The Islamisation Phenomenon in Malaysia: The Response of the Professional Classes Robert Henry Olivier Bachelor of Science (University of Western Australia 1968) Bachelor of Social Science (With Distinction) (Curtin University 2008) Bachelor of Arts (Honours) (Curtin University 2009) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The University of Western Australia Social and Cultural Studies 2018 THESIS DECLARATION I, Robert Henry Olivier, certify that: This thesis has been substantially accomplished during enrolment in the degree. This thesis does not contain material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution. No part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of The University of Western Australia and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. This thesis does not contain any material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. The work(s) are not in any way a violation or infringement of any copyright, trademark, patent, or other rights whatsoever of any person. Portions of Chapter 6, Impact on Muslim Women, were included in an article I wrote which was published by Taylor & Francis in the Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations journal in 2016, with the title “The Malaysian Islamization Phenomenon: The Underlying Dynamics and Their Impact on Muslim Women”. The research involving human data reported in this thesis was assessed and approved by The University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval # RA/4/1/5578, on 20th December 2012. Signature: Date: 15th December 2017 ii ABSTRACT Malaysia is a 65% Muslim-majority country, with two large non-Muslim ethnic groups, Chinese (approx. 25%), and Indian (approx. 9%). It is one of the most modern and economically successful Muslim-majority countries, and, largely as a result of its colonisation by the British for nearly two hundred years until 1957, quite Westernised. For nearly fifty years it has been undergoing an Islamic “revival”, with religion playing an increasing role in the day-to-day life of the Muslim (largely Malay) population, and having an impact on the non-Muslim population. This research project sought to gain an understanding of the feelings of a subset of the population, namely the “professional classes”, about the associated changes that are occurring. By this is meant those who are highly educated, and who have been thoroughly exposed to the international environment, particularly Western. The research hypothesis was that the majority of this group would be uncomfortable with what was happening, but are not engaging in any public debate about it for fear of a backlash on a number of fronts. The field research was qualitative, involving in-depth, face-to-face interviews with 100 members of the subset in question. The sample roughly represented the ethnic composition of the country, and a male to female ratio of 60:40. The findings are that 85% of Muslims, and 100% of non-Muslims, from this group are indeed, at the least, uncomfortable with what is happening. They also confirm that the reason this group is reluctant to engage in public debate on the issue rests on a number of fears, namely: on the part of the Muslims, of a wide range of sanctions from their own community (from criticism all the way to death threats), and from possible loss of economic benefits from a Malay-dominated government; and on the part of all participants, fear of retribution from the government, via a set of draconian laws that can be used to punish anyone voicing criticism of Islam, or the preferential position that Malays enjoy (which through politicisation has been inextricably been bound up with Islam). iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who provided me with various forms of assistance during the seven- year period required for me to complete this research programme, which was carried out part- time while I was actively involved in business as Executive Chairman of an executive search firm based in Malaysia. First and foremost I would like to thank my main Supervisor, Professor Samina Yasmeen, who guided a non-Muslim academic novice through a highly sensitive research topic concerning Islam and involving an interview programme in a Muslim-majority country. Her vast knowledge of political Islam, and extensive academic experience, was invaluable, and the final product reflects her insistence on thoroughness and precision. Acknowledgement also must go to my other two Supervisors, Professor Stephen Dobbs, and Professor Jeannette Taylor, who were very helpful on those occasions when I needed an extra “sounding board”. I would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Graduate Research Office, in particular Dr Michael Azariadis, and Ms Jo Francis. I would like to pay special tribute to Professor Norani Othman, my Malaysian “mentor”, who gave me an enormous amount of informal advice over countless cups