parte de la población mundial, es decir, unos 1 .000.000.000 de personas, profesan una religión cuya plena actualidad les ha sacado de ese segundo pIano en la escena internacional al que estaban relegados. De hecho, para muchos analistas, el integrismo islámico es un movimiento de recuperación cuyo origen se sitúa a principios del siglo XX y que, en el momento actual, se perfila ya como la última gran ideología de la presente centuria. El integrismo islámico se nos aparececomo movimiento de recuperación de lo propio, de la identidad perdida, y como instrumento de rechazo a la omnipresencia de la cultura occidental, secuela del colonialismo. Para el pensador francés Roger Garaudy, convertido al Islam, no hay peor integrismo que el occidental, que quiere erigirse en única cultura e imponérsela al resto del mundo. Ello explióa en gran medida los recelos y temores que encontramos en Occidente ante su expansión y hoy puede — 93 — decirse que esta variante particular de los integrismos ha tomado ya el relevo a la ideología comunista en el orden de preocupaciones del mundo occidental, sobre todo tras su impulso a partir de la guerra contra Irak del año 1 991. Por otro lado tal percepción no nos debe de sorprender si tenemos en cuenta la disminución progresiva de la influencia de la religión en Occidente, algo que impide a muchos apreciar el valor político de las creencias religiosas en el mundo islámico. Una respuesta a las humillaciones El fenómeno que estudiamos aquí es radicalmente distinto de la religiosidad tradicional. No es exagerado decir que el Islam como religión y como cultura ha salvado la identidad tantas veces amenazada a lo largo de su historia de los pueblos árabes y musulmanes. Hay que resaltar también que, como afirma el analista francés Claude Liauzu, «la fascinación occidental por el islamismo radical nos hace ignorar la diversidad de caminos y tentativas de reencontrar el acceso a la universidad y la reapropiación de sí mismos de estos pueblos)> (1). Hay pues que distinguir entre las organizaciones religiosas que practican el proselitismo con medios pacíficos, los partidos y movimientos políticos de carácter islamista o integrista (FIS argelino, Hermanos Musulmanes egipcios o jordanos) y, por último, las organizaciones integristas que practican la violencia (Yihad Islámica). Lo que pretendemos analizar aquí es ese fenómeno integrista, ese seismo religioso, que parte de la situación creada en la sociedad árabe por los cambios producidos tras la Primera Guerra Mundial, y que supone una vuelta a las fuentes para transformar el presente y preparar el porvenir. Es preciso recordar que históricamente fue el Islam el motor que consiguió unir a los árabes y les llevó a conquistar el mundo. El integrismo como movimiento de recuperación hunde sus raíces en el siglo XIX —con la Nahda— pero no es hasta el siglo siguiente cuando toma auténtica carta de naturaleza. Las expansiones coloniales decimonónicas fueron percibidas por estas sociedades como nuevas Cruzadas y la restauración de la tradición como un arma para resistirse a esas nuevas influencias foráneas. El Imperio Otomano, en su enorme extensión, sufría durante el siglo XIX de conflictos internos constantes. Limítrofe con poderosos Imperios como Rusia o Austria vivía en estado de tensión permanente, y su maquinaria burocrática no daba de sí para administrar los extensos territorios sometidos a su jurisdicción. Esa burocracia autoritaria se había desgastado en el siglo (1) LlAuzu, CLAUDE. L’Isiam de I’Occident, París, Arcantere, 1989, p. 39. — 94 — XVII en su lucha contra los cristianos de Europa Central y en adelante habría de sufrir los ataques de Occidente y los de Rusia. Desde el siglo XVIII Europa le acosaba no sólo con las armas sino también con sus mercancías, que inundaban los puertos con productos manufacturados occidentales (régimen de Capitulaciones). El mundo musulmán perdía así y en diversos ámbitos su antigua vitalidad. En esta debilitada potencia descansaba la titularidad del Califato, la concentración del poder terrenal para todos los musulmanes. Según Bernard Lewis lo que posibilitó el uso otomano de tal título fue el gran poder naval y militar de este Imperio y su papel como barrera islámica frente a la Europa cristiana y frente al Irán shiíta (2). El Califato era, desde el punto de vista del derecho de gentes, la única institución resaltable del Islam. Establecida a la muerte de Mahoma, la figura del califa, el vicario de Dios en la Tierra, representaba a la autoridad que reemplaza al Profeta en la doble misión de defender la fe y gobernar el mundo. Su autoridad era general, extendiéndose a toda la tierra del Islam donde, teóricamente, sólo podía haber uno ya que su autoridad era indivisible. Aunque hubo períodos