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Durham Research Online View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Durham Research Online Durham Research Online Deposited in DRO: 22 January 2020 Version of attached le: Published Version Peer-review status of attached le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Babyk, Iu. V. and McNamara, B. R. and Tamhane, P. D. and Nulsen, P. E. J. and Russell, H. R. and Edge, A. C. (2019) 'Origins of molecular clouds in early-type galaxies.', Astrophysical journal., 887 (2). p. 149. Further information on publisher's website: https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab54ce Publisher's copyright statement: c 2019. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full DRO policy for further details. Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 http://dro.dur.ac.uk The Astrophysical Journal, 887:149 (17pp), 2019 December 20 https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab54ce © 2019. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Origins of Molecular Clouds in Early-type Galaxies Iu. V. Babyk1,2,3 , B. R. McNamara1,2,4 , P. D. Tamhane1,2, P. E. J. Nulsen5,6 , H. R. Russell7, and A. C. Edge8 1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; [email protected], [email protected] 2 Waterloo Institute for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada 3 Department for Extragalactic Astronomy and Astroinformatics, Main Astronomical Observatory of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 27 Zabolotnoho Str., 03143, Kyiv, Ukraine 4 Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline Street N, Waterloo, ON N2L 2Y5, Canada 5 Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 6 ICRAR, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 7 Institute of Astronomy, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK 8 Department of Physics, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK Received 2018 October 24; revised 2019 October 30; accepted 2019 November 4; published 2019 December 17 Abstract We analyze Chandra observations of the hot atmospheres of 40 early spiral and elliptical galaxies. Using new temperature, density, cooling time, and mass profiles, we explore relationships between their hot atmospheres and cold molecular gas. Molecular gas mass correlates with atmospheric gas mass and density over four decades from central galaxies in clusters to normal giant ellipticals and early spirals. The mass and density relations follow power 1.4 0.1 1.8 0.3 laws: MMmol µ X and Mnmol µ e , respectively, at 10 kpc. The ratio of molecular gas to atmospheric gas within a 10 kpc radius lies between 3% and 10% for early-type galaxies and between 3% and 50% for central galaxies in clusters. Early-type galaxies have detectable levels of molecular gas when their atmospheric cooling times fall below ∼1 Gyr at a radius of 10 kpc. A similar trend is found in central cluster galaxies. We find no relationship between the ratio of the cooling time to free-fall time, tc/tff, and the presence or absence of molecular clouds in early-type galaxies. The data are consistent with much of the molecular gas in early-type galaxies having condensed from their hot atmospheres. Unified Astronomy Thesaurus concepts: Galaxy kinematics (602); Galaxy dynamics (591) 1. Introduction rotators. Detection is a strong function of environment. Isolated galaxies are more likely to harbor H I than those in clusters. Elliptical galaxies were historically thought to be devoid of This implies that galaxies are either stripped of their H I or are gas. However, modern studies have shown that many early- type galaxies (ETGs) contain gas at broad range of tempera- unable to accrete material from their surroundings within tures. Most abundant are the hot, 10-million-degree atmo- clusters, or both. However, the prevalence of dynamically ( young H I structures connecting to disks suggests that at least spheres observed in X-rays Forman et al. 1985; Trinchieri & ( ) Fabbiano 1985; Mathews & Brighenti 2003; Kim & Fabbiano some gas is accreted externally Oosterloo et al. 2010 . 