of coffee over an eight year period, guiding my initial introduction to the subject of political Islam, helping me choose an appropriate topic for research, as well as providing feedback on my gradually evolving ideas and theories about my topic. She was often accompanied by her husband, Professor Clive Kessler, who with his vast knowledge of Malaysia and its politics provided me with invaluable background. Another informal adviser was Professor Eamon Murphy, my Supervisor during my Honours year at Curtin University, and with who I remained in touch throughout this programme. Most importantly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to the 100 research participants, both for giving up their time to meet me, but even more for being so open and frank with me during our discussions. My initial fears that it would be difficult to get people to be involved in such discussions proved to be quite unfounded – not only were they willing to speak, but many of them expressed enjoyment about the opportunity to speak to a neutral person about a topic that is of great concern to them. iv I should also acknowledge my colleagues in my business in Malaysia, who put up with my regular disappearances to conduct my interviews, and my regular quizzing of them about various aspects of life in Malaysia. Lastly I would like to acknowledge my family. My wife had to endure years of discussion about a subject that was obviously of far greater interest to me than to her, as well as my long disappearances into my office to grind out my thesis, but she was always fully supportive and encouraging. My daughter, who was doing a full-time PhD at the same time, in New South Wales, regularly compared notes with me, and gave me some very good advice. And my son, from a long-distance (Hong Kong), was both interested in my progress, and very encouraging. Also, this research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Programme (RTP) Scholarship. v Table of Contents Chapter Page List of Figures/Tables vii 1. Introduction 1 2. Islamisation, the Global Scene 11 3. The Factors Driving Islamisation in Malaysia 38 4. Manifestations of Islamisation 70 5. Overall Reaction to the Islamisation Phenomenon 100 6. Impact on Muslim Women 132 7. Impact on Non-Muslims 151 8. Participants’ Concerns and reluctance to Speak Out 179 9. Conclusion 221 References 226 vi LIST OF FIGURES/TABLES Figure/Table Number Page Figure 1 - A model for studying Islamisation 37 (Source: The Researcher) Figure 2 - Factors in Malaysia’s Islamisation Phenomenon 39 (Source: The Researcher) Table 1 - Breakdown of sample numbers by ethnic group and gender 107 Table 2 - Breakdown of sample numbers by industry category 107 Table 3 - Breakdown of sample numbers by age range 108 Table 4 - Overall reaction to the Islamisation Phenomenon 109 (Source: The Research Participants) Table 5 - Breakdown of sample numbers by industry category (Malay Females) 141 Table 6 - Breakdown of sample numbers by age range (Malay Females) 141 Table 7 - Overall reaction to the Islamisation Phenomenon (Malay Females) 142 (Source: The Research Participants) Table 8 - Ethnic composition of Malaya from 1835 to 1970 (%) 154 (Source: Comber 1983) Table 9 - Breakdown of sample numbers by industry category (Non-Muslims) 168 Table 10 - Breakdown of sample numbers by age range (Non-Muslims) 168 Table 11 - Will the Islamisation trend continue? 180 (Source: From the Research Participants) Table 12 - Will Malaysia become an Islamic State? 181 (Source: From the Research Participants) Table 13 - People arrested and/or charged in the sedition dragnet 199 (Source: Various media articles) Table 14 - Chinese Population in Malaysia 211 (Source: Malaysian Department of Statistics 2016) Table 15 - Average Birth Rate per family Among 3 Ethnic Groups 211 (Source: Malaysian Department of Statistics, 2016) vii 1. INTRODUCTION “On the one hand, we are perceived as a success story of nation-building with diverse communities. And yet political bickering and blatant sectarianism reveal a much different reality, one which the world is increasingly aware of. .. The reality of Malaysia is too complex to be sanitised.” (Karim Raslan, 2014) Malaysia is indeed a complex country. It is Muslim-majority, but has a very large non- Muslim, multi-religious minority of approximately 35%, which creates religious tensions. It is multi-ethnic, with Malays in the majority (60%), but with large minority ethnic groups (Chinese 25%, Indian 9%), a mix which generates considerable inter-ethnic tension. It was colonised for a long period by the British, who ran the entire country from the mid-nineteenth century to Independence in 1957, and the impact of colonisation was profound – prolonged exposure to Western influences, the widespread introduction of a new language, the modernisation of the economy, and devastatingly for the Malays, a dramatic change to the demography of the country.