en los que tal unidad no se mantuvo —un califa en Bagdad, otro en Córdoba y un tercero en El Cairo— desde el año 1 520 el Sultán turco estuvo investido también del Califato, algo que aparece formalmente recogido en la Constitución de 1876, y así hasta 1924, año en el que Kemal Ataturk lo abolió quedando vacante hasta hoy. Pero esta titularidad unitaria del Califato no implicaba en absoluto una homogeneidad de tipo religioso y así podemos traer a colación al surgimiento del wahabismo en Arabia Saudí durante el siglo XVIII, como respuesta a la relajación de costumbres en el Imperio Otomano. Hostigado por Europa desde el siglo XVI había permanecido al margen de las corrientes moderHizadoras y de los sucesivos avances científicos. Así, cuando se produce durante el siglo XIX la penetración de Francia, Gran Bretaña y luego Alemania —que propaga el panislamismo a través de su aliado turco para debilitar las posiciones francesas y británicas en la región— en los territorios controlados por la Sublime Puerta, todos ellos, salvo Egipto, se encontraban sumidos en una situación de marginación y de atraso que tampoco sus nuevos ocupantes pretendían modificar. Estas poblaciones no habían conocido ni revoluciones burguesas como la francesa del año 1 789, ni industriales como la inglesa ni filosóficas como la alemana. Habían asistido al aniquilamiento progresivo de su cultura tanto (2) LEwis BERNARD. El lenguaje político del Islam. Madrid, Taurus, 1 990, p. 87. — 95 — durante los siglos en los que los otomanos se habían infiltrado en el poder árabe llegando finalmente a dominarlo, como durante las décadas de colonización occidental. Los otomanos habían contribuido al aletargamiento cultural pero pronto iban a surgir respuestas a esta situación con los nacionalismos (3). La situación de postración material era así un hecho. Desde la Baja Edad Media ningún gran filósofo, médico, inventor o descubridor había salido de esta órbita. Por otro lado, junto a esta ausencia de saberes especulativos y experimentales, tampoco se habían dado en el Islam las discusiones teológicas que sí había vivido el cristianismo (Reforma, Contrarrefórma, etc). A esa población humillada y con unas creencias ancladas en el pasado, se le impondrían con el tiempo unos modelos de Estado moderno que en Europa surgieron como forma de organización política en el siglo XVI y que habían superado ya etapas marcadas por revoluciones y por reformas que sus nuevos titulares no habían tenido ocasión de conocer. Durante el siglo XIX se calcan sistemas constitucionales para copiar con ello los modelos occidentales de libertad y progreso: la tunecina de enero del año 1 861 fue la primera Constitución de un país musulmán; le siguieron la turca de diciembre del año 1 876; Egipto, con su primera Constitución escrita, en 1 882; e Irán, con la Constitución firmada con desgana por el Sha en 1 906. Desde dentro del antiguo Imperio Otomano surgió ya en pleno siglo XX un movimiento renovador, el kemalismo, que con métodos autoritarios y una política marcadamente anticlerical iba a reforzar, involuntariamente, esas corrientes de recuperación a las que nos referíamos anteriormente. Frente a esa occidentalización propia o foránea, percibidas como humillante para el sentir de los buenos musulmanes fieles a la tradición, se irían alzando sectores tradicionalistas como los propios wahabitas, los sunnitas clásico o un grupo como el de los Hermanos Musulmanes, nacido en Egipto en el año 1 928 y fundado por un maestro de escuela, Hassan al Banna, que empieza su lucha en el año 1 936. Es precisamente aquí, en el «país de los Faraones>’, uno de los que más se había dejado influenciar a lo largo del siglo XIX por las corrientes occidentalizadoras, donde surgen el fenómeno islamista. El objetivo de los Hermanos Musulmanes era el de establecer una sociedad regida por el Islam y el asesinato de su líder en el año 1949 los estancó ideológicamente, pero no los hizo desaparecer. Egipto constituía un Estado fuerte y moderno desde que en el año 1839 Mohamed Alí arrancara al Sultán otomano el título de Jedive de Egipto para (3) SOURDEN, DOMINIQUE. Lis/am. París, Presses Universitaires de France, 15 eme éd., 1988 p. 33. — 96 — él y para sus sucesores. La apertura del canal de Suez en el año 1869 va a darle al país una importancia de primer orden a los ojos de Occidente. Ese Egipto, único caso en el mundo árabe que se había beneficiado de la oleada civilizadora de fines del siglo XIX, y por esto mismo occidentalizado, va a ser el escenario en el que se produzca el nacimiento de la asociación decana de las organizaciones de carácter islamista: una muestra bien expresiva del carácter de respuesta del fenómeno que aquí estudiamos.
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