2015). Their X-ray luminosity scales with temperature as The origin of cold gas in ETGs has been debated for 4.5 decades. Its origin is key to understanding how ETGs formed LX∝T (Boroson et al. 2011; Kim & Fabbiano 2013; Babyk et al. 2018a), indicating a strong link between atmospheric and coevolved with massive nuclear black holes, why so few fi luminosity and halo mass (Forbes et al. 2017). Their hot are experiencing signi cant levels of star formation, and if or ( ) atmospheres likely formed primarily from cool gas that how they are maintained by active galactic nucleus AGN ( ) accreted early and was heated to the virial temperature by feedback Kormendy & Ho 2013 . The absence of correlation ’ shocks and by gas expelled from stars (Goulding et al. 2016). between molecular gas mass and the host s stellar mass is ( Ellipticals and early spirals contain modest levels of inconsistent with mass loss from stars in the galaxy Combes ) molecular and atomic hydrogen. Dust is commonly seen in et al. 2007 . However, the similarity between nebular gas the form of clouds and lanes near to the nucleus (Sadler & metallicities, which are likely associated with molecular clouds, Gerhard 1985; Goudfrooij et al. 1994; van Dokkum & and stellar metallicity in four ETGs is consistent with an Franx 1995). Dust is usually associated with larger quantities internal origin including stellar mass loss and/or cooling from of cold atomic and molecular gas (Combes et al. 2007). Thirty the hot atmosphere but is inconsistent with having accreted to forty percent of ETGs contain detectable levels of molecular from other galaxies (Griffith et al. 2019). On the other hand, gas (Combes et al. 2007; Salomé et al. 2011; Young et al. counterrotation between stars and cold gas found in some 2011). Infrared and radio observations indicate that a minority systems and the prevalence of molecular gas in fast rotators of systems with relatively large amounts of molecular gas form (Young et al. 2011) may imply an external origin, perhaps due -1 stars at rates of 0.1M yr or so (Combes et al. 2007; to mergers of gas-rich companions. Shapiro et al. 2010; Ford & Bregman 2013). Taking a fresh approach, Werner et al. (2014) studied [C II] Neutral hydrogen is less abundant than molecular hydrogen 157 μm, [O I] 63 μm, and [O Ib] 145 μm emissions in eight in ETGs. In a study of 33 ETGs from the SAURON sample, H I giant ellipticals and BCGs. They compared this emission to 6 is detected at a level of 10 Me in two-thirds of field galaxies. their atmospheric properties. This microwave line radiation Detections plunge to 10% in cluster galaxies (Oosterloo et al. emerges from warm molecular, neutral, or ionized gas at a 2010; Pulatova et al. 2015). Like galaxies detected in CO, fast- temperature of ∼100 K that is associated with nebular rotating galaxies are more likely to harbor H I than slow emission. Comparing the molecular gas emission to their 1 The Astrophysical Journal, 887:149 (17pp), 2019 December 20 Babyk et al. atmospheric properties, Werner found stronger emission lines (Gaspari et al. 2012). The self-generation of cold gas would in systems with lower atmospheric gas entropy and shorter sustain radio mode feedback (McNamara et al. 2016). cooling times. In newer work, Lakhchaura et al. (2018) found a How molecules residing in the atmospheres of ETGs formed similar connection between nebular emission and cooling hot is poorly understood. They may have arrived externally via atmospheres, indicating a close connection between the hot mergers or inflowing cold filaments. They may have condensed atmosphere and molecular gas. internally from a combination of thermalized stellar ejecta and In this respect, ETGs appear similar to brightest cluster their hot atmospheres. Molecular cloud formation in disk galaxies (BCGs), but scaled down to much lower molecular gas galaxies is thought to be catalyzed primarily on dust grains (Le masses. BCGs, the elliptical-like galaxies at the centers of Bourlot et al. 2012). However, unshielded dust may be clusters, often contain reservoirs of cold molecular gas with sputtered away in the harsh atmospheric environment of ETGs 9 11 ( ) fi masses lying between 10 Me and several × 10 Me Draine & Salpeter 1979 , making it dif cult to survive a fi (Edge 2001; Salomé & Combes 2003). The molecular gas merger and perhaps more dif cult to form from cooling masses correlate with nebular emission (Edge 2001), which is atmospheres. Nevertheless, despite the harsh atmospheric known to be associated with so-called cool cores, the cooling conditions, dust features are prevalent in ETGs, particularly in systems rich in molecular clouds (Russell et al. 2019; central regions of galaxy cluster atmospheres (Hu et al. 1985; 10 Werner et al. 2019). Upward of 10 Me of molecular gas is Heckman et al. 1989; Crawford et al. 1999; Cavagnolo et al. ( ) ) observed in BCGs Edge 2001 which could not have 2008; McDonald et al. 2010 . Like nebular emission and star ( ) ( ) originated in mergers Pulido et al.
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